1.
Conservatism
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Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, has since used to describe a wide range of views. There is no set of policies that are universally regarded as conservative, because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a range of issues. In contrast to the definition of conservatism, political theorists such as Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of social. In Great Britain, conservative ideas emerged in the Tory movement during the Restoration period, Toryism supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine right. Tories opposed the idea that sovereignty derived from the people, and rejected the authority of parliament, Robert Filmers Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings, published posthumously in 1680 but written before the English Civil War of 1642–1651, became accepted as the statement of their doctrine. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 destroyed this principle to some degree by establishing a government in England. Faced with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement, now holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons rather than solely in the Crown, Toryism became marginalized during the long period of Whig ascendancy in the 18th century. Conservatives typically see Richard Hooker as the father of conservatism, along with the Marquess of Halifax, David Hume. Halifax promoted pragmatism in government, whilst Hume argued against political rationalism and utopianism, Burke served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party. Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom, Burkes views were a mixture of liberal and conservative. He supported the American Revolution of 1765–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution and he insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw the aristocracy as the nations natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive and he favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration. Burke justified the order on the basis of tradition, tradition represented the wisdom of the species and he valued community. Burke was a leading theorist in his day, finding extreme idealism an endangerment to broader liberties, despite their influence on future conservative thought, none of these early contributors were explicitly involved in Tory politics. Hooker lived in the 16th century, long before the advent of toryism, whilst Hume was an apolitical philosopher, Burke described himself as a Whig. Shortly after Burkes death in 1797, conservatism revived as a political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions
2.
Liberal conservatism
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It is a political position which incorporates support for civil liberties and capitalism, along with some social-conservative positions. As both conservatism and liberalism have had different meanings over time and across countries, the liberal conservatism has been used in quite different ways. It usually contrasts with aristocratic conservatism, which rejects the principle of equality as something in discordance with human nature, consequently, in the United States the term liberal conservatism is not used and American modern liberalism happens to be quite different from the European brand. The opposite is true in Latin America, where economically liberal conservatism is often labelled under the rubric of neoliberalism both in culture and academic discourse. In much of central and northwestern Europe, especially in Germanic and traditionally Protestant countries, often this involves stressing free-market economics and the belief in individual responsibility together with the defense of civil rights, and support for a limited welfare state. In the modern European discourse, liberal conservatism usually encompasses centre-right political outlooks that reject, at least to some extent and this position is also associated with support for moderate forms of social safety net and environmentalism. Historically, in the 18th and 19th centuries, conservatism comprised a set of principles based on concern for established tradition, respect for authority, and religious values. This form of traditionalist or classical conservatism is often considered to be exemplified by the writings of Joseph de Maistre, contemporaneous liberalism – now recalled as classical liberalism – advocated both political freedom for individuals and a free market in the economic sphere. The maxim of liberal conservatism, according to scholar Andrew Vincent, is economics is prior to politics, nonetheless, in most countries the term liberal is used to describe those with free-market economic views. This is the case, for example, in continental Europe, Australia and Latin America
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Neoconservatism
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For modern conservatism in other countries, see Conservatism § Modern conservatism in different countries. Neoconservatism is a movement born in the United States during the 1960s among conservative-leaning Democrats who became disenchanted with the partys foreign policy. Many of its adherents became politically famous during the Republican presidential administrations of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, neoconservatives peaked in influence during the administration of George W. Bush, when they played a major role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Prominent neoconservatives in the George W. Bush administration included Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, the term neoconservative refers to those who made the ideological journey from the anti-Stalinist Left to the camp of American conservatism. The movement had its roots in the Jewish monthly review magazine Commentary. They spoke out against the New Left and in that way helped define the movement, the neoconservative label was used by Irving Kristol in his 1979 article Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed Neoconservative. His ideas have been influential since the 1950s, when he co-founded and edited the magazine Encounter, another source was Norman Podhoretz, editor of the magazine Commentary from 1960 to 1995. By 1982 Podhoretz was terming himself a neoconservative, in a New York Times Magazine article titled The Neoconservative Anguish over Reagans Foreign Policy. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the neoconservatives considered that liberalism had failed and no longer knew what it was talking about, seymour Lipset asserts that the term neoconservative was used originally by a socialist to criticize the politics of Social Democrats, USA. Jonah Goldberg argues that the term is ideological criticism against proponents of American modern liberalism who had become more conservative. Through the 1950s and early 1960s, the future neoconservatives had endorsed the American Civil Rights Movement, racial integration, from the 1950s to the 1960s, there was general endorsement among liberals for military action to prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. Many were particularly alarmed by what they claimed were anti-semitic sentiments from Black Power advocates, a substantial number of neoconservatives were originally moderate socialists associated with the right-wing of the Socialist Party of America, and its successor, Social Democrats, USA. Max Shachtman, a former Trotskyist theorist who developed an antipathy towards the New Left, had numerous devotees among SDUSA with strong links to George Meanys AFL-CIO. Following Shachtman and Meany, this led the SP to oppose an immediate withdrawal from the Vietnam War. They also chose to cease their own party-building and concentrated on working within the Democratic Party, thus the Socialist Party ceased to be in 1972 and SDUSA emerged. SDUSA leaders associated with neoconservatism include Carl Gershman, Penn Kemble, Joshua Muravchik, Norman Podhoretzs magazine Commentary of the American Jewish Committee, originally a journal of liberalism, became a major publication for neoconservatives during the 1970s. Commentary published an article by Jeane Kirkpatrick, an early and prototypical neoconservative, many neoconservatives had been Jewish intellectuals in New York City during the 1930s. They were on the left but strongly opposed Stalinism, some were Trotskyists
4.
