1.
Origami
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Origami is the art of paper folding, which is often associated with Japanese culture. In modern usage, the word origami is used as a term for all folding practices. The goal is to transform a flat square of paper into a finished sculpture through folding and sculpting techniques. Modern origami practitioners generally discourage the use of cuts, glue, Origami folders often use the Japanese word kirigami to refer to designs which use cuts, although cutting is more characteristic of Chinese papercrafts. The small number of basic origami folds can be combined in a variety of ways to make intricate designs, the best-known origami model is the Japanese paper crane. In general, these begin with a square sheet of paper whose sides may be of different colors, prints. Traditional Japanese origami, which has been practiced since the Edo period, has often been less strict about these conventions, the principles of origami are also used in stents, packaging and other engineering applications. Distinct paperfolding traditions arose in Europe, China, and Japan which have been well-documented by historians and these seem to have been mostly separate traditions, until the 20th century. In China, traditional funerals include the burning of folded paper. The practice of burning paper representations instead of wood or clay replicas dates from the Sung Dynasty. In Japan, the earliest unambiguous reference to a model is in a short poem by Ihara Saikaku in 1680 which mentions a traditional butterfly design used during Shinto weddings. Folding filled some ceremonial functions in Edo period Japanese culture, noshi were attached to gifts and this developed into a form of entertainment, the first two instructional books published in Japan are clearly recreational. In Europe, there was a genre of napkin-folding, which flourished during the 17th and 18th centuries. When Japan opened its borders in the 1860s, as part of a strategy, they imported Froebels Kindergarten system—and with it. This included the ban on cuts, and the shape of a bicolored square. These ideas, and some of the European folding repertoire, were integrated into the Japanese tradition, before this, traditional Japanese sources use a variety of starting shapes, often had cuts, and if they had color or markings, these were added after the model was folded. In the early 1900s, Akira Yoshizawa, Kosho Uchiyama, Akira Yoshizawa in particular was responsible for a number of innovations, such as wet-folding and the Yoshizawa–Randlett diagramming system, and his work inspired a renaissance of the art form. During the 1980s a number of folders started systematically studying the properties of folded forms
2.
Spray (aérosol)
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Aerosol spray is a type of dispensing system which creates an aerosol mist of liquid particles. This is used with a can or bottle that contains a payload, when the containers valve is opened, the payload is forced out of a small hole and emerges as an aerosol or mist. As propellant expands to drive out the payload, only some propellant evaporates inside the can to maintain a constant pressure, outside the can, the droplets of propellant evaporate rapidly, leaving the payload suspended as very fine particles or droplets. Typical payload liquids dispensed in this way are insecticides, deodorants and paints, an atomizer is a similar device that is pressurised by a hand-operated pump rather than by stored propellant. The concepts of aerosol probably go as far back as 1790, the first aerosol spray can patent was granted in Oslo in 1927 to Erik Rotheim, a Norwegian chemical engineer, and a United States patent was granted for the invention in 1931. The patent rights were sold to a United States company for 100,000 Norwegian kroner, the Norwegian Postal Service, Posten Norge, celebrated the invention by issuing a stamp in 1998. In 1939, American Julian S. Kahn received a patent for a spray can. Kahns idea was to mix cream and a propellant from two sources to make whipped cream at home — not a true aerosol in that sense, moreover, in 1949, he disclaimed his first four claims, which were the foundation of his following patent claims. It was not until 1941 that the spray can was first put to good use by Americans Lyle Goodhue and William Sullivan. Their design of a spray can dubbed the bug bomb, is the ancestor of many popular commercial spray products. In 1948, three companies were granted licenses by the United States government to manufacture aerosols, two of the three companies, Chase Products Company and Claire Manufacturing, still manufacture aerosols to this day. The crimp-on valve, used to control the spray in low-pressure aerosols was developed in 1949 by Bronx machine shop proprietor Robert H. Abplanalp. In 1974, Drs. Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario J. Molina proposed that chlorofluorocarbons, used as propellants in aerosol sprays, contributed to the depletion of Earths ozone layer. In response to this theory, the U. S. Congress passed amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1977 authorizing the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The United Nations Environment Programme called for ozone layer research that same year, in 1985, Joe Farman, Brian G. Gardiner, and Jon Shanklin published the first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer. That same year, the Vienna Convention was signed in response to the UNs authorization, two years later, the Montreal Protocol, which regulated the production of CFCs was formally signed. It came into effect in 1989, the U. S. formally phased out CFCs in 1995. Usually the gas is the vapor of a liquid with boiling point slightly lower than room temperature and this means that inside the pressurized can, the vapor can exist in equilibrium with its bulk liquid at a pressure that is higher than atmospheric pressure, but not dangerously high
3.
