1.
Deutschland
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
2.
Lehrer
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
3.
Autor
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An author is narrowly defined as the originator of any written work and can thus also be described as a writer. More broadly defined, an author is the person who originated or gave existence to anything, in the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of works of authorship. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, however, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time its created, an interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon ones death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the issue of fan fiction. If the media responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music. Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books, what powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction. In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting, in the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author and he writes, in his essay Death of the Author, that it is language which speaks, not the author. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, with this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak. Michel Foucault argues in his essay What is an author and that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that a letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to certain standards upon the text which. Foucaults author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a work, a part of its structure
4.
Triebfahrzeugführer
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An engineer, engine driver, train driver, train operator, is a person who operates a train. The driver is in charge of, and responsible for driving the engine, as well as the operation of the train, train speed. The use of the engineer to describe this occupation in North America should not be confused with the usual meanings of engineer. For many American railroads, the following career progression is typical, assistant conductor, conductor, in the US, drivers are required to be certified and re-certified every two to three years. In American English a hostler moves engines around train yards, in India, a driver starts as a diesel assistant or electrical assistant. They then get promoted on a scale, goods, passenger, Mail/Express, in New Zealand, the United States and Canada, train drivers are historically known as locomotive engineers, or handelers. In the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Australia they are known as drivers, engine drivers, locomotive drivers. Ben Chifley, former Prime Minister of Australia Casey Jones, American engineer whose wreck on the Illinois Central Railroad on April 30,1900 was immortalized in verse, fireman Motorman Stormy Kromer cap Huibregtse, Jon R. American Railroad Labor and the Genesis of the New Deal, 1919-1935 Licht, working for the Railroad, the organization of work in the nineteenth century Orr, John W. Set Up Running, The Life of a Pennsylvania Railroad Engineman, 1904-1949 Tuck, Joseph Hugh. Media related to Locomotive drivers at Wikimedia Commons A detailed explanation of what train driving involves, link to a site that offers an engineer experience program at a museum in California
5.
Schmallenberg
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Schmallenberg is a town and a climatic health resort in the High Sauerland District, Germany. Relating to its size of 117 square miles it is the third biggest of all cities and towns of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia and it also has the biggest area of all cities and towns in North Rhine-Westphalia that are not independent but belong to a district. With small Schmallenberg central town and the rural Bad Fredeburg Kneipp health resort the town has two urban settlements, additionally,82 villages and hamlets belong to the towns territory. Schmallenberg is located in the southeast of the Sauerland mountainous region, the Rothaar Mountains make up a part of the towns territory. The oldest available documents speaking of a “Town of Schmallenberg” are the archbishops, there were several causes which let the place of “Smalenburg” receive town rights. Before Schmallenberg received town rights, there had been a castle of Schmallenberg which must have destroyed around 1240. It was owned by the Archbishop of Cologne Conrad of Hochstadt, the Knight Johann Kolve had the order to protect this castle. At this time, there already must have some kind of settlement around. The archbishop did not consider the castle as useful any more. Furthermore, the settlement was unprotected and in a risky situation because of the castle. That is why the archbishop and the Grafschaft Abbey wanted to fortify the place, in 1244 Schmallenberg received town rights and got a mayor and an own council. Johann Kolve, who had recommended this solution, became the commander of the new fortified town and he got 30 shillings every year on St. Martin’s Day as an indemnity, an own property and a judicial immunity was granted. The new Town of Schmallenberg thanked Kolve for its new protecting wall and he did not have to pay taxes and did not have any civic duties. There is evidence from 1273 and 1292 of blacksmiths working in Schmallenberg and there have been cutlers, the town joined alliances with Medebach, Hallenberg and Winterberg and was a member of the Hanseatic League. It used to be a Colognian minting place in the 13th century, after weapon techniques had changed and to the archbishop, Schmallenberg had lost its fortified status, the town went through an economical crisis in the 16th century. In 1812, the wall and its gates were torn down, in 1800, the iron manufacturing was the second biggest in the whole Duchy of Westphalia. When it collapsed because of competition and high costs, textile industry developed in Schmallenberg. There had already been seven companies belonging to industry in 1871
6.
Volksschule
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The German term Volksschule generally refers to compulsory education, denoting an educational institution every person is required to attend. In Germany and Switzerland it is equivalent to a primary and lower secondary education. In Austria, Volksschule solely is used for school from Year One to Year Four. First secular schools followed during the movement from the late 17th century onwards and were further promoted by the advocates of the Enlightenment. In 1717 King Frederick William I of Prussia decreed the education of children from the age of five to twelve. They had to be able to read and write and were obliged to memorise the Protestant catechism, in 1763 King Frederick the Great enacted a first Prussian general school law, elaborated by the theologian Johann Julius Hecker. Attendance was supposedly compulsory, but a 1781 census reveals that one fourth of school-age children attended. At the time, this was one of the few examples of state-supported schooling, sending ones children to school was binding by law only from 1840 in the Austrian Empire. Spielvogel, Jackson J. 1999-2000, Western Civilization, Comprehensive Volume, ISBN 0-534-56835-1
7.