One-nation conservatism
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One-nation conservatism is a form of British political conservatism that views society as organic and values paternalism and pragmatism. The phrase One-nation Tory originated with Benjamin Disraeli, who served as the chief Conservative spokesman and he devised it to appeal to working-class men as a solution to worsening divisions in society through introducing factory and health Acts, as well as greater protection for workers. As a political philosophy, one-nation conservatism reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically, there is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society. The ideology featured heavily during Disraelis terms in government, during which considerable social reforms were passed, later years saw the rise of the New Right, which attributed the countrys social and economic troubles to one-nation conservatism. Other commentators have questioned the degree to which Cameron and his coalition have embodied One-Nation Conservatism, in 2016, Camerons successor, Theresa May, referred to herself as a one-nation conservative in her first speech as prime minister and outlined her focus on social justice. Disraelis conservatism proposed a society with the social classes intact. He emphasised the importance of social obligation rather than the individualism that pervaded his society, Disraeli warned that Britain would become divided into two nations, of the rich and poor, as a result of increased industrialisation and inequality. Concerned at this division, he supported measures to improve the lives of the people to social support. Disraeli justified his ideas by his belief in a society in which the different classes have natural obligations to one another. He saw society as naturally hierarchical and emphasised the obligation of those at the top to those below, Benjamin Disraeli adopted one-nation conservatism for both ethical and electoral reasons. One-nationism would both improve the conditions of the poor and portray the Liberal Party as selfish individualists, because the party portrayed itself as a national party, its members were unsure whether to make specific appeals to the working classes. A more positive approach to the class by the party developed later out of the electoral necessity to secure working-class votes. While in government, Disraeli presided over a series of reforms which supported his one-nation politics. He appointed a Royal Commission to assess the state of law between employers and employees, the result of which prompted Richard Cross to pass the Employers and this act made both sides of industry equal before the law and the breach of contract a civil offence, rather than criminal. By the end of the 19th century, the Conservatives had moved away from their ideology and were increasingly supportive of capitalism. During the interwar period, public fear of communism restored the Conservative Party to one-nationism as it defined itself as the party of national unity, as the effects of the Great Depression were felt in Britain, the party was drawn to even greater levels of state intervention. The Conservative Prime Ministers Neville Chamberlain and Stanley Baldwin pursued an interventionist style of conservatism which won them democratic support because of its electoral appeal. Throughout the post-war consensus of the 1950s and 60s, the Conservative Party was dominated by conservatives whose ideas were inspired by Disraeli
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Traditionalist conservatism
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Some traditionalists have embraced the labels reactionary and counterrevolutionary, defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the Enlightenment. Traditionalism developed throughout the 18th-century Europe, in the middle of the 20th century it started to organize itself in earnest as an intellectual and political force. This more modern expression of traditionalist conservatism began among a group of U. S, belief in natural law and transcendent moral order lay the foundation for traditionalist conservative thought. Reason and Divine Revelation inform natural law and the truths of faith. It is through these universal truths of faith that man orders himself, mankind organized society on the basis of these universal truths of faith. The traditionalist holds axiomatic the belief that religion precedes civilization, most traditionalist conservatives embrace High Church Christianity. Not all traditionalists, however, are High Church Christians, Other traditionalists whose faith traditions are notable include Caleb Stegall, who is an evangelical Protestant. Many conservative mainline Protestants are also traditionalist conservatives, including some of writers for Touchstone Magazine, many traditionalists are Jewish, such as the late Will Herberg, Irving Louis Horowitz, Mordecai Roshwald, and Paul Gottfried. As the name suggests, traditionalists believe that tradition and custom guide man, each generation inherits the experience and culture of its ancestors and through convention and precedence man is able to pass it down to his descendants. To paraphrase Edmund Burke, often regarded as the father of conservatism, The individual is foolish. Traditionalist conservatives believe that society is essentially hierarchical. Hierarchy allows for the preservation of the whole community simultaneously, instead of protecting one part at the expense of the others, while most traditionalist conservatives are cosmopolitan and many live in urban centers, the countryside and the values of rural life are prized highly. The principles of agrarianism are central to an understanding of rural life. Traditionalists defend classical Western civilization, and value an education informed by the texts of the Hebraic, Greek, Roman, similarly, traditionalists are classicists who revere high culture in all of its manifestations. Unlike nationalists, who esteem the role of the State or nation over the local or regional community, Traditionalist conservatives think that loyalty to a locality or region is more central than any commitment to a larger political entity. Traditionalists also welcome the value of subsidiarity and the intimacy of ones community, nationalism, alternately, leads to jingoism and views the state as abstract from the local community and family structure rather than as an outgrowth of these local realities. Traditionalist conservatism began with the thought of Anglo-Irish Whig statesman and philosopher Edmund Burke, whose principles were rooted in moral natural law. Burke believed in prescriptive rights and that those rights were God-given and he also defended what he referred to as ordered liberty
6.
Free market
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Another view considers systems with significant market power, inequality of bargaining power, or information asymmetry to be less than free. It is a result of a need being, then the need being met, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy. Others believe regulation might be part of a market, if the regulation is necessary to control significant market power, inequality of bargaining power. The latter view implies a free market is not necessarily deregulated, although some of those with the former belief speak of free markets, friedrich Hayek argued in The Pure Theory of Capital that the goal is the preservation of the unique information contained in the price itself. The definition of free market has been disputed and made complex by collectivist political philosophers, during the marginal revolution, subjective value theory was rediscovered. Various forms of socialism based on free markets have existed since the 19th century, early notable socialist proponents of free markets include Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Benjamin Tucker, and the Ricardian socialists. These economists believed that free markets and voluntary exchange could not exist within the exploitative conditions of capitalism. Advocates of free-market socialism such as Jaroslav Vanek argue that free markets are not possible under conditions of private ownership of productive property. Socialists also point out that free market capitalism leads to excessive disparities in the distribution of income, corporate monopolies run rampant in free markets, with endless agency over the consumer. Thus, free market capitalism desires government regulation of markets to prevent social instability and this implies that economic rents, i. e. profits generated from lack of perfect competition, must be reduced or eliminated as much as possible through free competition. Economic theory suggests the returns to land and other resources are economic rents that cannot be reduced in such a way because of their perfect inelastic supply. Some economic thinkers emphasize the need to share those rents as a requirement for a well functioning market. It is suggested this would eliminate the need for regular taxes that have a negative effect on trade as well as release land. Two features that improve the competition and free market mechanisms, winston Churchill supported this view by his statement Land is the mother of all monopoly. The American economist and social philosopher Henry George, the most famous proponent of this thesis, followers of his ideas are often called Georgists or Geoists and Geolibertarians. Léon Walras, one of the founders of the neoclassical economics who helped formulate the general theory, had a very similar view. He argued that competition could only be realized under conditions of state ownership of natural resources. Additionally, income taxes could be eliminated because the state would receive income to public services through owning such resources and enterprises
7.