Papier
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Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
4.
Éponge (objet)
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A sponge is a tool or cleaning aid consisting of soft, porous material. Usually used for cleaning surfaces, sponges are especially good at absorbing water. Sponges are commonly made from cellulose wood fibers or foamed plastic polymers, some natural sponges are still sold, with most now used either as body or facial sponges or as tools for sponge painting. Bath sponges help cleanse the skin by scraping away the dead skin, besides sponges formed from plastic polymers, the three other categories of widely available synthetic sponges are low-density polyether, PVA, and polyester. Polyester sponges can be subdivided into a variety of types, some of which are reticulated for ease of use, one type, double-blown polyester, has a high water-retention ability approaching or equaling that of PVA sponges, but with visible pores and more diverse uses. Because it is made of wood fiber, a cellulose sponge can be a medium for the growth of harmful bacteria or fungi. Several methods have used to clean sponges. Studies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean domestic sponges that have been thoroughly moistened. A2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes killed 99% of coliforms, E. coli, and MS2 phages, but Bacillus cereus spores required four minutes. After some fires were caused by trying to replicate the results at home. A2009 study showed that the microwave and the dishwasher were both effective ways to clean domestic sponges, dishcloth Ethylene-vinyl acetate – material that craft foam is made from ethylene-vinyl and acetate Luffa aegyptiaca Polymer sponge – a medical innovation Scouring pad Sponge Sponge metal
5.
Trombone (papeterie)
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A paper clip is an instrument used to hold sheets of paper together, usually made of steel wire bent to a looped shape. Most paper clips are variations of the Gem type introduced in the 1890s or earlier, common to paper clips proper is their utilization of torsion and elasticity in the wire, and friction between wire and paper. When a moderate number of sheets are inserted between the two tongues of the clip, the tongues will be forced apart and cause torsion in the bend of the wire to grip the sheets together. Paper clips usually have a shape with straight sides, but may also be triangular or circular. The most common material is steel or some metal. Some other kinds of paper use a two-piece clamping system. Recent innovations include multi-colored plastic-coated paper clips and spring-fastened binder clips, according to the Early Office Museum, the first patent for a bent wire paper clip was awarded in the United States to Samuel B. This clip was intended primarily for attaching tickets to fabric. Fay received U. S. patent 64,088 on April 23,1867, although functional and practical, Fays design along with the 50 other designs patented prior to 1899 are not considered reminiscent of the modern paperclip design known today. Another notable paper clip design was patented in the United States by Erlman J. Wright in 1877. This clip was advertised at that time for use in fastening newspapers, since the 1883 article had no illustration of this early Gem, it may have been different from modern paper clips of that name. The earliest documentation of its existence is an 1894 advertisement for Gem Paper Clips, in 1904 Cushman & Denison registered a trade mark for the Gem name in connection with paper clips. The announcement stated that it had used since March 1,1892. Paper clips are sometimes called Gem clips, and in Swedish the word for any paper clip is gem. The drawing clearly shows that the product is a clip of the Gem type. The fact that Middlebrook did not mention it by name, suggests that it was well known at the time. Since then countless variations on the theme have been patented. Some have pointed instead of rounded ends, some have the end of one loop bent slightly to make it easier to insert sheets of paper, in addition, purely aesthetic variants have been patented, clips with triangular or round shapes
6.