Attendorn
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Attendorn is a German town in the Olpe district in North Rhine-Westphalia. As of 2008 it had a population of 24,801, heavier settlement, however, can be traced only as far back as the Middle Ages. The town lies at the crossroads of two former long-distance roads, the Heidenstraße and the so-called Königsstraße, here, in Charlemagne’s time, arose a parish. Under the St. -Johannes-Kirche are found the foundations of an old missionary church, in 1072, Archbishop Anno of Cologne endowed the Grafschaft Abbey and granted it, among other things, rights to an estate in Attendorn. Indeed, the endowment document stands as the town’s earliest documentary mention. In 1222, town rights, on the Soest model, were granted the town under Engelbert II of Berg, Schnellenberg Castle, built about 1200, and the acquisition of the Waldenburg in 1248 served to safeguard Cologne’s interests in the region. Attendorn’s heyday was brought about not only by its nine guilds but also, furthermore, the town’s political and ecclesiastical status as a bulwark against the County of Mark and as seat of a deanery in the old Archbishopric of Cologne brought it wealth and prosperity. As the Sauerland’s only town, Attendorn joined the Rhenish League of Towns in 1255, Attendorn was only an indirect member of the Hanse, and was thus represented at the Hanseatic League’s great assemblies by the town of Soest. By about 1200, Attendorn was already home to one of the archbishopric’s mints, mediaeval coins from Attendorn have been found as far afield as Brussels, Lubnice and the island of Gotland. From the early 14th century until there has existed a hospital with a church. In 1420, Heinrich Weke endowed the Ewig Monastery, in 1429, he also added a hospital for the poor. For a time, the town was so well off that it could grant the Archbishop of Cologne himself credit. Moreover, the also supported him during his dispute with the town of Soest. In 1444 and 1445, the town helped the Archbishop conquer the castle, four times, in 1464,1597,1598 and 1613, the Plague beset the town. Great fires, too, ravaged the town in 1613,1623,1656,1710,1732,1742 and 1783, the one in 1656 destroyed half the town. Attendorn also suffered as a result of war, sackings and occupations, examples include the War of the Limburg-Hohenlimburg Succession in 1280, the Soest Feud from 1444 to 1449, the Truchsess War in 1583 and 1584 and the Thirty Years War from 1618 to 1648. Attendorn reached its deepest economic despair in Napoleonic times, only recovering from the downturn in the mid-19th century, the rise of Nazis and the Second World War affected Attendorn much like the rest of Germany. An Attendorn teacher and historian, supported by the government, documented the persecution of Attendorn Jewish families under Nazi rule, as in many places, this included destruction of property, boycotting Jewish stores, appropriating factories, and shipping Jews to concentration camps
8.
Abitur
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Abitur is a university-preparatory school leaving qualification in Germany, Lithuania, Finland, and Estonia. It is conferred to students who pass their exams at the end of their secondary education. As a matriculation examination, Abitur can be compared to A-level, Matura or the International Baccalaureate Diploma, thus, it encompasses the functions of both a school graduation certificate and a college entrance exam. The official term in Germany for this certificate of education is Allgemeine Hochschulreife, in 2005, a total of 231,465 students passed the Abitur exam in Germany. The numbers have risen steadily and in 2012, a total of 305,172 students obtained the Allgemeine Hochschulreife and this number, reflecting those who pass the traditional Abitur at their high school, is, however, lower than the total count. Adding the 51,912 students who obtained the Hochschulreife at vocational training schools, if those who obtain the Fachhochschulreife are also added, then the total of those who obtained the right to study at a university or a Fachhochschule is 501,483. Until the 18th century, every German university had its own entrance examination, in 1788 Prussia introduced the Abiturreglement, a law, for the first time within Germany, establishing the Abitur as an official qualification. It was later established in the other German states. In 1834, it became the university entrance exam in Prussia. Since then, the German state of Hesse allows students with Fachhochschulreife to study at the universities within that state, the academic level of the Abitur is comparable to the International Baccalaureate, the GCE Advanced Level and the Advanced Placement tests. Indeed, the requirements for the International Baccalaureate differ little from the German exam requirements. It is the only school-leaving certificate in all states of Germany that allows the graduate to move directly to university, the other school leaving certificates, the Hauptschulabschluss and the Realschulabschluss, do not allow their holders to matriculate at a university. However, the Abitur is not the path to university studies. Students who successfully passed a Begabtenprüfung are also eligible, a person who does not hold the Abitur and did not take an aptitude test may still be admitted to university by completing at least the 10th grade and doing well on an IQ-Test. The official meaning behind the word Abitur in Germany is Zeugnis der allgemeinen Hochschulreife, during the two final years of secondary school studies and in their final exams, students receive grades on a scale of 15 to 0 points. The points are weighted and then added up and converted to the grade on a scale from 1 to 6. Student who receive 13.72 points or more on average in all courses, in German, the European Baccalaureate is called europäisches Abitur, and the International Baccalaureate is called internationales Abitur, both not to be confused with the German Abitur. The term Fachabitur was used in all of Western Germany for a variation of the Abitur until the 1990s and this qualification includes only one foreign language
9.
Zweiter Weltkrieg
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