Private property
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Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by an entity, and from collective property. Private property is distinguished from personal property, which refers to property for personal use. Private property is a concept defined and enforced by a countrys political system. Prior to the 18th century, English-speakers generally used the property in reference to land ownership. In England, property did not have a legal definition until the 17th century, private property as commercial property was invented with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. John Locke, in arguing against supporters of monarchy, conceptualized property as a natural right that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy. Influenced by the rise of mercantilism, Locke argued that property was antecedent to. Locke distinguished between common property, by which he meant open-access property, and property in goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land was improved land management, smith confined natural rights to liberty and life. Smith further argued that government could not exist without property. Economic liberals consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society and they believe private ownership of land ensures the land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner. If the owners must pay property taxes, this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current, private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral. Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy, socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in the means of production for social ownership or public property. Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the distinctions between owners and workers, and as a component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible, in Marxian economics and socialist politics, there is distinction between private property and personal property. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership, private property in the means of production is criticized by socialists, who use the term in a different meaning. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxian analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism
8.
Rule of law
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The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, John Locke defined freedom under the rule of law as follows, “Freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. ”The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase, was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including lawmakers themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy. In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men, Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws, according to the Roman statesman Cicero, We are all servants of the laws in order that we may be free. During the Roman Republic, controversial magistrates might be put on trial when their terms of office expired, under the Roman Empire, the sovereign was personally immune, but those with grievances could sue the treasury. In contrast, the Huang-Lao school of Daoism rejected legal positivism in favor of a law that even the ruler would be subject to. There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law, according to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented. The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the right of kings. In Islamic jurisprudence rule of law was formulated in the century, so that no official could claim to be above the law. However, this was not a reference to law. Alfred the Great, Anglo-Saxon King of the 9th century, reformed the law of his kingdom and created a law code with the biblical Mosaic law and he ruled that justice had to be equal between people, whether rich or poor, friends or enemies. This was likely inspired from Leviticus 19, You shall do no injustice in judgment and you shall not be partial to the poor, nor defer to the great
9.
Small government
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Small government is government which minimizes its own activities. It is an important topic in libertarianism and classical liberalism, in Australian politics, the Labor Party has traditionally been perceived as the party of big government, while the Liberal Party is the party of small government. Of the 34 advanced economies, Australias revenue is the ninth lowest, in particular, he favors lower taxes and less government interference in corporate and individual matters. However, since then, Rasmussen has repudiated many of the views expressed in the book, moving towards the centre-right, Hong Kong has followed small government, laissez-faire policies for decades, limiting government intervention in business. Milton Friedman described Hong Kong as a state and he credits that policy for the rapid move from poverty to prosperity in 50 years. While some argue that since Hong Kong was a British colony and Britain was not a free market and it should be noted that during its colonization of Hong Kong, Britain implemented the policy of positive non-interventionism in regards to Hong Kong, which led to its economic success. A1994 World Bank Group report stated that Hong Kongs GDP per capita grew in real terms at a rate of 6. 5% from 1965 to 1989. By 1990 Hong Kongs per capita income officially surpassed that of the ruling United Kingdom, since 1995 Hong Kong has been ranked as having the worlds most liberal capital markets by the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal. The Fraser Institute concurred in 2007, the idea of small government was heavily promoted in the United Kingdom by the Conservative government under the Premiership of Margaret Thatcher. There are differing views on the extent to which it was achieved and it allowed the stock markets and industries to compete more heavily with each other and made British goods more valued in world trade. An important part of the Thatcher governments policy was privatization, which was intended to reduce the role of the state in the economy, supporters blamed excessive government intervention for much of Britains economic woes during the late 1960s and 1970s. Opponents argue that privatization harms social programs for the poor and this argument is particularly heard in connection with the railways and the National Health Service. Small government supporters point out that, although record amounts of funding have gone into transport, in the 20th century, small government was generally associated with the Conservative Party and big government with the Labour Party. In the 21st century, both parties have embraced similar economic policies, leading both to be associated with big government, in addition to opposing government intervention in the economy, advocates of small government oppose government intervention in peoples personal lives. The Labour government during the Premiership of Tony Blair was criticized on this score and this has been dubbed as the nanny state. The United States is a constitutional republic, in adopting the United States Constitution, the states agreed to accept a strong federal government. In The Federalist Papers, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Ronald Reagan was a small government conservative. He famously said, Government is not a solution to our problem and this has become the unofficial slogan of the Tea Party movement, and conservative commentators like Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh
10.
Tradition
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A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes, there are about 150 new traditions made each year. Traditions can persist and evolve for thousands of years—the word tradition itself derives from the Latin tradere or traderer literally meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping. While it is assumed that traditions have ancient history, many traditions have been invented on purpose, whether that be political or cultural. Various academic disciplines also use the word in a variety of ways, one way tradition is used more simply, often in academic work but elsewhere also, is to indicate the quality of a piece of information being discussed. For example, According to tradition, Homer was born on Chios and this tradition may never be proven or disproven. In another example, King Arthur, by tradition a true British king, has inspired many well loved stories, of course whether they are documented fact or not does not decrease their value as cultural history and literature. Aside from this use in describing the quality of information, various scholarly fields define the term differently, for example, anthropology and biology have each defined tradition it more precisely than in conventional, as described below, in order to facilitate scholarly discourse. The concept of tradition, as the notion of holding on to a time, is also found in political and philosophical discourse. For example, it is the basis of the concept of traditionalism. In artistic contexts, tradition is used to decide the correct display of an art form, for example, in the performance of traditional genres, adherence to guidelines dictating how an art form should be composed are given greater importance than the performers own preferences. A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including industrialization, globalization, in response to this, tradition-preservation attempts have now been started in many countries around the world, focusing on aspects such as traditional languages. Tradition is usually contrasted with the goal of modernity and should be differentiated from customs, conventions, laws, norms, routines, rules and similar concepts. The English word tradition comes from the Latin traditio, the noun from the verb traderere or tradere, it was used in Roman law to refer to the concept of legal transfers. As with many other terms, there are many definitions of tradition. Tradition can also refer to beliefs or customs that are Prehistoric, with lost or arcane origins, originally, traditions were passed orally, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme, the stories thus preserved are also referred to as tradition, or as part of an oral tradition. Even such traditions, however, are presumed to have originated at some point, Traditions are often presumed to be ancient, unalterable, and deeply important, though they may sometimes be much less natural than is presumed
11.