Ficelle (corde)
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Twine is a light string or strong thread composed of two or more smaller strands or yarns twisted, and then twisted together. More generally, the term can be applied to a cord, Natural fibres used for making twine include cotton, sisal, jute, hemp, henequen, and coir. A variety of fibres are also used. Biggest ball of twine Binder Twine Festival Hair twists International Year of Natural Fibres 2009 String
7.
Légende des mille grues
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Thousand Cranes Thousand Origami Cranes is a group of one thousand origami paper cranes held together by strings. An ancient Japanese legend promises that anyone who folds a thousand cranes will be granted a wish by the gods. Some stories believe you are granted happiness and eternal good luck, instead of just one wish and this makes them popular gifts for special friends and family. The crane in Japan is one of the mystical or holy creatures and is said to live for a thousand years, That is why 1000 cranes are made, one for each year. In some stories it is believed that the 1000 cranes must be completed one year. Cranes that are made by person and given away to another arent included. A thousand paper cranes are given as a wedding gift by the father. They can also be given to a new baby for long life, hanging them in ones home is thought to be a powerfully lucky and benevolent charm. Several temples, including some in Tokyo and Hiroshima, have eternal flames for world peace, at these temples, school groups or individuals often donate senbazuru to add to the prayer for peace. The cranes are left exposed to the elements, slowly dissolving and becoming tattered as the wish is released, in this way they are related to the prayer flags of India and Tibet. The Japanese space agency JAXA used folding 1000 cranes as one of the tests for its potential astronauts. There is a statue of Sadako holding a crane in Hiroshima Peace Park, and every year on Obon day, people leave cranes at the statue in memory of the departed spirits of their ancestors. Sets of origami paper are sold widely in Japan, with senbazuru sets including 1000 sheets of paper, string, commonly the cranes are assembled as 25 strings of 40 cranes each. The size of the paper does matter when assembling a thousand paper cranes. The most popular size for senbazuru is 7.5 by 7.5 centimetres, some people cut their own squares of paper from anything available, such as magazines, newspapers, notebooks, and printer paper. Origami paper used for senbazuru is usually of a solid color, larger size origami paper, usually 6x6 inches, often has traditional Japanese or flower designs, reminiscent of kimono patterns. Childrens Peace Monument Kunihiko Kasahara Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes Sadako Sasaki Orizuru
8.
Grue en papier
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The orizuru, or paper crane, is a design that is considered to be the most classic of all Japanese origami. It is a representation of the Japanese red-crowned crane that is referred to as the Honourable Lord Crane in Japanese culture, the Japanese culture believed that its wings carried souls up to paradise. It is often used as a wrapper or restaurant table decoration. A thousand orizuru strung together is called senbazuru, meaning thousand cranes, sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes is a classic Japanese work that talks about the significance of a thousand paper cranes. It is said that a thousand cranes need to be made in order for a wish to come true, the resulting cranes are attached to one another or at the tip of the body. The trick is to all the cranes without breaking the small paper bridges that attach them to one another or, in some cases. Typical renzuru configurations include a circle of four or more cranes attached at the wing tips, if made from paper colored differently on each side, the cranes will be different colors. This origami technique was first illustrated in one of the oldest known origami books, media related to Origami crane at Wikimedia Commons Video showing how to make an orizuru
9.
