1.
Gebouw
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A building or edifice is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. To better understand the term building compare the list of nonbuilding structures, Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a division of the human habitat. Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have become objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in planning and building practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings. The word building is both a noun and a verb also an adverb, the structure itself and the act of making it. As a noun, a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place, there was a building on the corner. In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building, however, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to be used for a fence, as a verb, building is the act of construction. Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level, depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included, the definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise. A report by Shinichi Fujimura of a shelter built 500000 years ago is doubtful since Fujimura was later found to have faked many of his findings. Supposed remains of huts found at the Terra Amata site in Nice purportedly dating from 200000 to 400000 years ago have also called into question. There is clear evidence of homebuilding from around 18000 BC, Buildings became common during the Neolithic. Single-family residential buildings are most often called houses or homes, residential buildings containing more than one dwelling unit are called a duplex, apartment building to differentiate them from individual houses. A condominium is an apartment that the occupant owns rather than rents, houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters, they may also be converted to another use e. g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from huts to multimillion-dollar high-rise apartment blocks able to house thousands of people, increasing settlement density in buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone, also if the residents are in need of special care such as a nursing home, orphanage or prison, or in group housing like barracks or dormitories
2.
Civiele techniek
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Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering, Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence, during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of pyramids in Egypt were some of the first instances of large structure constructions, the Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, in 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, the institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach engineering in the United States was Norwich University. The first degree in engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905, throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances, structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design, after taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. In most countries, a degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification. After completing a degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a engineer, a chartered engineer
3.
Bouw
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
4.
Stedenbouwkunde
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Urban design is the process of designing and shaping cities, towns and villages. It is common for professionals in all disciplines to practice in urban design. In more recent times different sub-strands of urban design have emerged such as urban design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban design. Urban design is about making connections between people and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric, Urban design draws together the many strands of place-making, environmental stewardship, social equity and economic viability into the creation of places with distinct beauty and identity. Urban design draws these and other strands together creating a vision for an area and then deploying the resources, Urban design theory deals primarily with the design and management of public space, and the way public places are experienced and used. Public space includes the totality of spaces used freely on a basis by the general public, such as streets, plazas, parks. Some aspects of privately owned spaces, such as building facades or domestic gardens, important writers on urban design theory include Christopher Alexander, Peter Calthorpe, Gordon Cullen, Andres Duany, Jane Jacobs, Mitchell Joachim, Jan Gehl, Allan B. Jacobs, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi, Colin Rowe, Robert Venturi, William H. Whyte, Camillo Sitte, Bill Hillier, although contemporary professional use of the term urban design dates from the mid-20th century, urban design as such has been practiced throughout history. Ancient examples of planned and designed cities exist in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. European Medieval cities are often, and often erroneously, regarded as exemplars of undesigned or organic city development, there are many examples of considered urban design in the Middle Ages. 12th century western Europe brought renewed focus on urbanisation as a means of stimulating economic growth, the burgage system dating from that time and its associated burgage plots brought a form of self-organising design to medieval towns. Rectangular grids were used in the Bastides of 13th and 14th century Gascony, throughout history, design of streets and deliberate configuration of public spaces with buildings have reflected contemporaneous social norms or philosophical and religious beliefs. Yet the link between designed urban space and human mind appears to be bidirectional, indeed, the reverse impact of urban structure upon human behaviour and upon thought is evidenced by both observational study and historical record. There are clear indications of impact through Renaissance urban design on the thought of Johannes Kepler, the beginnings of modern urban design in Europe are associated with the Renaissance but, especially, with the Age of Enlightenment. Spanish colonial cities were planned, as were some towns settled by other imperial cultures. These sometimes embodied utopian ambitions as well as aims for functionality and good governance, as with James Oglethorpes plan for Savannah, in the Baroque period the design approaches developed in French formal gardens such as Versailles were extended into urban development and redevelopment. In the 18th and 19th centuries, urban design was perhaps most closely linked with surveyors, much of Frederick Law Olmsteds work was concerned with urban design, and the newly formed profession of landscape architecture also began to play a significant role in the late 19th century. Modern urban design is a part of the discipline of Urban planning
5.
Architectuur
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
6.
