1.
Arnsberg
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Arnsberg is a town in the Hochsauerland district, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the location of the Regierungsbezirk Arnsbergs administration and one of the three local administration offices of the Hochsauerlandkreis, Arnsberg is located in the north-east of the Sauerland in the Ruhr river valley. The river Ruhr meanders around the south of the old town of Arnsberg, the town is nearly completely encircled by forest, and the nature parkArnsberger Wald lies to the north. Arnsberg is connected by Federal Motorway 46 to Brilon in the east, the municipal territory spans a distance of up to 13 kilometres from the southern to the northern limits. The town was built by the counts of Werl in the 11th century and they built a castle there whose remains can still be visited and are occasionally used for public celebrations. It was destroyed in the Seven Years War in 1769, in the 12th century, old Arnsberg became the seat of Westphalian jurisdiction. Later, the city lost its independence and was subject to the Archbishops of Colognea, in 1816, it came under Prussian rule and was made a local administrative centre. The current city of Arnsberg was created in 1975 by merging 14 cities and municipalities into one city, old Arnsberg itself and Neheim-Hüsten are the two urban parts, while the other parts are very rural. Neheim and Hüsten were merged in 1941, in the Second World War, Arnsberg first suffered widespread destruction and catastrophic loss of lives when RAF Lancasters breached the dam of the Möhne Reservoir in the night from 16 to 17 May 1943. The nearby Abbey Himmelpforten was completely washed away, later, dozens of Arnsberg citizens were killed in several British air raids aimed at destroying the railway viaduct. The targets were destroyed on 19 March 1945 using a Grand Slam bomb. Arnsbergs population is mostly Roman Catholic, Catholic churches include the Probsteikirche or the Heilig-Kreuz Kirche, the Auferstehungskirche is a Protestant church. There is also a New Apostolic congregation, the cemeteries are mostly Catholic but there is also a Jewish cemetery. The Kunstverein Arnsberg operates in Arnsberg, the arms of the city depict a white eagle on a blue field. Earlier it was an eagle on a red field, introduced in 1278. In the 17th century the red was changed to blue, reflecting the Bavarian blue of the House of Wittelsbach
2.
Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn
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The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the successor of earlier academic institutions. The University of Bonn offers a number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than five million volumes, the University of Bonn has 544 professors and 32,500 students. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016 and the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2015 ranked the University of Bonn as one of the 100 best universities in the world. The universitys forerunner was the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn which was founded in 1777 by Maximilian Frederick of Königsegg-Rothenfels, in the spirit of the Enlightenment the new academy was nonsectarian. The academy had schools for theology, law, pharmacy and general studies, in 1784 Emperor Joseph II granted the academy the right to award academic degrees, turning the academy into a university. The academy was closed in 1798 after the bank of the Rhine was occupied by France during the French Revolutionary Wars. The Rhineland became a part of Prussia in 1815 as a result of the Congress of Vienna, shortly after the seizure of the Rhineland, on 5 April 1815, King Frederick William III of Prussia promised the establishment of a new university in the new Rhine province. At this time there was no university in the Rhineland, as all three universities that existed until the end of the 18th century were closed as a result of the French occupation, the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn was one of these three universities. The other two were the Roman Catholic University of Cologne and the Protestant University of Duisburg, the new Rhein University was then founded on 18 October 1818 by Frederick William III. It was the sixth Prussian University, founded after the universities in Greifswald, Berlin, Königsberg, Halle, the new university was equally shared between the two Christian denominations. This was one of the reasons why Bonn, with its tradition of a university, was chosen over Cologne. Apart from a school of Roman Catholic theology and a school of Protestant theology, inititally 35 professors and eight adjunct professors were teaching in Bonn. The university constitution was adopted in 1827, in the spirit of Wilhelm von Humboldt the constitution emphasized the autonomy of the university and the unity of teaching and research. Similar to the University of Berlin, which was founded in 1810, only one year after the inception of the Rhein University the dramatist August von Kotzebue was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, a student at the University of Jena. The Carlsbad Decrees, introduced on 20 September 1819 led to a crackdown on universities, the dissolution of the Burschenschaften. One victim was the author and poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, who, only after the death of Frederick William III in 1840 was he reinstated in his professorship
3.