Mathématiques des origamis
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The art of origami or paper folding has received a considerable amount of mathematical study. Fields of interest include a given paper models flat-foldability and the use of paper folds to solve mathematical equations, in 1893, Indian mathematician T. Sundara Rao published Geometric Exercises in Paper Folding which used paper folding to demonstrate proofs of geometrical constructions. This work was inspired by the use of origami in the kindergarten system and this book had an approximate trisection of angles and implied construction of a cube root was impossible. In 1936 Margharita P. Beloch showed that use of the Beloch fold, later used in the sixth of the Huzita–Hatori axioms, in 1949, R C Yeates book Geometric Methods described three allowed constructions corresponding to the first, second, and fifth of the Huzita–Hatori axioms. The axioms were discovered by Jacques Justin in 1989, but were overlooked until the first six were rediscovered by Humiaki Huzita in 1991. The first International Meeting of Origami Science and Technology was held in 1989 in Ferrara, the construction of origami models is sometimes shown as crease patterns. The major question about such crease patterns is whether a given crease pattern can be folded to a model, and if so, how to fold them. Related problems when the creases are orthogonal are called map folding problems, there are three mathematical rules for producing flat-foldable origami crease patterns, Maekawas theorem, at any vertex the number of valley and mountain folds always differ by two. It follows from this that every vertex has an number of creases. Kawasakis theorem, at any vertex, the sum of all the odd angles adds up to 180 degrees, a sheet can never penetrate a fold. Paper exhibits zero Gaussian curvature at all points on its surface, curved surfaces that cant be flattened can be produced using a non-folded crease in the paper, as is easily done with wet paper or a fingernail. Assigning a crease pattern mountain and valley folds in order to produce a model has been proven by Marshall Bern. Further references and technical results are discussed in Part II of Geometric Folding Algorithms, Paper fold strips can be constructed to solve equations up to degree 4. The Huzita–Hatori axioms are an important contribution to field of study. These describe what can be constructed using a sequence of creases with at most two point or line alignments at once, complete methods for solving all equations up to degree 4 by applying methods satisfying these axioms are discussed in detail in Geometric Origami. Methods for folding most regular polygons up to and including the regular 19-gon have been developed, the side of a square can be divided at an arbitrary rational fraction in a variety of ways. Hagas theorems say that a set of constructions can be used for such divisions. Surprisingly few folds are necessary to generate large odd fractions, for instance 1⁄5 can be generated with three folds, first halve a side, then use Hagas theorem twice to produce first 2⁄3 and then 1⁄5
10.
Avion de papier
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A paper plane, paper aeroplane, paper airplane, paper glider, paper dart or dart is a toy aircraft, usually a glider made out of folded paper or paperboard. Certainly, manufacture of paper on a widespread scale took place in China 500 BCE and it is impossible to ascertain where and in what form the first paper aircraft were constructed, or even the first paper planes form. The pioneers of powered flight have all studied paper model aircraft in order to design larger machines. Da Vinci wrote of the building of a plane out of parchment, and of testing some of his early ornithopter, an aircraft that flies by flapping wings. Thereafter, Sir George Cayley explored the performance of gliders in the late 19th century. The most significant use of models in aircraft designs were by the Wright brothers between 1899 and 1903, the date of the first powered flight from Kill Devil Hills. The Wrights used a tunnel to gain knowledge of the forces which could be used to control an aircraft in flight. They built numerous paper models, and tested them within their wind tunnel and their paper models were very important in the process of moving on to progressively larger models, kites, gliders and ultimately on to the powered Flyer. In this way, the model plane remains a very important key in the graduation from model to manned heavier-than-air flight. With time, many designers have improved and developed the paper model. One of the earliest known applied modern paper plane was in 1909 and he started to explain, in the course of it he picked up a paper menu and fashioned a small model airplane, without thinking where he was. It landed on the shirtfront of the French Minister of Education, much to the embarrassment of my sister, in 1930 Jack Northrop used paper planes as test models for larger aircraft. There have been many improvements, including velocity, lift, propulsion, style and fashion. Unmodified origami paper aircraft have very poor glide ratios, often not better than 7.5,1 depending on construction and materials. Modification of origami paper gliders can lead to marked improvements in performance, at the cost of weight. Often, increases in wing loading can encourage breakdown of laminar flow over a wing with a hybrid of origami, professors Ninomiya and Mathews developed more directed design strategies in the late 1960s and the 1980s. Previously, paper model aircraft had been designed without an emphasis on performance in flight, by using aerodynamic design, and fluid dynamics, both professors were able to design models that exceeded previous flight performance criteria by a very wide margin. Ranges of flight increased from the typical 10+ meters to 85+ meters, at present, the work of the two professors remains the last serious research work on improving the flight performance of paper model gliders