European People's Party
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The European Peoples Party is a European political party. A transnational organisation, it is composed of political parties. Founded by primarily Christian democratic parties in 1976, it has broadened its membership to include liberal-conservative parties and parties with other centre-right political perspectives. The EPP has been the largest party in the European Parliament since 1999 and it is also by far the largest party in the current European Commission. The President of the European Council, President of the European Commission, many of the Founding fathers of the European Union were also from parties that later formed the EPP. Outside the EU the party also controls a majority in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, the EPP has alternated with its centre-left rival the Party of European Socialists as the largest European political party and parliamentary group. In the late 1990s the Finnish politician Sauli Niinistö negotiated the merger of the European Democrat Union, of which he was President, in October 2002 the EDU ceased its activities after being formally absorbed by the EPP at a special event in Estoril, Portugal. In recognition of his efforts Niinistö was elected Honorary President of the EPP the same year, the manifesto called for, Creation of new jobs, continuing reforms and investment in education, lifelong learning, and employment in order to create opportunities for everyone. Avoidance of protectionism, and coordination of fiscal and monetary policies, increased transparency and surveillance in financial markets. Making Europe the market leader in green technology, increasing the share of renewable energy to at least 20 per cent of the energy mix by 2020. Family-friendly flexibility for working parents, better care and housing, family-friendly fiscal policies. A new strategy to attract skilled workers from the rest of the world to make Europe’s economy more competitive, more dynamic and more knowledge-driven. The EPP operates as an international non-profit association under Belgian law according to its by-laws, the Presidency is the executive body of the party. It decides on the political guidelines of the EPP and presides over its Political Assembly. The Presidency is composed of the President, ten Vice-Presidents, the Honorary Presidents, the Secretary General, the Chairperson of the EPP Group in the European Parliament, the Presidents of the Commission, the Parliament and the Council, and the High Representative are all ex officio Vice-Presidents. The Political Assembly is composed of designated delegates from EPP member parties, associated parties, member associations, the Political Assembly meets at least three times a year. The Congress is the highest decision-making body of the EPP, the Congress elects the EPP Presidency every three years, decides on the main policy documents and electoral programmes, and provides a platform for the EPPs heads of government and party leaders. EPP leaders meet for the EPP Summit a few hours before each meeting of the European Council in order to formulate common positions and it also invites individual Commissioners to the EPP Summit meetings and to EPP Ministerial meetings
12.
Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe
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It currently has twenty-four member parties and three further independent members from twenty-one countries, in addition to seven regional partners worldwide. The political movement was founded on 1 October 2009, after the creation of the European Conservatives and it was officially recognised by the European Parliament in January 2010. ACRE is governed by a Board of Directors who are elected by the Council, the ACREs President is Jan Zahradil MEP, and its Secretary-General is Daniel Hannan MEP. The Vice-Presidents are Guðlaugur Þór Þórðarson MP from Iceland, Anna Fotyga MEP from Poland, Geoffrey Clifton-Brown MP from the United Kingdom, amongst ACREs eight founding members the largest were the UK Conservative Party, the Polish PiS and the Czech ODS. ACRE was formally constituted under the chairmanship of Belgian MEP Derk Jan Eppink, at ACREs first congress was in Warsaw on 8 June 2010, attended by its founding members, including UK Conservative Party Chairwoman Sayeeda Warsi and Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolanek. The Conservative Party of Georgia and New Majority joined on 1 November 2014, at the same time, the ACRE formally affiliated to the European Conservatives Group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. In November 2015, the Conservatives and Reformists of Italy were admitted as ACRE members, followed by the Alliance for Progress and Renewal of Germany and M10 party of Romania in March 2016. The Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists has officially changed its name to the Alliance of Conservatives, ACRE adopted the Reykjavík Declaration at its Council Meeting on 21 March 2014. The declaration defines the principles that underpin ACRE, ACRE believes in a Europe of independent nations, working together for mutual gain while each retaining its identity and integrity. ACRE is committed to the equality of all European democracies, whatever their size, ACRE favours the exercise of power at the lowest practicable level—by the individual where possible, by local or national authorities in preference to supranational bodies. ACRE understands that open societies rest upon the dignity and autonomy of the individual, ACRE recognises the equality of all citizens before the law, regardless of ethnicity, sex or social class. It rejects all forms of extremism, authoritarianism and racism, ACRE cherishes the important role of civil associations, families and other bodies that fill the space between the individual and the government. ACRE acknowledges the unique democratic legitimacy of the nation-state, ACRE is committed to the spread of free commerce and open competition, in Europe and globally. The ECR group is the third-largest group in the European Parliament, founded in 2009, before the ACRE was launched, the ECR brings together 75 MEPs from 16 countries. The ECR group is led by Syed Kamall of the British Conservative Party, the Group was officially announced during the 11–12 April 100th Committee of the Regions plenary session. The ECR Group was the first Group to be formed in the Committee of the Regions during the course of a mandate and was the first ECR Group to be formed outside of the European Parliament, the President of the Group is Cllr. Gordon Keymer CBE and the Vice Presidents are Dan Jiránek and Daiva Matonienė, the EC group is led by Samad Seyidov MP, of the New Azerbaijan Party. It has 31 members,26 of whom represent parties in the ACRE, the ECR group is led by Halldór Halldórsson of the Icelandic Independence Party
13.
Christian right
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In the U. S. the Christian right is an informal coalition formed around a core of evangelical Protestants and Roman Catholics. The Christian right draws additional support from politically conservative mainline Protestants, Jews, the movement has its roots in American politics going back as far as the 1940s and has been especially influential since the 1970s. Its influence draws, in part, from grassroots activism as well as focus on social issues. The Christian right is known as the New Christian Right or the Religious Right. John C. Green of the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life states that Jerry Falwell used the religious right to describe himself. Gary Schneeberger, vice president of media and public relations for Focus on the Family, the phrase socially conservative evangelicals is not very exciting, but thats certainly the way to do it. Evangelical leaders like Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council have called attention to the problem of equating the term Christian right with evangelicals, although evangelicals constitute the core constituency of the Christian right, not all evangelicals fit the description. The problem of description is complicated by the fact that religious conservative may refer to other groups. Mennonites and the Amish, for example, are theologically conservative, patricia Miller states that the alliance between evangelical leaders and the Catholic bishops has been a cornerstone of the Christian Right for nearly twenty years. Since about 1980, the Christian right has been associated with institutions including the Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, Focus on the Family. Into the 1960 election, Catholics and evangelicals worked against each other, as evangelicals mobilized their forces to defeat Catholics Al Smith in 1928 and John F. Kennedy in 1960. The alienation of Southern Democrats from the Democratic Party contributed to the rise of the right, in 1976, U. S. President Jimmy Carter received the support of the Christian right largely because of his much-acclaimed religious conversion. It has also engaged in battles over pornography, obscenity, abortion, state sanctioned prayer in schools, textbook contents, homosexuality. Connally ruling that permitted the Internal Revenue Service to collect penalty taxes from private schools that violated federal laws. Lets remember, he said animatedly, that the Religious Right did not come together in response to the Roe decision. In the 1974 Bob Jones University v. Simon case, the US Supreme Court further enforced the Green decision, the following year, the IRS sought to penalize Bob Jones University for refusing to allow interracial dating. As Balmer recalled, During the following break in the conference proceedings and he was adamant that, yes, the 1975 action by the IRS against Bob Jones University was responsible for the genesis of the Religious Right in the late 1970s. After mobilizing to defend Bob Jones University and its racially discriminatory policies, Weyrich said and he recalled that someone suggested that they had the makings of a broader political movement—something that Weyrich had been pushing for all along—and asked what other issues they might address
14.
