1.
Commercial enterprise
–
A business is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social, a business owned by multiple private individuals may form as an incorporated company or jointly organise as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the business entities. The word business can refer to an organization or to an entire market sector or to the sum of all economic activity. Compound forms such as agribusiness represent subsets of the broader meaning. Businesses aim to maximize sales to have their income exceed their expenditures, resulting in a profit, the owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, partnership, A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business, the three most prevalent types of for-profit partnerships are, general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Corporation, The owners of a corporation have limited liability and the business has a legal personality from its owners. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned and they can organize either for profit or as nonprofit organizations. A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, a privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held by a small group of individuals, or publicly held, with publicly traded shares listed on a stock exchange. Cooperative, Often referred to as a co-op, a cooperative is a limited-liability business that can organize as for-profit or not-for-profit, a cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives, cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are not as protected. Franchises, A franchise is a system in which entrepreneurs purchase the rights to open, franchising in the United States is widespread and is a major economic powerhouse. One out of retail businesses in the United States are franchised and 8 million people are employed in a franchised business. Real estate businesses sell, invest, construct and develop properties – including land, residential homes, retailers, wholesalers, and distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers, they make their profits by marking up their prices. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers, transportation businesses such as railways, airlines, shipping companies that deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee
Commercial enterprise
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Offices in the
Los Angeles Downtown Financial District
2.
Roman Collegia
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A collegium was any association in ancient Rome with a legal personality. The organization of a collegium was often modeled on that of governing bodies. The meeting hall was known as the curia, the same term as that applied to that of the Roman Senate. By law, only three people were required in order to create a legal collegium, the exception was the college of consuls. There were four religious colleges of Roman priests, in descending order of importance, Pontifices, headed by the Pontifex Maximus, Augures, Quindecimviri. College of Aesculapius and Hygia List of Ancient Roman Collegia Media related to Ancient Roman collegia at Wikimedia Commons
Roman Collegia
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Inscription (
CIL 14.374) from
Ostia Antica commemorating a Marcus Licinius Privatus, who was magister of a college of carpenters
3.
Treasurer
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A treasurer is the person responsible for running the treasury of an organization. The adjective for a treasurer is normally tresorial, the adjective treasurial normally means pertaining to a treasury, rather than the treasurer. The Treasury of a country is the department responsible for the economy, finance. The Treasurer is generally the head of the Treasury, although, in countries the treasurer reports to a Secretary of the Treasury. In Australia, the Treasurer is a senior Minister and usually the second most important member of the Government after the Prime Minister, from 1867 to 1993, the Ministry of Finance was called the Treasurer of Ontario. Originally the word referred to the person in charge of the treasure of a noble, however, in the UK during the 17th Century, a position of Lord High Treasurer was used on several occasions as the third great officer of the Crown. Now the title First Lord of the Treasury is the title of the British Prime Minister. In corporations, the Treasurer is the head of the treasury department. They also typically advise the corporation on matters relating to corporate finance and they could also have oversight of other areas, such as the purchase of insurance. The International Group of Treasury Associations is composed of about 30 treasurers organizations in the world, in Europe, the European Associations of Corporate Treasurers federates 17 national treasurers associations from 16 countries. The Certified Treasury Professional designation serves as the certification for treasury managers. In UK and other Commonwealth countries, they have their own ACT qualification and it is a UK Chartered institute and offers various certifications and diplomas. Membership could be obtained through general route or Fast Track route, the latter offers to members of UK CCAB institutes plus CIMA. The qualification is portal through Commonwealth countries and therefore global, in the Inns of Court, the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales, the bencher or Master of the bench who heads the Inn for that year holds the title Master Treasurer. This title is used by other legal associations sharing a British heritage. The treasurer would also be part of the group which would oversee how the money is spent and it is their responsibility to ensure that the organization has enough money to carry out their stated aims and objectives, and that they do not overspend, or under spend. They also report to the board meetings and/or to the general membership the financial status of the organization to ensure checks, accurate records and supporting documentation must be kept to a reasonable level of detail that provides a clear audit trail for all transactions. Bursary Certified Treasury Professional Chief financial officer Comptroller Comptroller and Auditor General National Association of Parliamentarians®, independence, MO, National Association of Parliamentarians®
Treasurer
–
In A new way to pay the National Debt (1786),
James Gillray caricatured
Queen Charlotte and
King George III awash with treasury funds to cover royal debts, with
Pitt handing them another moneybag.
4.
Aufsichtsrat
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Corporate governance varies between countries, especially regarding the board system. There are countries that have a one-tier board system and there are others that have a two-tier board system like Germany, in a one-tier board, all the directors form one board, called the board of directors. In a two-tier board there is a board and a separate supervisory board. German corporation law, the Aktiengesetz, requires all companies to have two boards, a management board called a Vorstand and a supervisory board called an Aufsichtsrat. In Germany the supervisory board of corporations is composed of 20 members,10 of whom are elected by the shareholders. The supervisory board oversees and appoints the members of the management board, when a German company has between 500-2,000 employees, the minimum of members a board can consist of is three, and the maximum is 21. The number of members has to be divisible by three, as stated in the law, in such companies, the workers select one-third of the supervisory board. When it comes to internal elections the chairman of supervisory board, the supervisory board, in theory, is intended to provide a monitoring role. However, the appointment of board members has not been a transparent process and has therefore led to inefficient monitoring. The discussion about whether a one-tier or a two-tier board system leads to better corporate governance is ongoing in Germany and many other countries, improvements in corporate governance are often the result of shareholders holding boards of companies in which they invest to account. A limited liability company, which has relatively less shareholders or is relatively small in scale, may have 1 or 2 supervisors, the board of supervisors shall have one chairman, who shall be elected by half or more of all the supervisors. The chairman of the board of supervisors shall convene and preside over the meetings of the board of supervisors, no director or senior manager may concurrently work as a supervisor. Every term of office of the supervisors shall be 3 years, the supervisors may, after the expiry of their term of office, hold a consecutive term upon re-election. The supervisors may attend the meetings of the board of directors as non-voting delegates, if the board of supervisors or supervisor of the company with no board of directors finds that the company is running abnormally, it may make investigations. Where necessary, it may hire a firm to help it. The board of supervisors shall hold meetings at least once a year, the supervisors may propose to hold temporary meetings of the board of supervisors. The discussion methods and voting procedures of the board of supervisors shall be prescribed in the articles of association, the resolution of the board of supervisors shall be adopted by half or more of the supervisors. The board of supervisors shall make records for the resolutions on the matter it discusses, the expenses necessary for the board of supervisors or the supervisor of a company with no board of supervisors to perform its duties shall be borne by the company
Aufsichtsrat
–
Business administration
5.
Sen.
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A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature or parliament. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate, so-called as an assembly of the senior and therefore allegedly wiser, thus, the literal meaning of the word senate is, Assembly of Elders. Many countries have a named an senate, composed of senators who may be elected, appointed, have inherited the title, or gained membership by other methods. Modern senates typically serve to provide a chamber of second thought to consider legislation passed by a lower house, whose members are usually elected. The modern word Senate is derived from the word senātus, which comes from senex, the members or legislators of a senate are called senators. The Latin word senator was adopted into English with no change in spelling and its meaning is derived from a very ancient form of social organization, in which advisory or decision-making powers are reserved for the eldest men. This form adaptation was used to show the power of those in body and for the process to be thorough. The original senate was the Roman Senate, which lasted until 580, in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Senate continued until the Fourth Crusade, circa 1202–1204. This may include minimum age required for voters and candidates, proportional or majoritarian or plurality system, typically, the senate is referred to as the upper house and has a smaller membership than the lower house. In some federal states senates also exist at the subnational level, in the United States all states with the exception of Nebraska have a state senate. There is also the US Senate at the federal level, córdoba and Tucumán changed to unicameral systems in 2001 and 2003 respectively. In Australia and Canada, only the house of the federal parliament is known as the Senate. All Australian states other than Queensland have a house known as a Legislative council. Several Canadian provinces also once had a Legislative Council, but these have all been abolished, in Germany, the last Senate of a State parliament, the Senate of Bavaria, was abolished in 1999. Senate membership can be determined either through elections or appointments, for example, elections are held every three years for half the membership of the Australian Senate, the term of a senator being six years. The terms Senate and Senator, however, do not necessarily refer to a chamber of a legislature, The Senate of Finland was, until 1919, the executive branch. The Senate of Latvia fulfilled a similar function during the interbellum. In a number of cities which were members of the Hanse, such as Greifswald, Lübeck, Rostock, Stralsund, or Wismar
Sen.
–
The
Curia Julia in the
Roman Forum
Sen.
–
Meeting of the Association of European Senates in
Gdańsk (2009)
6.
Senior season
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A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
Senior season
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Over one thousand pupils in uniform during an assembly at a
secondary school,
Nan Hua High School in
Singapore
Senior season
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An Iranian Student going to her classmate house for study together at evening, in
Nishapur
Senior season
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Students of Stony Creek State School,
Queensland, 1939
Senior season
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Students in a
lecture on
linear algebra at the
Helsinki University of Technology
7.
German Student Corps
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Corps are the oldest still-existing kind of Studentenverbindung, Germanys traditional university corporations, their roots date back to the 15th century. The oldest corps still existing today was founded in 1789 and its members are referred to as corps students. The corps belong to the tradition of student fraternities which wear couleur, the corps are organized in two federations, the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband and the Weinheimer Senioren-Convent. Together, they comprise 162 Corps throughout Germany, Austria, Belgium and they consider tolerance and individuality to be key tenets and are rooted in German idealism. By and large, they are generally conservative in political outlook, the corps are open to students of all nationalities and religions, unlike many other student fraternities. Although distinct, the corps are in some similar to. Corps are built upon the principle of tolerance, No corps may endorse a certain political, in addition, all members are solely chosen by their personal character. Neither national, ethnic or social provenance play a role, Corpsstudenten wear couleur and practice Mensuren, academic fencing with razor-sharp blades that can result in bleeding face wounds, Schmisse. The corps usually bear names that reflect their origin from certain German regions. A fundamental idea is that students should help their younger fellows. The former keeps the business of the corps alive, organizes gatherings. The Altherrenschaft, graduates with regular incomes, provide financial support and this usually means quite cheap housing for the younger members among other things. The Altherrenschaft has the power to intervene in the business of the members, typically to ensure the principles. The active body is headed by a panel of three Chargierte, who are elected by all active, full members at the beginning of each semester and their functions are called Senior, Consenior and Drittchargierter. The Consenior teaches fencing to all members of the corps and assures the execution of the Mensuren in coordination with the Conseniors of other corps. The Drittchargierter has administrative tasks like paperwork and often the task of a treasurer and this does not mean that they consider other corporations as natural-born enemies. This might happen occasionally, but also vice versa, the emphasis on individuality brought many corps students in opposition to totalitarian regimes, such as the National Socialist dictatorship. The Weinheimer Student Corps also maintain a confederation with Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity, the Corps sprang from the older Landsmannschaft
German Student Corps
–
German Corps Students value their engagements in
academic "Mensur" fencing, here an example in a forest near Tübingen by
Gustav Adolf Closs, 1890
