1.
Roermond (stad)
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Roermond is a city, a municipality, and a diocese in the southeastern part of the Netherlands. The city of Roermond is an important town, on the lower Roer at the east bank of the Meuse river. It received city rights in 1231, Roermond town centre has been designated as a conservation area. Through the centuries the town has filled the role of centre, principal town in the duchy of Guelders. The skyline of the town is dominated by the towers of its two churches, St. Christopher Cathedral and Roermond Minster or Munsterkerk in Dutch. In addition to important churches, the centre has many listed buildings. Around 1180–1543, Roermond belonged to the duchy of Guelders, in 1213 Roermond was destroyed by Otto IV of Brunswick, the Holy Roman Emperor and German King. By 1232 the city had been rebuilt, and was given its own seal, own reign, own mint, the first mention of the monastery of the Franciscan Friars Minor, the Minderbroederklooster, was in 1309. In 1361, the Chapter of the Holy Spirit moved from St. Odiliënberg to Roermond, around 1350, Roermond became the capital of the Overkwartier van Gelre. In 1388, during the Hundred Years War, a siege by the French occurred, a battle for the outer fortifications Buiten Op, destruction of these fortifications and the old parish church followed. In 1441, Roermond became a member of the Hanseatic League, between 1543–1702 the area was part of the Spanish Netherlands. On 23 April 1568 the Battle of Rheindalen occurred near Roermond, in 1572, Roermond was occupied by the Dutch William the Silent, but recaptured by the Spanish duke Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo Under Spanish rule Roermond became a bastion of the Counter-Reformation. On behalf of the Inquisition people were encouraged to report suspects of witchcraft, in 1613,64 presumed witches were burnt on the Galgeberg hill near the Kapel in het Zand in Roermond, the biggest witch trial in the Netherlands ever. In 1632 the Dutch Stadhouder Frederik Hendrik conquered Venlo, Roermond, attempts in the next years to annex Antwerp and Brussels failed, however. The northern Dutch were disappointed by the lack of local support, the Counter-Reformation had firmly reattached the local population to Roman Catholicism, and they now distrusted the Calvinist Northerners even more than they loathed the Spanish occupiers. Between 1632 and 1637, Roermond was under the control of the Dutch Republic, between 1716 and 1794, it was part of the Austrian Netherlands within the Habsburg Monarchy. On 11 December 1792, during the French Revolutionary Wars, the French under General De Miranda conquered Roermond, the city was again occupied by the French on 5 April 1794 and officially became part of the French département Meuse-Inférieure from 1795 to 1814. In 1814, during the War of the Sixth Coalition Roermond was liberated by the Russians, after the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 Roermond became part of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands
2.
Wassenaar (gemeente)
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Wassenaar is a town in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland. It is part of the Haaglanden region, the municipality covers an area of 62.37 km2, of which 11.45 km2 is covered by water. Wassenaar long remained a little town, known only as the home of the House of Wassenaer. It only began to gain notoriety in the 19th century when Louis Bonaparte ordered the construction of the Heerweg between The Hague and Leiden, which forms the current Rijksstraatweg. In approximately 1840, Prince Frederik had the De Paauw palace built, Wassenaar became attractive as a residence for wealthy people from Rotterdam. From September 1944 to March 1945 Wassenaar was one of launching sites used by the German Luftwaffe, on one of the main routes to the Wassenaarseslag, the main beach for Wassenaarders, a World War II bunker can be found. For safety reasons and the instability of the structure, it was sealed off to prevent entrance. The American World War II and Korean War general Haywood Hansell, in 1982 the Wassenaar Agreement between employers organisations and trade unions in the Netherlands was signed here. This groundbreaking agreement helped in restraining wage growth in return for the adoption of policies to combat unemployment, the Wassenaar Arrangement, a post Cold War era arms control convention, was signed here by forty member nations in May 1996. The princesses attend the Bloemcampschool in Wassenaar, founded in 1931, in addition, several ambassadorial residences are located here, including those of Canada, South Korea, Indonesia, and Ireland. As a community, Wassenaar benefits