Christian fundamentalism
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Christian fundamentalism began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among British and American Protestants as a reaction to theological liberalism and cultural modernism. Fundamentalists are almost always described as having an interpretation of the Bible. A few scholars regard Catholics who reject modern theology in favor of traditional doctrines as fundamentalists. Scholars debate how much the terms evangelical and fundamentalist are synonymous, interpretations of Christian fundamentalism have changed over time. Fundamentalism is a movement manifested in various such as Pentecostalism or Roman Catholicism with various theologies. The movement became more organized in the 1920s within U. S. Protestant churches, especially Baptist, many such churches adopted a fighting style and combined Princeton theology with Dispensationalism. The term fundamentalism was coined by Baptist editor Curtis Lee Laws in 1920 to designate Christians who were ready to do battle royal for the fundamentals, the term was quickly adopted by all sides. Laws borrowed it from the title of a series of essays published between 1910 and 1915 called The Fundamentals, A Testimony to the Truth, the term fundamentalism entered the English language in 1922, and is often capitalized when referring to the religious movement. The term fundamentalist is controversial in the 21st century, as it can carry the connotation of religious extremism, some who hold these beliefs reject the label of fundamentalism, seeing it as too pejorative, while to others it has become a banner of pride. Such Christians prefer to use the fundamental, as opposed to fundamentalist. The term is confused with Christian legalism. Fundamentalism came from streams in British and American theology of the 19th century. Modernists attempted to update Christianity to match their view of science and they denied biblical miracles and argued that God manifests himself through the social evolution of society. These latent tensions erupted to the surface after World War I in what came to be called the fundamentalist/modernist split, however, the split does not mean there are just two groups, modernists and fundamentalists. There are also people who considered themselves to be neo-evangelicals, separating themselves from the components of fundamentalism. These neo-evangelicals also wanted to separate themselves from the fundamentalist movement and they in turn had been influenced by the Pietism movement in Germany. A second stream was Dispensationalism, a new interpretation of the Bible developed in the 1830s in England, John Nelson Darbys ideas were disseminated by the notes and commentaries in the widely used Scofield Reference Bible, published in 1909. Dispensationalism was a theory that divided all of time into seven different stages, called dispensations
15.
Islamic fundamentalism
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Definitions vary of what Islamic fundamentalism is and how, if at all, it differs from Islamism or Islamic revivalism. Exemplary figures of Islamic fundamentalism are Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Mawdudi, the Wahhabi movement and its funding by Saudi Arabia is often described as being responsible for the popularity of contemporary Islamic fundamentalism. Form of Islamism – Graham Fuller describes Islamic fundamentalism not as distinct from Islamism, but as a subset and its strictest form includes Wahhabism, sometimes also referred to as salafiyya. For fundamentalists the law is the most essential component of Islam, leading to an emphasis upon jurisprudence. In this fundamentalists have drifted away from the stand of the Islamists of the 1970s and 80s, similarly, the Afghan Jamaat, in its statutes, has declared it legal in the eyes of Islam to employ non-Muslims as experts. Use of ijtihad in Islamic law – According to academic John Esposito, one of the most defining features of Islamic fundamentalism is belief in the reopening of the gates of ijtihad. Disorder – Dr. Kathleen Taylor, speaking at the Hay Literary Festival, said Islamic fundamentalism may one day be seen in the way as mental illness. Islamists often talk of revolution and believe that the society will be Islamized only through social and political action, fundamentalists are primarily interested in revolution, less interested in modernity or by Western models in politics or economics, and less willing to associate with non-Muslims. While both Islamists and fundamentalists are committed to implementing Sharia law, Islamists tend to consider it more a project than a corpus. Islamists generally tend to favour the education of women and their participation in social and political life, the Islamist woman militates, studies, and has the right to work, but in a chador. While the fundamentalist preaches for women to return to the home, traditionalists take imitation, accepting what was said before and refusing to innovate, as a basic principle, They follow one of the great schools of religious jurisprudence. Their vision of the sharia is essentially legalistic and used to determine what is right or wrong for Enjoining good. Traditionalists are sometimes connected to the forms of Sufism such as the Barelvi school in Pakistan). 18th-century examples are Shah Waliullah Dehlawi in India and Abdul Wahhab in the Arabian Peninsula and this reformism is often developed in response to an external threat such as the influence of Hinduism on Islam. In the late 19th century salafiyya was developed in the Arab countries, criticism of the term The term Islamic fundamentalism has been criticized by Bernard Lewis, Khaled Abou El Fadl, Eli Berman, John Esposito, among others. Many have proposed substituting another term, such as puritanical, Islamic revivalism or activism, Lewis, a leading historian of Islam, believes that although the use of this term is established and must be accepted, It remains unfortunate and can be misleading. In this they oppose the liberal and modernist theologians, who tend to a critical, historical view of Scripture. Among Muslim theologians there is as yet no such liberal or modernist approach to the Quran, where the so-called Muslim fundamentalists differ from other Muslims and indeed from Christian fundamentalists is in their scholasticism and their legalism
16.