Universiteit Gent
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Ghent University is a public research university located in Ghent, Belgium. It was established in 1817 by King William I of the Netherlands, after the Belgian revolution of 1830, the newly formed Belgian state began to administer the university. In 1930, it became the first Dutch-speaking university in Belgium—French having been the language up to that point. In 1991, the university was granted autonomy and changed its name from State University of Ghent to its current designation. It is one of the largest Flemish universities, consisting of 41,000 students and 9,000 staff members, the current rector is Anne De Paepe. Ghent consistently rates among the top universities not only in Belgium, the 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked Ghent at 62nd. While U. S. News & World Report Ranked Ghent 98 globally in the 2017 rankings, the university in Ghent was opened on 9 October 1817, with JC van Rotterdam serving as the first rector. In the first year, it had 190 students and 16 professors, the original four faculties consisted of Humanities, Law, Medicine and Science, and the language of instruction was Latin. The university was founded by King William I as part of a policy to stem the intellectual and academic lag in the part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. After peaking at a student population of 414, the number of students declined quickly following the Belgian Revolution, at this time, the Faculties of Humanities and Science were broken from the university, but they were restored five years later, in 1835. Ghent University played a big role in the foundation of organic chemistry. Friedrich August Kekulé unraveled the structure of benzene at Ghent and Adolf von Baeyer, in 1882, Sidonie Verhelst became the first female student at the university. French became the language of instruction, taking the place of Latin, in 1903, the Flemish politician Lodewijk De Raet led a successful campaign to begin instruction in Dutch, and the first courses were begun in 1906. During World War I, the occupying German administration conducted Flamenpolitik, a Flemish Institute, commonly known as Von Bissing University, was founded in 1916 but was disestablished after the war and French language was fully reinstated. In 1923, Cabinet Minister Pierre Nolf put forward a motion to establish the university as a Dutch-speaking university. August Vermeylen served as the first rector of a Dutch-language university in Belgium, in the Second World War, the German administration of the university attempted to create a German orientation, removing faculty members and installing loyal activists. However, the university became the point for many resistance members as the war progressed. After the war, the university became a larger institution
7.
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
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The Vrije Universiteit Brussel listen is a Dutch-speaking university located in Brussels, Belgium. It has three campuses, Brussels Humanities, Science and Engineering Campus, Brussels Health Campus and Brussels Technology Campus, the universitys name is sometimes abbreviated by VUB or translated to Free University of Brussels. He wanted to establish a university independent from state and church and this is today still reflected in the universitys motto Scientia vincere tenebras, or Conquering darkness by science, and in its more recent slogan Redelijk eigenzinnig, or Reasonably opinionated. The university is organised into 8 faculties that accomplish the three missions of the university, education, research, and service to the community. The faculties cover a range of fields of knowledge including the natural sciences, classics, life sciences, social sciences, humanities. The university provides bachelor, master, and doctoral education to about 8,000 undergraduate and 1,000 graduate students and it is also a strongly research-oriented institute, which has led to its top-189th position among universities worldwide. Its research articles are on average more cited than articles by any other Flemish university, the Vrije Universiteit Brussel is an independent institution. The members of all its entities are elected by the entire academic community – including faculty staff, researchers, personnel. This system guarantees the process of decision-making and the independence from state. Nevertheless, the university receives significant funding from the Flemish government, other important funding sources are grants for research projects, scholarships of academic members, revenues from cooperation with industry, and tuition fees to a lesser extent. The central administration is formed by the Governing Board, which is presided by Eddy Van Gelder. It decides the universitys vision and must approve all decisions made by the faculties. The Governing Board is supported by three advising bodies, the Research Council, the Education Council, and the Senate, the daily management of the university is the responsibility of the Rector and three Vice-Rectors. The current Rector of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel is Prof. Dr, about 12,000 students follow one of its 128 educational programmes. All programmes are taught in Dutch, but 59 are also taught in English, in agreement with the Bologna process, the university has implemented the so-called bachelor-master system. It therefore issues four types of degrees, bachelors, masters, master after masters, admission to the programmes is generally not restricted, anyone can subscribe to the programme of his/her choice. An exception to this is the exam to the bachelor in medicine. Tuition fees are low, and even decreased or eliminated for some students with financial means
8.