from several parks and a network of bicycle paths, trees, mainly beech, oak, and horse chestnut, are widespread, giving the town a green characteristic. The town centre supports a number of high end shops, delicatessens and bakeries as well as a cafe, bar, there are Football, Field Hockey, Cricket, Rugby, and Tennis clubs located in Wassenaar for locals to participate in or to enthusiastically cheer on. Some remnants of the Atlantic wall are located on Wassenaars beach, the network now serves as a bat sanctuary and is not open to visits anymore. The theme park Duinrell and the race track Duindigt, the remaining grass race track in the Netherlands, are here as well. Despite being a small town, Wassenaar is well known in the Netherlands as a result of its conspicuous wealth. Areas of the town are amongst the most affluent in the Netherlands, Wassenaar is home to some of the most expensive neighbourhoods in the nation. The Julianawegs average house price is around 2,345,000 million Euros, the Dutch artists Ross and Iba released a song entitled Wassenaar, which poked fun at the wealth of the town. Wassenaar has always enjoyed good relations with the town of Voorschoten
3.
Universiteit
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
4.
Technische Universiteit Delft
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Delft University of Technology, also known as TU Delft, is the largest and oldest Dutch public technological university, located in Delft, Netherlands. With eight faculties and numerous research institutes, it hosts over 19,000 students, more than 3,300 scientists, and more than 2,200 support and management staff. The university was established on 8 January 1842 by King William II of the Netherlands as a Royal Academy, Dutch Nobel laureates Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, and Simon van der Meer have been associated with TU Delft. TU Delft is a member of several university federations including the IDEA League, CESAER, UNITECH, one of the purposes of the academy was to educate civil servants for the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. The first director of the academy was Antoine Lipkens, constructor of the first Dutch optical telegraph, Royal Academy had its first building located at Oude Delft 95 in Delft. On 23 May 1863 an Act was passed imposing regulations on technical education in the Netherlands, on 20 June 1864, Royal Academy in Delft was disbanded by a Royal Decree, giving a way to a Polytechnic School of Delft. The newly formed school educated engineers of various fields and architects, yet another Act, passed on 22 May 1905, changed the name of the school to Technical College of Delft, emphasizing the academic quality of the education. Polytechnic was granted university rights and was allowed to award academic degrees, the number of students reached 450 around that time. The official opening of the new school was attended by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands on 10 July 1905, First dean of the newly established College was ir. J. Kraus, hydraulic engineer. In 1905, the first doctoral degree was awarded, from 1924 until the construction of the new campus in 1966 the ceremonies were held in the Saint Hippolytus Chapel. Corporate rights were granted to the College on 7 June 1956, most of the university buildings during that time were located within Delft city centre, with some of the buildings set on the side of the river Schie, in the Wippolder district. Student organizations grew together with the university, the first to be established on 22 March 1848 is the Delftsch Studenten Corps housed in the distinctive Sociëteit Phoenix on the Phoenixstraat. This was followed by the Delftsche Studenten Bond|de Delftsche Studenten Bond, in 1917 Proof Garden for Technical Plantation was established by Gerrit van Iterson, which today is known as Botanical Garden of TU Delft. In that period a first female professor, Toos Korvezee, was appointed, after the end of World War II, TU Delft increased its rapid academic expansion. Studium Generale was established at all universities in the Netherlands, including TU Delft, to promote a free and accessible knowledge related to culture, technology, society and science. Because of the number of students, in 1974 the first Reception Week for First Year Students was established. Since 2006 all buildings of the university are located outside of the city center of Delft. Relatively new building of Material Sciences department was sold, later demolished in 2007 to give place for a newly built building of the Haagse Hogeschool, closer cooperation between TU Delft and Dutch universities of applied sciences resulted in physical transition of some of the institutes from outside to Delft
5.