Hindutva
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Hindutva, or Hinduness, a term popularised by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923, is the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India. The Bharatiya Janata Party adopted it as its ideology in 1989. It is championed by the Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and its affiliate organisations, many Indian social scientists have described the Hindutva movement as fascist, adhering to the concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony. Some Indian social scientists, as well as the Hindutva movement, on 2 January 2017, the Supreme Court of India declined to reconsider its 1995 judgment, which defined Hindutva as a way of life and not a religion. The notion of Hindutva, meaning Hinduness was coined in the early 20th century, referring to three meanings of Hindu, viz. Indian, follower of Indian religions in general, and follower of Hinduism. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, an activist interned in Ratnagiri prison in the 1920s and his tract, Essentials of Hindutva, better known under the later title Hindutva, Who Is a Hindu. Defined a Hindu as one who was born of Hindu parents, the three essentials of Hindutva were said to be the common nation, common race and common culture/civilisation. Hindus thus defined formed a nation that had existed since antiquity, Savarkar claimed and it was a form of ethnic nationalism as understood by Clifford Geertz, Lloyd Fallers and Anthony D. Smith. Savarkars formulation of Hinduness was regarded in his time as akin to a scientific discovery, christophe Jaffrelot states that Savarkars idea of Hindutva marked a qualitative change in Hindu nationalism. Hedgewar, another Indian independence activist in Nagpur, who was concerned with the weaknesses of the Hindu society against foreign domination. He visited Savarkar in Ratnagiri in March 1925 and discussed with him methods for organising the Hindu nation, in September that year, he started Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh with this mission. However, the term Hindutva was not used to describe the ideology of the new organisation, the official constitution of the RSS, adopted in 1948, used the phrase Hindu Samaj. In the words of an RSS publication, it became evident that Hindus were the nation in Bharat, both the terms Hindutva and Hindu Rashtra were used liberally in the Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha, a party Savarkar became the president of in 1937. He asked for the membership of Hindu Mahasabha to be open to all communities. When this was not accepted, he resigned from the party, thus, yet another term Bharatiya came into parlance with rough resemblance to Hindutva, which continues to be used in the successor party Bharatiya Janata Party to this day. Whereas Savarkars Hindutva was an identity and religion was considered a part of the culture. The all-comprehensive religion of the Indian nation is Hinduism of which the culture is a product. Those only are nationalist patriots, who with the aspiration to glorify the Hindu race, the rest are traitors and enemies to the National Cause
17.
State Shinto
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State Shintō describes Empire of Japans ideological use of the native folk traditions of Shinto. The state strongly encouraged Shinto practices to emphasize the Emperor as a divine being and this was exercised through control of finances and training regimes for priests. The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era, scholars believed that Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperors divine origins, not religious belief, and that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state. For the state, Shinto was seen as a moral tradition. Early Meiji-era attempts to unite Shinto and state failed, but this concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy. Shrines were defined as patriotic, not religious, institutions, which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead, the state also integrated local shrines into political functions, occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment. With fewer shrines financed by the state, nearly 80,000 closed or merged with neighbors, many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives, regardless of funding. By 1940, Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally religious Shinto ceremonies, Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto. US military leaders introduced the term State Shinto to differentiate the states ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive and that decree established Shinto as a religion, and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state. Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions, Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices, court manners, and spirit-worship which dates back to at least 600 AD. These beliefs were first unified as Shinto during the Meiji era, Shinto has no set of doctrines or founder, but draws from a set of creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki. The 1945 Shinto Directive of the United States General Headquarters introduced the State Shinto distinction as it began governing Japan after the world war. The State Shinto term was used to categorize, and abolish. By refusing to ban Shinto practices outright, Japans post-war constitution was thus able to preserve full Freedom of Religion, the definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term Shinto, which was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology. Most generally, State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into the national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868 and it is often described as any state-supported, Shinto-inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration, unity, and loyalty. State Shinto was not a designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period. This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect a State Shinto position without the control of the state. The extent of support for the actions categorized as State Shinto is the subject of debate
18.
Traditionalist Catholicism
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They are commonly associated with an attachment to the Eucharistic liturgy often called the Tridentine, Traditional Latin or extraordinary form of the Mass. Traditionalist Catholics may be divided into four broad groups, since the Second Vatican Council, several traditionalist organizations have been started with or have subsequently obtained approval from the Catholic Church. In addition, many traditionalist Catholics in good standing with Rome are served by local diocesan or religious priests who are willing, others may attend the liturgies of Eastern Catholic Churches, if they are available. There are also local and international lay organizations of traditionalist Catholics. Catholics in good standing with Rome who attend the liturgy have diverse worldviews. Some traditionalists practise their faith outside the structures of the Church. The largest priestly society to fit this description is the Society of St Pius X, which was established in 1970 by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, members of this category view many of the post-Conciliar changes as being doctrinally and pastorally unacceptable. They conclude, on the basis of their rejection of the revised Mass rite and their rejection of certain aspects of postconciliar Church teaching as false, the most well known, and most likely well organized Sedevacantist organization is the Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen. They are often classified as sedevacantists because they reject the official papal succession for the same reasons, many traditionalists further believe that errors have crept into the presentation and understanding of Catholic teachings since the time of the Council. Most traditionalists view the Council as a valid, albeit problematic, Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church, the Catholic Church in union with the Pope is, according to him, the Conciliar Church which has broken with its own past. It seems indeed that he is no longer able to see that we are dealing with the Catholic Church in the totality of its Tradition, on other questions, there are a variety of opinions. Many traditionalist Catholics associate themselves with a particular priestly society, other small groups of traditionalists sometimes form around an individual independent priest who has no ties with any particular organisation. Some leaders of Independent Catholic Churches also claim to be traditionalist Catholics and to be preserving the Tridentine Mass, examples are the Apostolic Catholic Church, the Canonical Old Roman Catholic Church, and the Fraternité Notre-Dame. They claim that this new ecclesiology contradicts Pope Pius XIIs Mystici corporis Christi, a new ecumenism which they see as aiming at a false pan-Christian religious unity which does not require non-Catholics to convert to the Catholic faith. They see this as contradicting the teachings of the Bible, Pope Pius XIs Mortalium animos, Pope Pius XIIs Humani generis and they therefore generally refuse to attend it. Some, including many sedevacantists, see it as invalid in principle. Some hold that celebration of any modern-language translation even of the Tridentine Mass would have to be presumed invalid and they see this orientation as contradicting Pope Pius XIs Quas Primas, Pope Leo XIIIs Rerum Novarum, and other papal and conciliar documents. They also claim that national bishops conferences, whose influence was increased following the Council
19.