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
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The Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, also known as KU Leuven or University of Leuven, is a Dutch-speaking university in Leuven, Flanders, Belgium. The University of Leuven was founded at the centre of the town of Leuven in 1425. Since the fifteenth century, Louvain, as it is often called by French speaking Belgians, has been a major contributor to the development of Catholic theology. It is considered the oldest Catholic university still in existence, with 55,484 students in 2014–2015, the KU Leuven is the largest university in Belgium and the Low Countries. In addition to its campus in Leuven, it has satellite campuses in Kortrijk, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Geel, Diepenbeek, Aalst, Sint-Katelijne-Waver. The university now offers several programs in English. KU Leuven is consistently considered to be within the top 100 universities of the world, the KU Leuven is a strongly research-oriented university. Among its many accolades is to be reckoned among the top universities of Europe and its current 2015-2016 QS World University Ranking position is 82nd. KU Leuven Institute of Philosophy current ranks 24th in the world, in 2016, KU Leuven was ranked first on the Reuters list of Europes most innovative universities. KU Leuven Law School currently ranks 26th in the world, most courses, however, are taught in Dutch. The KU Leuven is a member of the Coimbra Group as well as of the LERU Group, since August 2013, the university has been led by Rik Torfs who replaced former rector Mark Waer. The Belgian archbishop, André-Joseph Léonard is the current Grand Chancellor, the KU Leuven is dedicated to Mary, the mother of Jesus, under her traditional attribute as Seat of Wisdom, and organizes an annual celebration on 2 February in her honour. On that day, the university awards its honorary doctorates. The seal used by the university shows the statue of the Sedes Sapientiae, Leuven. Despite its Catholic origin, the university students from different faith communities. For the history of the university see Catholic University of Leuven. Pieter De Somer became the first rector of the KU Leuven, in 1972, the KU Leuven set up a separate entity, Leuven Research & Development, to support industrial and commercial applications of university research. It has led to numerous spin-offs, such as the technology company Metris, on 11 July 2002, the KU Leuven became the dominant institution in the KU Leuven Association
9.
Hogeschool
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In some countries, a vocational university more precisely grants professional degrees like professional bachelors degree, Professional masters degree and Professional doctorates. The term is not officially used in countries and an assignment to a certain type of university in a certain countrys educational system is therefore difficult. The UK once had an extensive vocational university sector with its polytechnic system dating back to the mid 19th century. Vocational universities are regulated and funded differently from research-focused universities. The education at vocational universities combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. It can be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field. There is also the background that an educational institution was called a university in the Middle Ages only if a certain classical canon of subjects was taught. They had to use other, more terms, including Fachhochschule in German, Haute Ecole in French, Hogeschool in Dutch, Høyskole in Norwegian, Scuola universitaria professionale in Italian. There are different varieties, including vocational universities of applied sciences, vocational universities of liberal arts, in recent years, many vocational universities have received full university status, such as the University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna, Austria, or the Örebro University, Sweden. There are also establishments which now have full university status but continue to use their former names, such as the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. Do not grant licentiate or doctorate degrees, the term ammattikorkeakoulu creates some confusion with korkeakoulu, because traditionally AMKs were not considered universities. A graduate of university of applied sciences is not eligible for doctoral studies in Finnish universities without formally completing a masters degree from a university. The term vocational university is not used, in contrast to traditional German universities, a Fachhochschule has a more practical profile. Universities of Applied Sciences grant Bachelor degrees and Master degrees, some Universities of Applied Sciences run doctoral programs where the degree itself is awarded by a partner institution. Furthermore, Berufsakademie is a college type strongly inspired by the education system. A Berufsakademie is called a university of education in English. In 2009, Baden-Württemberg transformed its Berufsakademie into a new type of institution, which now only exists in that state. In English, this type of institution is also called university of cooperative education, in Greece, comparable institutions to the Vocational Universities are the Technological Educational Institutes
10.
Restauratie (kunst)
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Restoration is a process that attempts to return cultural heritage to some previous state that the restorer imagines was the original. This was commonly done in the past, restoration is controversial, since it often involves some irreversible change to the original material of the artwork with the goal of making it look good. The attitude that has developed in recent years with the development of conservation is to attempt to make all restoration reversible, Art conservation can involve the cleaning and stabilization of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly, michelangelos statue of David has undergone two cleanings to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statues surface. Art restoration is vital to the survival of classical paintings and is part of the application of chemistry. It often involves research to determine the colors and materials of a work. The use of paints to inpaint damages on fresco is an example of a technique utilized to achieve almost complete reversibility. This is the used in the 20 year restoration of Da Vincis The Last Supper in Milan. One of the most popular inpainting techniques used today is the Tinted Varnish Treatment and this process is done once the piece is fully cleaned and varnished. This last step in the process is to then go into spots where original paint may be missing, or where patched holes. The restorer then goes in with tinted varnish over the top of the non-tinted varnish and this gives the illusion that the spots have been re-painted, while in fact it is just a spot of tinted varnish. Most commonly stippling is used while using tinted varnish, in order for light to reflect similar to paint and this is done by using tiny dots in a row for variance. In 2014, Harvard Art Museums exhibited murals by Mark Rothko from 1961 and 1962 which had faded due to their display in a dining room. An important event in the history of art restoration is the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes. The patent was filed in 1937