Delft
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Delft is a city and a municipality in the Netherlands. It is located in the province of South Holland, to the north of Rotterdam, the city of Delft came into being aside a canal, the Delf, which comes from the word delven, meaning delving or digging, and led to the name Delft. It presumably started around the 11th century as a landlord court, from a rural village in the early Middle Ages, Delft developed to a city, that in the 13th century received its charter. The towns association with the House of Orange started when William of Orange, nicknamed William the Silent, at the time he was the leader of growing national Dutch resistance against Spanish occupation, known as the Eighty Years War. By then Delft was one of the cities of Holland. An attack by Spanish forces in October of that year was repelled, after the Act of Abjuration was proclaimed in 1581, Delft became the de facto capital of the newly independent Netherlands, as the seat of the Prince of Orange. When William was shot dead in 1584, by Balthazar Gerards in the hall of the Prinsenhof, therefore, he was buried in the Delft Nieuwe Kerk, starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day. The Delft Explosion, also known in history as the Delft Thunderclap, occurred on 12 October 1654 when a gunpowder store exploded, over a hundred people were killed and thousands were wounded. About 30 tonnes of gunpowder were stored in barrels in a magazine in a former Clarissen convent in the Doelenkwartier district, cornelis Soetens, the keeper of the magazine, opened the store to check a sample of the powder and a huge explosion followed. Luckily, many citizens were away, visiting a market in Schiedam or a fair in The Hague, Delft artist Egbert van der Poel painted several pictures of Delft showing the devastation. Historical buildings and other sights of interest include, Oude Kerk, buried here, Piet Hein, Johannes Vermeer, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. Nieuwe Kerk, constructed between 1381 and 1496 and it contains the Dutch royal familys burial vault, which between funerals is sealed with a 5,000 kg cover stone. A statue of Hugo Grotius made by Franciscus Leonardus Stracké in 1886 and this is the only remaining gate of the old city walls. The Gemeenlandshuis Delfland, or Huyterhuis, built in 1505, which has housed the Delfland regional water authority since 1645, the Vermeer Centre in the rebuilt Guild house of St. Luke. Windmill De Roos, a mill built c.1760. Restored to working order in 2013, another windmill that formerly stood in Delft, Het Fortuyn, was dismantled in 1917 and re-erected at the Netherlands Open Air Museum, Arnhem, Gelderland in 1920. Delft is well known for the Delft pottery ceramic products which were styled on the imported Chinese porcelain of the 17th century, the city had an early start in this area since it was a home port of the Dutch East India Company. It can still be seen at the pottery factories De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles, the painter Johannes Vermeer was born in Delft
6.
Microbiologie
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Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, those being unicellular, multicellular, or acellular. Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of the present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely on extraction or detection of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA sequences, viruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. As an application of microbiology, medical microbiology is often introduced with medical principles of immunology as microbiology and immunology, otherwise, microbiology, virology, and immunology as basic sciences have greatly exceeded the medical variants, applied sciences. The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery, the existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission. However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who lived most of his life in Delft, Holland, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the bodies of moulds. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms and he was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. One of his books contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, here, he wrote who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms. He also noted that material is full of innumerable creeping animalcule. These observations antedate Robert Hookes Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria. Joseph Lister was the first person who said infectious diseases are caused by micro-organism and was first person who used phenol as disinfectant on the wounds of patients. Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the classification of bacteria. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn’s and are considered to be the father of microbiology and medical microbiology. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the widely held theory of spontaneous generation
7.
Martinus Willem Beijerinck
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Martinus Willem Beijerinck was a Dutch microbiologist and botanist. He is often considered one of the founders of virology and environmental microbiology, in spite of his numerous pioneering and seminal contributions to science in general, he was never awarded the Nobel Prize. Born in Amsterdam, Beijerinck studied at the Technical School of Delft and he obtained his Doctor of Science degree from the University of Leiden in 1877. At the time, Delft, then a Polytechnic, did not have the right to confer doctorates and he became a teacher in microbiology at the Agricultural School in Wageningen and later at the Polytechnische Hogeschool Delft. He established the Delft School of Microbiology and his studies of agricultural and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology. His achievements have been perhaps unfairly overshadowed by those of his contemporaries, Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, because unlike them, in 1885 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is considered one of the founders of virology, in 1898, he published results on the filtration experiments demonstrating that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium. His results were in accordance with the observation made by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. He named the new pathogen virus to indicate its non-bacterial nature, Beijerinck asserted that the virus was somewhat liquid in nature, calling it contagium vivum fluidum. Beijerinck also discovered nitrogen fixation, the process by which diatomic nitrogen gas is converted to ammonium ions, bacteria perform nitrogen fixation, dwelling inside root nodules of certain plants. In addition to having discovered a biochemical reaction vital to soil fertility and agriculture, Beijerinck discovered the phenomenon of bacterial sulfate reduction, a form of anaerobic respiration. He learned bacteria could use sulfate as an electron acceptor. This discovery has had an important impact on our current understanding of biogeochemical cycles, spirillum desulfuricans, now known as Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, the first known sulfate-reducing bacterium, was isolated and described by Beijerinck. Beijerinck invented the enrichment culture, a method of studying microbes from the environment. He is often credited with framing the microbial ecology idea that everything is everywhere, but, the environment selects. Beijerinck was an eccentric figure. He was verbally abusive to students, never married, and had few professional collaborations and he was also known for his ascetic lifestyle and his view of science and marriage being incompatible. His low popularity with his students periodically depressed him, as he very much loved spreading his enthusiasm for biology in the classroom, beijerinckia, Beijerinckiaceae, and Beijerinck are named after him
8.
Wetenschappelijke promotie
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Unlike final examinations, comprehensive examinations are not linked to any particular course, but rather test knowledge across one or more general fields of study. Graduate-level comprehensive examinations are also known as preliminary examinations, general examinations, qualifying examinations. If these examinations are held orally, they may be known colloquially as orals. D, at the graduate level, the purpose of the comprehensive exam is to ensure the student is familiar enough with her area of research to make original contributions. There is no definition for what such exams entail, with some universities having almost no exam. The comprehensive examination system is used primarily in US and Canadian higher education, other countries use alternative forms of evaluating Ph. D. candidates, in the United Kingdom, for example, students typically must first enroll in an M. Phil. Program and are admitted to doctoral study only upon successfully defending their research proposal. Some colleges or universities in the United States require undergraduate students to pass examinations in order to receive their degree. Anselm College, Shimer College, Whitman College, North South University and University of Dallas, many degree programs require students to pass comprehensive examinations within colleges or universities that dont otherwise require them. The same is true for many schools and colleges within larger universities and these include Texas A&M-Commerce Honors College, The University of Virginias Politics Honors Program, and the University of Alabama at Birminghams Mass Communications program. This may also be the case for a Masters degree earned on the way to the completion of a doctoral program. In such cases, students take an oral exam and/or field exam in order to both earn a Masters in their field and advance to the status of doctoral or PhD candidate. Typically, one exam will question the student on theory while the other will show competency or expertise in their chosen subfield within their program. This also allows students enrolled in the program who do not wish to continue to the completion of a degree to leave early. In most doctoral programs, students must take a series of cumulative examinations on the subject of their study in the first year or two of the PhD program. These cumulative exams are given on a pass/fail basis and a graduate student who seeks to continue in the PhD program must pass a minimum number of these cumulative exams. After this minimum number of exams is passed, this degree requirement is considered to be met. In some fields, such as history, the student must pass the comprehensive examinations before submitting a dissertation proposal, typically, comprehensive exams consist of either a written or an oral exam, but some programs require both. In others, an exam is taken, and depending on the grade
9.
Fyllotaxis
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In botany, phyllotaxis or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem. Phyllotactic spirals form a class of patterns in nature. The basic arrangements of leaves on a stem are opposite, or alternate = spiral, leaves may also be whorled if several leaves arise, or appear to arise, from the same level on a stem. This arrangement is unusual on plants except for those with particularly short internodes. Examples of trees with whorled phyllotaxis are Brabejum stellatifolium and the related Macadamia genus, with an opposite leaf arrangement, two leaves arise from the stem at the same level, on opposite sides of the stem. An opposite leaf pair can be thought of as a whorl of two leaves, with an alternate pattern, each leaf arises at a different point on the stem. Examples include various bulbous plants such as Boophone and it also occurs in other plant habits such as those of Gasteria or Aloe seedlings, and also in some mature Aloe species such as Aloe plicatilis. In an opposite pattern, if successive leaf pairs are 90 degrees apart and it is common in members of the family Crassulaceae Decussate phyllotaxis also occurs in the Aizoaceae. A whorl can occur as a structure where all the leaves are attached at the base of the shoot. A basal whorl with a number of leaves spread out in a circle is called a rosette. A repeating spiral can be represented by a fraction describing the angle of windings leaf per leaf, alternate distichous leaves will have an angle of 1/2 of a full rotation. In beech and hazel the angle is 1/3, in oak and apricot it is 2/5, in sunflowers, poplar, and pear, it is 3/8, the numerator and denominator normally consist of a Fibonacci number and its second successor. The number of leaves is called rank, in the case of simple Fibonacci ratios. With larger Fibonacci pairs, the pattern becomes complex and non-repeating and this tends to occur with a basal configuration. Examples can be found in flowers and seed heads. The most famous example is the sunflower head and this phyllotactic pattern creates an optical effect of criss-crossing spirals. In the botanical literature, these designs are described by the number of counter-clockwise spirals and these also turn out to be Fibonacci numbers. In some cases, the appear to be multiples of Fibonacci numbers because the spirals consist of whorls
10.
Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen
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The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences is an organization dedicated to the advancement of science and literature in the Netherlands. The Academy is housed in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the Academy advises the Dutch government on scientific matters. The Academy offers solicited and unsolicited advice to parliament, ministries, universities and research institutes, funding agencies, nominations for candidate membership by persons or organizations outside the Academy are accepted. The acceptance criterion is delivered scientific achievements, Academy membership is therefore regarded as a great honor, and prestigious. Besides regular members, there are members and corresponding members. Since a new system was introduced in 2011 there will be no new corresponding members. Each year a maximum of sixteen members is appointed to the Academy, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences has long embraced the entire field of learning. The Royal Academy comprises two departments, consisting of around 500 members, Science Humanities and Social Sciences Both departments have their own board, the departments, in turn, are divided into sections. The highest organ in the Academy is the meeting of members. The president was Frits van Oostrom until 1 May 2008, after which he was succeeded by Robbert Dijkgraaf, in March 2012, Hans Clevers was elected president and took office in June 2012. In 2015 he was succeeded by José van Dijck, during the French occupation of the Dutch Republic, it was founded as the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten by Lodewijk Napoleon on May 4,1808. In 1816, after the occupation had ended, it was renamed to Koninklijk-Nederlandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schoone Kunsten, in 1851 it was disbanded and re-established as the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen and in 1938 obtained its present name. Since 1812 the Academy has resided in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the institute was awarded the Gouden Ganzenveer in 1955. De Jonge Akademie is a society of younger researchers, founded in 2005 as part of the KNAW. Ten members are elected each year for a term of five years, members are scientists between 25 and 45 years old and are selected for a record of excellence in their research. It was modelled after the similar German Junge Akademie, and both of these academies in turn were used as models for the Global Young Academy, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, official website
Nederland