Conservatism in Australia
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Conservatism in Australia refers to the political philosophy of conservatism as it has developed in Australia. Politics in Australia has since at least the 1910s been most predominantly a contest between the Labour movement in Australia and the forces of anti-Labour groups. The anti-Labour groups have at times identified themselves as free trade, as nationalist, as anti-communist, as liberal, besides other labels. Until the 1990s, the label conservative has rarely used. This conflict has been conducted on a number of fronts, most prominently industrial and political, people on the right called themselves liberals. That only changed in the late 20th century, Hirst says that as a significant political movement, John Howard, who became prime minister in 1996, was the first holder of the office to describe himself as a conservative. In the 21st century the term covers similar political issues as found in other Western democracies, in the early 20th century the liberals had connections with reform movements. However, as Howard has argued, the Liberal Party became the trustee of both the liberal and conservative traditions. That is, it combines liberal economic policies with conservative social policies, moser and Catley state, In America, liberal means left-of-center, and it is a pejorative term when used by conservatives in adversarial political debate. In Australia, of course, the conservatives are in the Liberal Party, beecher comments that, across the economic and cultural landscape, Howard proved that the centre of politics in Australia is inherently conservative. Conservative think tanks in Australia include Centre for Independent Studies, the H. R. Nicholls Society, apart from political parties, conservative grass-roots movements have also arisen in Australia in recent years. In Australia however there are differences in the political landscape in which conservatism exists, compared to what is found in other countries. Consequently issues like protectionism, welfare reform, privatisation and deregulation are no longer debated as intensely as they are in Europe or North America. Australians Conservatives generally, but not exclusively, oppose the idea of Australia becoming a republic, whether Australia should remain a monarchy or become a republic was a contentious issue in the 1990s. It has since not been a priority under for the government as of 2016, in 1998 when debate peaked, Howard took the monarchist position favoured by most conservatives. Conservatives generally support keeping the current flag and are proud of the nations British heritage, Hirst, John, Conservatism, in Graeme Davison et al. eds. The Oxford Companion to Australian History pp 148–50 Socialism in Australia Liberalism in Australia Christian politics in Australia
20.
Conservatism in Canada
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The first party calling itself Conservative in what would become Canada was elected in the Province of Canada election of 1854. Canadian conservatism had always been rooted in a preference for the traditional and established ways of doing things, even as it had shifted in economic, foreign and social policy. It is for that reason that unlike the conservatives in the United States, originally, Canadian conservatism tended to be traditionalist. Conservative governments in Canada, such as those of Sir John A. Macdonald, Sir Robert Borden, Canadian conservatism thus mirrored British Conservatism in its values and economic and political outlooks. Canadian conservatives have generally favoured the continuation of old political institutions, the conservative movement in Canada evolved from relatively informal pre-Confederation political movements or parties, gradually coalescing into the Conservative Party of Canada. This party was the dominant political force in Canadian politics from 1867 to 1935, thereafter, the party spent more time in opposition than in government. During the twentieth century rival small-c conservative movements appeared, most notably the federal Social Credit, Conservatism was divided until the merger of the Progressive Conservatives and the Canadian Alliance in 2003. These conservatives took their cues from British Tories, especially Burke and they supported royal privilege, and were avowedly anti-democratic. Tory supporters were often descended from loyalists who had fled the United States during the American Revolution and they were wary of emulating the USs mob rule and preferred a strong role for traditional elites such as landowners and the church in politics. Many were Anglicans who supported keeping the Anglican Church of Canada as Canadas established church, in each colony, Tories contested elections as the personal party of the governor. Business elites who surrounded the governor also hoped to gain patronage, in Upper Canada this was the Family Compact, in Lower Canada the Chateau Clique. Opposition to the rule of these resulted in the Rebellions of 1837. This new arrangement, called responsible government, mirrored earlier changes that had occurred in Britain and they campaigned for and won responsible government by creating broad coalitions that took in liberals, moderates, and conservatives. The only way for conservatives as a party to regroup was to accept the consequences of responsible government, they abandoned the idea of being the governors party, at the same time the coalition that had won responsible government began to break up in the 1850s. This presented an opening for more moderate conservatives such as John A. Macdonald, the MacDonald-Cartier coalitions prestige was only strengthened by the creation of the new Canadian Confederation in 1867. Their coalition dominated the politics of the new state. The greatest strain in this came during the Riel Rebellions of 1869 and 1885. After Macdonalds death, the coalition faltered and the Liberal Party rose to dominate Quebec, the death of Macdonald left a large power vacuum in the Conservative Party, leading to the short tenure of John Abbott, who was the Protestant compromise choice
21.
Conservatism in Colombia
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Simón Bolívar is the image in which Conservatism in Colombia creates its ideologies, the ideals of this great character were used by many years on the different conservative movements. But the first formal party was created at the year of 1837, because of Jose Ignacio de Marquez, there did not exist a program, but they were believers of God, and liked Order and Control. On the year of 1840 there occurred a civil war that helped the perfilation of future parties, including the Colombian Conservative Party movement, Colombian conservatism, is an old ideal that believes in protectionism, and other ideals like being against totalitarism. Its history began with the creation of parties that represent conservatism on Colombia and these ideals have change considerably over time, but the most important are The belief in protectionism. There have been many movements, apart from the principal party. We may see Conservatismo Colombiano party, the National Popular Alliance was initiated in 1960s by disillusioned conservatives and it later developed into a populist opposition party. Before the creation of the party, the members where called Godos and this Republicanos Moderados and some other radical conservatives lead to the beginnings of the Colombian Conservative Party
22.
Conservatism in South Korea
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Within the party, groups such as the New Right promote conservatism. The conservative Park Geun-hye government is the current government of the Sixth Republic of South Korea, South Korean conservatism has been influenced from the military dictatorships of Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan. In domestic policy, South Korean conservatism has a strong elitist streak and promotes rapid modernization, conservatism in South Korea is fervently anti-communist. South Koreans oppose relations with North Korea and support upholding the National Security Act and it has been alleged that the South Korean right has promoted McCarthyism-like red scares among the South Korean public. The Chojoongdong media cartel wields the largest political influence in the South Korean political scene through newspaper and other print publications, - relating to the Korean Broadcasting Systems controversial documentaries
23.