Mineralogie
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Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, the German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as De re metallica and De Natura Fossilium which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe, the modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles in quartz crystals in 1669 and this was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de lIslee in 1783. In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure, james D. Dana published his first edition of A System of Mineralogy in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. It, however, retains a focus on the structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals. An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties and these can be classified into density, measures of mechanical cohesion, macroscopic visual properties, magnetic and electric properties, radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride. If the mineral is crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning. Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature. ”Examples of polymorphs are calcite and aragonite - two minerals with identical chemical composition, distinguished by their crystallography, calcite is rhombohedral and aragonite is orthorhombic. The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal and it is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell and these dimensions are represented by three Miller indices. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any point in the lattice, reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion. Together, they make up an object called a crystallographic point group or crystal class. There are 32 possible crystal classes, in addition, there are operations that displace all the points, translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups, most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations, powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite
4.
Bergbau
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
5.
Brilon
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Brilon is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, that belongs to the Hochsauerlandkreis. Brilon is situated on the Brilon Heights at an altitude of about 450 m on the reaches of the river Möhne. The town lies between the Arnsberg Forest nature reserve to the west and the Lake Diemel nature reserve and the Hoppecke to the south-east and this reference must of course apply to a considerably older settlement than the present town, presumably what is now Altenbrilon. The Brilon estate passed later by exchange to the Archbishops of Paderborn, in about 1220 Archbishop Engelbert I of Cologne acquired the Brilon lands of the brothers Hermann and Gernand of Brilon. The Archbishop laid out a town and gave it municipal rights. Bloody conflicts followed between the Archbishops of Cologne and the Bishops of Paderborn over the rights of possession of the place and these ended when the Bishop of Paderborn, after being taken prisoner, waived his rights to Brilon. As a trading town Brilon was also a member of the Hansa, in 1350 Brilon had between 500 and 600 houses. At this time Brilon held the position of the city of Westphalia behind Soest. After the secession of Soest in 1444 Brilon was elevated to being the capital of Westphalia, in 1655, after three years of negotiations between the town magistrate and the Minorites resident in Brilon, the Gymnasium Petrinum was founded as a monastery school. It is thus one of the oldest Gymnasien in Westphalia, during the Napoleonic period Brilon passed to Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1802. After the Congress of Vienna of 1816 it was transferred to Prussia, in this way, as the seat of government offices and schools, Brilon regained significance. The construction of connections and various municipal measures brought about a strong development of crafts. In World War II the town was spared from Allied air raids. But on 10 January 1944 there came an attack by American bombers which destroyed whole streets, particularly Hoppecker Strasse, a bomb broke through the roof of the Provosts Church but did not explode. In this bombing raid 37 people were killed, including 13 children, after the war Brilon became part of the newly created state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The following numbers show the population of the town of Brilon. The dependent communities Wülfte and Rixen The arms of Brilon are, Party per fess, in chief, argent, a sable, and in base, sable. They were granted on 28 January 1911, but in this form first appear in a seal of 1548, the cross in the upper part is from the arms of the state of Cologne
6.
Herzogtum Westfalen
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The Duchy of Westphalia was a historic territory in the Holy Roman Empire, which existed from 1180. It was located in the region of Westphalia, originally one of the three main regions in the German stem duchy of Saxony and today part of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The duchy was held by the Archbishops and Electors of Cologne until its secularization in 1803, the town of Soest was lost to the Duchy of Cleves-Mark after the Soest Feud in 1449. The Rhenish Duchy of Berg and the Westphalian County of Mark in the west remained an obstacle to a connection with the Cologne territory on the Lower Rhine river. The Westphalian duchy formed the largest part of the Cologne electorate, the Hellweg section connecting the towns of Werl, Erwitte and Geseke was part of an important trade route from Aachen to Goslar. First parishes were established east of the Rhenish etstates around Soest, numerous monastery foundations, like Grafschaft Abbey in 1072 by Anno II of Cologne, stabilized the ecclesiastical rule. The other counties of the region could not resist the encroachment of the mighty Archbishopric, the former counts of Werl created a new county known as Werl-Arnsberg, and managed to keep their smaller and smaller territory independent of the Archbishops until they finally sold in 1368. Engelbert managed to connect the lands of the duchy by annexing the territory from Hellweg to Diemel, further controversy of its expansion eventually leads to Engelberts death at the hands of Frederick I of Isenberg in 1225. In 1260 by an agreement with the Dukes of Brunswick the Weser River became the border of their spheres of influence. The purchase and annexation of Werl-Arnsberg in 1368 united the territories of the north and south of the Sauerland, the Archbishop Frederick von Saarwerden began a hopeless campaign to maintain Colognian rights in Marck, and in 1392 was forced to abandon them. His successor, Dietrich II of Moers witnessed the last attempts by Cologne to gain rulership in Westphalia by attempting to break the powerful positions of Cleves, the financial burden placed upon the knights and cities of the Duchy of Westphalia led them into union in 1437. Cologne made peace with Cleves in 1441, this led Soest, the richest town of Westphalia, to refuse recognising Colognian supremacy in 1444 in the Soest Feud, Soest had become a part of the Duchy of Cleves. Thereafter the town of Arnsberg became the capital of Westphalia. Economically the loss of Soest had weakened the duchy, especially as the surroundings of the town were very fertile and the grain was needed for the mountainous regions in the South. Peace with Marck was made in 1445 which witnessed territorial concessions from both sides, after the Soest Feud, the city of Soest remained part of the Duchy of Cleves. Starting from 1463, the league of knights and cities in Westphalia began a long, during the reign of Archbishop Herman V of Wied, the Reformation arrived in Westphalia. The Duchy of Westphalia was again confirmed as integral territory of the Archbishopric in 1590, like most other territories of Germany, Westphalia suffered during the Thirty Years War. In 1794 the Archbishops relocated to Westphalia after the French had annexed the territories west of the Rhine River, in the secularisation of 1803 the Duchy of Westphalia became part of Hesse-Darmstadt
7.
Landgrafschaft Hessen-Darmstadt
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The Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt was a State of the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by a younger branch of the House of Hesse. It was formed in 1567 following the division of the Landgraviate of Hesse between the four sons of Landgrave Philip I, the residence of the landgraves was in Darmstadt, hence the name. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the landgraviate was elevated to the Grand Duchy of Hesse following the Empires dissolution in 1806. His eldest brother William IV received the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, while the second son Louis IV obtained Hesse-Marburg, the Hesse-Rheinfels line became extinct on Philips death in 1583. Because the University of Marburg had become Calvinist under the rule of Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel, the inheritance conflict was continued in the broader contest of the Thirty Years War, in which Hesse-Kassel sided with the Protestant estates and Hesse-Darmstadt sided with the Habsburg emperor. The Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Rotenburg estates seceded from the opponents in 1622 and 1627, the conflict was finally settled on the eve of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, more than eighty years after the division of the estates. Large parts of the disputed Upper Hesse territory including Marburg fell to the elder Kassel line, while Hesse-Darmstadt retained Giessen, in 1736, the Landgraves of Hesse-Darmstadt inherited the estates of the extinct Counts of Hanau-Lichtenberg, again contested by their Kassel cousins. Hesse-Darmstadt gained a deal of territory by the secularizations and mediatizations authorized by the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss of 1803. List of rulers of Hesse Piotr Napierała, Hesja-Darmstadt w XVIII stuleciu, wielcy władcy małego państwa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, Poznań2009. ISBN 978-83-232-2007-7 Map of Hesse in 1789 - Northern Part Map of Hesse in 1789 - Southern Part
8.
Jena
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Jena is a German university city and the second largest city in Thuringia. Jena is a centre of education and research, the Friedrich Schiller University was founded in 1558 and has 21,000 students today, furthermore, there are many institutes of the leading German research societies. Jena was first mentioned in 1182 and stayed a small town until the 19th century, for most of the 20th century, Jena was a world centre of the optical industry around companies like Carl Zeiss, Schott and Jenoptik. As one of only a few medium-sized cities in Germany, it has some buildings in the city centre. These also have their origin in the former Carl Zeiss factory, between 1790 and 1850, Jena was a focal point of the German Vormärz as well as of the student liberal and unification movement and German Romanticism. Notable persons of this period in Jena were Friedrich Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Novalis, the citys economy is based on the high-technology industry and research. The optical and precision industry is the branch to date, while software engineering, other digital businesses. Furthermore, Jena is also a hub for the surrounding regions. Jena lies in a landscape in the east of Thuringia. Until the High Middle Ages, the Saale was the border between Germanic regions in the west and Slavic regions in the east, owing to its function as a river crossing, Jena was conveniently located. The first unequivocal mention of Jena was in an 1182 document, the first local rulers of the region were the Lords of Lobdeburg with their eponymous castle near Lobeda, roughly 6 km south of the city centre on the eastern hillside of the Saale valley. Around 1230, Jena received town rights and a city grid was established between todays Fürstengraben, Löbdergraben, Teichgraben and Leutragraben. The city got a marketplace, main church, town hall, council and city walls during the late 13th, in this time, the citys economy was based mainly on wine production on the warm and sunny hillsides of the Saale valley. The two monasteries of the Dominicans and the Cistercians rounded out Jenas medieval appearance, as the political circumstances in Thuringia changed in the middle of the 14th century, the weakened Lords of Lobdeburg sold Jena to the aspiring Wettins in 1331. Jena obtained the Gotha municipal law and the citizens strengthened their rights, moreover, the Wettins were more interested in their residence in the nearby city of Weimar, and so Jena could develop itself relatively autonomously. The Protestant Reformation was brought to the city in 1523, Martin Luther visited the town to reorganize the clerical relations and Jena became an early centre of his doctrine. In the following years, the Dominican and the Carmelite convents were attacked by the townsmen, an important step in Jenas history was the foundation of the university in 1558. Ernestine Elector John Frederick the Magnanimous founded it, because he had lost his old university in Wittenberg to the Albertines after the Schmalkaldic War
9.
Magdeburg
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Magdeburg is the capital city and the second largest city of the state of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Magdeburg is situated on the Elbe River and was one of the most important medieval cities of Europe, Emperor Otto I, the first Holy Roman Emperor, founder of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, was buried in the towns cathedral after his death. Magdeburgs version of German town law, known as Magdeburg rights, spread throughout Central, the city is also well known for the 1631 Sack of Magdeburg, which hardened Protestant resistance during the Thirty Years War. Prior to it Magdeburg was one of the largest German cities, Magdeburg was destroyed twice in its history. Magdeburg is the site of two universities, the Otto-von-Guericke University and the Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, nowadays Magdeburg is a traffic junction as well as an industrial and trading centre. In 2005 Magdeburg celebrated its 1200th anniversary, in June 2013 Magdeburg was hit by record breaking flooding. Founded by Charlemagne in 805 as Magadoburg, the town was fortified in 919 by King Henry I the Fowler against the Magyars and Slavs. Edith loved the town and often lived there, at her death she was buried in the crypt of the Benedictine abbey of Saint Maurice, in 937, Magdeburg was the seat of a royal assembly. Otto I repeatedly visited Magdeburg and was buried in the cathedral. He granted the abbey the right to income from various tithes, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg was founded in 968 at the synod of Ravenna, Adalbert of Magdeburg was consecrated as its first archbishop. The archbishopric under Adalbert included the bishoprics of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Merseburg, Meissen, the archbishops played a prominent role in the German colonisation of the Slavic lands east of the Elbe river. In 1035 Magdeburg received a patent giving the city the right to hold exhibitions and conventions. These laws were adopted and modified throughout Central and Eastern Europe, visitors from many countries began to trade with Magdeburg. In the 13th century, Magdeburg became a member of the Hanseatic League, with more than 20,000 inhabitants Magdeburg was one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire. The town had a maritime commerce on the west, with the countries of the North Sea. The citizens constantly struggled against the archbishop, becoming independent from him by the end of the 15th century. In about Easter 1497, the then twelve-year-old Martin Luther attended school in Magdeburg, in 1524, he was called to Magdeburg, where he preached and caused the citys defection from Catholicism. The Protestant Reformation had quickly found adherents in the city, where Luther had been a schoolboy, Emperor Charles V repeatedly outlawed the unruly town, which had joined the Alliance of Torgau and the Schmalkaldic League