Conservatism in the United Kingdom
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Conservatism in the United Kingdom is related to its counterparts in other Western nations, but has a distinct tradition and has encompassed a wide range of theories over the decades. The Conservative Party, which forms the mainstream party in Britain has developed many different internal factions. Edmund Burke is often considered the father of modern English conservatism in the English-speaking world, the old established form of English and, after the Act of Union, British conservatism, was the Tory Party. It reflected the attitudes of a land owning class, and championed the institutions of the monarchy, the Anglican Church. The new coalition of landowners and sympathetic industrialists constituted the new Conservative Party. Conservatism evolved after 1820, embracing free trade in 1846, the effect was to significantly strengthen Conservatism as a grassroots political force. Nevertheless, inside the party there was attention between the numbers of wealthy businessmen on the one side, and the aristocracy and rural gentry on the other. The aristocracy gained strength as businessmen discovered they could use their wealth to buy a peerage, as a young man, Disraeli was influenced by the romantic movement and medievalism, and developed a critique of industrialism. In his novels, he outlined an England divided into two nations, each living in ignorance of each other. He foresaw, like Karl Marx, the phenomenon of an industrial proletariat. His solution involved a return to a view of a corporate or organic society. A Liberal-Conservative coalition during World War I, coupled with the ascent of the Labour Party, after World War II, the Conservative Party made concessions to the socialist policies of the left. This compromise was a measure to regain power, but also the result of the early successes of central planning. This was known as Butskellism, after the almost identical Keynesian policies of Rab Butler on behalf of the Conservatives, as one commentator explains, The privatization of state owned industries, unthinkable before, became commonplace and has now been imitated all over the world. Also emphasis on rights, in particular the European Convention on Human Rights whilst also supporting individual initiative
24.
Conservatism in the United States
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Historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role in American politics and culture since the 1790s. However they have stressed that a conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s. The recent movement is based in the Republican Party, though some Democrats were also important figures early in the movements history, the history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies. Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, Social conservatives see traditional social values as threatened by secularism, they tend to support voluntary school prayer and oppose abortion and same sex marriage. Some also want the teaching of intelligent design or creationism allowed, the 21st century has seen an increasingly fervent conservative support for Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms. Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and stand in opposition to multiculturalism. Nationwide most factions, except some libertarians, support a unilateral foreign policy, the conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of godless communism. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress, the growth of government must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations and we believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side, President Ronald Reagan set the conservative standard in the 1980s, in the 2010s the Republican leaders typically claim fealty to it. For example, most of the Republican candidates in 2012 claimed to be standardbearers of Reagans ideological legacy, the 1980s and beyond became known as the Reagan Era. Typically, conservative politicians and spokesmen in the 21st century proclaim their devotion to Reagans ideals and policies on most social, economic and they support a strong policy of law and order to control crime, including long jail terms for repeat offenders. Most conservatives support the death penalty for particularly egregious crimes, the law and order issue was a major factor weakening liberalism in the 1960s. From 2001 to 2008, Republican President George W. Bush stressed cutting taxes and minimizing regulation of industry and banking, Conservatives generally advocate the use of American military power to fight terrorists and promote democracy in the Middle East. According to a 2014 poll, 38% of American voters identify as conservative or very conservative, 34% as moderate, although the study does show some distinction between the concentration of moderates and conservatives or liberals between the Republican and Democratic parties. Among Democrats, 44% are self-identified liberals, 19% as conservatives, for Republicans 70% self-identified as conservative, 24% as moderate, and 5% as liberal. Conservatism appears to be growing stronger at the state level, the trend is most pronounced among the least well-off, least educated, most blue collar, most economically hard-hit states. Conservatives generally believe that government action is not the solution to problems as poverty and inequality
25.
Aristocracy
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Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning rule of the best, at the time of the words origins in Ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a group, the aristocratic class. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, in Ancient Rome, the Republic consisted of an aristocracy—as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. In the Middle Ages and early modern era, aristocracies primarily consisted of an aristocratic class, privileged by birth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, however, this distinction is often oversimplified. In exchange feudal aid is received from tenants or vassals, oaths of military allegiance, however an oligarchy, nobility or royalty had the right to set taxes, assemble or raise armies and command loyalty by virtue of traditional authority. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part and it is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, history, John Cannon, Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 978-0-19-866176-4 Aristocracy in the Modern World, Ellis Wasson, Palgrave Macmillan,2006
26.
Capitalism
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Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
27.
Carlism
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Carlism was a traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon dynasty on the Spanish throne. This line descended from Don Carlos, Count of Molina, and was founded due to dispute over the succession laws, the semi-salic law would have allowed this given the fact that Maria Theresa was the last member of the house of Habsburg. Carlism was a significant force in Spanish politics from 1833 until the end of the Francoist regime in 1975, in this capacity, it was the cause of Carlist Wars during the 19th century, and an important factor in the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. Today, Carlists are considered by some to be an entity, with Carlist claimants supported only by the most reactionary of the Spanish nobility. Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons, the most elaborate rules of succession formed part of the Siete Partidas of the late 13th century. On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince, Philip V, in the French royal house, Salic law applied, which did not permit female succession. This change was forced by external pressure to avoid any possible personal union of the Crown of Spain with a foreign monarchy like France. He decided in 1830 to promulgate the 1789 decree, securing the crown for the child even if female. The law placed the child, Princess Isabel, ahead of Ferdinands brother Infante Carlos, many contemporaries saw the changed succession as illegal on various counts. They formed the basis for the dynastic Carlist party, which recognized the semi-Salic succession law that gave Infante Carlos precedence over Ferdinands daughter. 1789, During the reign of Charles IV, the Cortes approves a reversion of the system of succession to the traditional Siete Partidas order of succession. However, the law was not promulgated, due in part to protests from the branches of the House of Bourbon. A new Spanish constitution outlines the rules of succession in accordance with the Siete Partidas,10 October 1830, The future Isabella II is born to Ferdinand VII. After several court intrigues, the Pragmatic Sanction is definitively approved in 1832, Ferdinands brother, the Infante Don Carlos, up to that time the heir presumptive, feels robbed of his rights, and leaves for Portugal. Carlism confronted not only the question of who could sit on the Spanish throne. Should it remain Roman Catholic or embrace Enlightenment values, do governments derive their power from God or from human beings. The long war for Spains independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a supply of experienced guerrilla fighters. The reign of Ferdinand VII proved unable to overcome the political divide or to create stable institutions, while in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches
