1.
Political criticism
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Political criticism is criticism that is specific of or relevant to politics, including policies, politicians, political parties, and types of government. There has been controversy over the relevance and importance of political criticism in civilizations, advocates argue that political discussion creates and promotes the variety of opinions necessary for a true democracy. The American constitution is often pointed to as support for the belief, critics of this philosophy argue that the general public lacks the resources and capability to conceive opinions that are educated enough to be taken seriously. There are many methods used throughout history of promoting political opinions, some of the most common include the following, Throughout history one of the most influential methods of promoting political opinions has been literary. It is from this correlation between books and politics that the phrase, the pen is mightier than the sword, derives, since their development in this past century, both television and films have often had far-reaching political effects throughout the world. Influential films and television events include Countdown with Keith Olbermann, Citizen Kane, the works of Walt Disney, like literature, a movie or television event has the capacity to have emotional impact on its viewers, making it an invaluable tool for politics. Political cartoons are infamous for their ability to promote political views through satirical means, any bias in these mediums alters peoples impressions of current events into different understandings and opinions than those that may have been chosen with more accurate information. With the recent invention of the Internet, political criticism has been extended to anyone with a connection to the World Wide Web. The many means of exchanging ideas, including blogs and internet forums, has extended the political debate to anyone that cares to contribute and this ability and speed that which ideas can flow has literally changed the way that political parties stay connected to constituents
2.
4chan
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4chan is an English-language imageboard website. Users generally post anonymously, with the most recent posts appearing above the rest, 4chan is split into various boards with their own specific content and guidelines. Registration is not required, nor is it possible, launched on October 1,2003, the site was modeled on Japanese imageboards, particularly 2chan. 4chans first boards were originally used for posting pictures and discussing manga. The site has linked to Internet subcultures and activism, most notably Anonymous. 4chan users have been responsible for the formation or popularization of Internet memes such as lolcats, Rickrolling, Chocolate Rain, Pedobear, the sites Random board, also known as /b/, was the first board to be created, and is the one that receives the most traffic. As its name suggests, the Random board has minimal rules on posted content, gawker once jokingly claimed that reading /b/ will melt your brain. The sites anonymous community and culture have often provoked media attention, for media planners, this enterprise is further proof that creativity is everywhere and new media is less accessible to advertisement agencies. The Guardian once summarized the 4chan community as lunatic, juvenile brilliant, ridiculous, the activity of 4chan takes place on message boards and imageboards. The website is split into six categories, Japanese culture, Interests, Creative, Adult, Other, and Misc. These provide for on-topic boards to discuss anime, manga, technology, sport, photography, music, hentai, torrents, travel, physical fitness, as well as a random board. 4chan originally hosted discussion boards on a domain called world4ch. The site has had at least one employee, a programmer whom 4chans founder Christopher Poole met via online Tetris, as of 2011, the /b/, /v/, /a/, and /s/ boards were respectively the sites first, second, third, and fourth most popular boards. 4chan is one of the Internets most trafficked imageboards, according to the Los Angeles Times, 4chans Alexa rank is generally around 700, though it has been as high as number 56 at times. It is provided to its users free of charge and consumes an amount of bandwidth, as a result. Poole acknowledges that donations alone cannot keep the site online, so he has turned to advertising to make ends meet. However, the content hosted on 4chan has deterred businesses who do not want to be associated with the sites content. In January 2009, Poole signed a new deal with a company, in February 2009, he was $20,000 in debt
3.
News
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News is information about current events. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Humans exhibit a nearly universal desire to learn and share news, technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. The genre of news as we know it today is closely associated with the newspaper, the English word news developed in the 14th century as a special use of the plural form of new. In Middle English, the equivalent word was newes, like the French nouvelles, jessica Garretson Finch is credited with coining the phrase current events while teaching at Barnard College in the 1890s. As its name implies, “news” typically connotes the presentation of new information, the newness of news gives it an uncertain quality which distinguishes it from the more careful investigations of history or other scholarly disciplines. News conspicuously describes the world in the present or immediate past, to make the news, an ongoing process must have some “peg”, an event in time which anchors it to the present moment. Relatedly, news often addresses aspects of reality which seem unusual, deviant, hence the famous dictum that “Dog Bites Man” is not news, but “Man Bites Dog” is. Another corollary of the newness of news is that, as new technology enable new media to disseminate news more quickly, according to some theoretical and understandings, news is whatever the news industry sells. Journalism, broadly understood along the lines, is the act or occupation of collecting and providing news. From a commercial perspective, news is simply one input, along with paper necessary to prepare a product for distribution. A news agency supplies this resource “wholesale” and publishers enhance it for retail, most purveyors of news value impartiality, neutrality, and objectivity, despite the inherent difficulty of reporting without political bias. Perception of these values has changed greatly over time as sensationalized tabloid journalism has risen in popularity, News is also sometimes said to portray the truth, but this relationship is elusive and qualified. Paradoxically, another property commonly attributed to news is sensationalism, the focus on. Thus news is not unrelated to gossip, the human practice of sharing information about other humans of mutual interest. A common sensational topic is violence, hence another news dictum, “if it bleeds, newsworthiness is defined as a subject having sufficient relevance to the public or a special audience to warrant press attention or coverage. In some countries and at points in history, what news media. Many news values seem to be common across cultures, people seem to be interested in news to the extent which it has a big impact, describes conflicts, happens nearby, involves well-known people, and deviates from the norms of everyday happenings
4.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
5.
Neo-Nazism
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Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive the far-right tenets of Nazism. The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements, Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antiziganism, antisemitism, and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols. Neo-Nazi activity is a phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries. In some European and Latin American countries, laws have been enacted that prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism. The major postwar far-right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party, until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austrias anti-Nazi legislation, the Freedom Party of Austria served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austrias two main parties, and the economy stagnated, jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture, Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austrias Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October,2008. Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Partys candidate for the Austrian presidential election,2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements, Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, who is known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything dishonourable in her husbands activities, the volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945, issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to programs in secondary schools and universities which emphasized Austrian identity. Votes for the RFS, the Freedom Partys academic student organization, in the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft, the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year, in 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of NS-Wiederbetätigung under the Austrian anti-Nazi law and sentenced to ten years in prison. The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, due to procedural errors Küssels sentence was revoked by the OGH and his trial was reheld in 1994 at the end of which he was sentenced to eleven years in prison. A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw, was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network. The group rose to prominence in September 2006, after 17 members were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, a police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives and a homemade bomb large enough to make a car explode, the leading suspect, B. T. was organizing the trafficking of weapons and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie
6.
Southern Poverty Law Center
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The Southern Poverty Law Center is an American nonprofit legal advocacy organization specializing in civil rights and public interest litigation. SPLC was founded by Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin Jr. in 1971 as a civil law firm in Montgomery. Civil rights leader Julian Bond joined Dees and Levin and served as president of the board between 1971 and 1979, the SPLC originally advocated on civil rights issues. In 1979, it began a strategy of filing civil suits for monetary damages on behalf of the victims of violence from the Ku Klux Klan. The SPLC has provided information about hate groups to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and has worked in partnership with the bureau, the SPLCs first president was Julian Bond, who served until 1979 and then remained on the board of directors until his death in 2015. In 1979, Dees and the SPLC began monitoring far-right groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and they initiated civil suits against KKK chapters and similar organizations for monetary damages to gain justice on behalf of their victims. In 1981, the Center began its Klanwatch project to monitor the activities of the KKK and that project, now called Hatewatch, has been expanded to include seven other types of hate organizations. In July 1983, the SPLC headquarters was firebombed, destroying the building, as a result of the arson, Klansmen Joe M. Garner and Roy T. Downs Jr. along with Klan sympathizer Charles Bailey, pleaded guilty in February 1985 to conspiring to intimidate, oppress, the SPLC rebuilt its headquarters building from 1999 to 2001. In 1984, Dees became a target of The Order. By 2007, according to Dees, more than 30 people had been jailed in connection with plots to kill him or to blow up SPLC offices. In 1986, the legal staff of the SPLC, excluding Dees. In 1989, the Center unveiled its Civil Rights Memorial, which was designed by Maya Lin, the Centers Teaching Tolerance project was initiated in 1991. The SPLC dismissed the series as a hatchet job, in 1995, four white men were indicted for planning to blow up the SPLC. Some critics have alleged that the SPLC has used hyperbole and overstated the prevalence of hate groups to large amounts of money. The article claimed the SPLC spends twice as much on fund-raising – $5.76 million last year – as it does on legal services for victims of civil rights abuses and he criticized the high level of Dees compensation relative to other nonprofits. Silverstein said that more than 95% of hate crimes are committed by lone wolves without any connection to the groups the SPLC was tracking. In 2008, the SPLC and Dees were featured on National Geographics Inside American Terror explaining their litigation against several branches of the Ku Klux Klan, the Southern Poverty Law Center has initiated a number of civil cases seeking injunctive relief and monetary awards on behalf of its clients
7.
White supremacy
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White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudoscientific arguments. The term is typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates. Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews. White supremacy was dominant in the United States even after the American Civil War, in large areas of the U. S. this included the holding of non-whites in chattel slavery with four million denied freedom from bondage. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession, in an editorial about Native Americans in 1890, author L. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, the denial of social and political freedom continued into the mid-20th century resulting in the Civil Rights Movement. On the U. S. immigration laws prior to 1965, many U. S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States decision in Loving v. Virginia. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the claims to land. The terms recent rise in popularity among leftist activists has been characterized by some as counterproductive, in an opinion piece in The Atlantic, Conor Friedersdorf has said that the usage of the term by activists creates confusion because it strays from the common definition. Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century, gobineaus theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish cultures. Many modern-day white supremacist groups around the world reuse Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under the Dutch Empire, and continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid as an officially structured policy was introduced by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party after the election of 1948. Legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups—black, white, coloured, and Indian, in 1970, the Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation, and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship. South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991, in Rhodesia, a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom during an unsuccessful attempt to avoid immediate majority rule. Neo-Nazi organisations embracing white-supremacist ideology are present in countries in the world. It has been claimed in 2007, that Russian Neo-Nazis accounted for half of the worlds total, White racial advantages occur both at a collective and an individual level. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows, By white supremacy I do not mean to allude only to the racism of white supremacist hate groups. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, the term expresses historic continuities between a pre-African-American Civil Rights Movement era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States
8.
The Daily Stormer
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The Daily Stormer is an American neo-Nazi and white supremacist news and commentary website. It is part of the alt-right movement and its editor is Andrew Anglin, who founded it on July 4,2013, as a faster-paced replacement for his previous website Total Fascism. The site is known for its use of Internet memes, which have been likened to the imageboard 4chan and cited as attractions for a younger, guest writers have included black hat hacker weev and 8chan founder Fredrick Brennan. The Daily Stormer orchestrates what it calls the Troll Army, which is involved in Internet trolling of figures with whom Anglin disagrees politically. Anglin told media and technology company Vocativ that he was liberal as a youth, Anglin studied at Columbus State Community College in 2003 and in 2008 he moved to the Philippines to teach English. In 2012, Anglin launched his first website, Adventure Quest 2012 and he described the aim of the site as to mend the wounds produced by modern society. And the reader transcend these physical bonds and reach total ascendancy, to mend these wounds, the world must learn to embrace diversity and color. He later studied Buddhism, Islam and 20th-century French philosophy before aligning himself with Neo-Nazism, in 2014, he stated that although he agreed with the central tenets of Nazism, he had reservations over reintroducing all aspects of Adolf Hitlers regime. Later in 2012, he launched his first far-right website, Total Fascism, feeling that it was not appealing to a younger demographic and had articles that were too long, Anglin launched The Daily Stormer on July 4,2013, with shorter articles and a more provocative style. The website is registered in the name of Anglins father Greg, Anglin said in March 2014 he spends 70 hours a week writing for the website, which is primarily funded through donations which he solicits regularly from site visitors. The older Anglin was protested by Anti-Racist Action for cashing his sons checks, do you really want to be standing there along side them facing lengthy jail terms. The Daily Stormer is one of the few free, and honest news outlets from which to get our information. Anglin told Mother Jones that he received donations from Silicon Valley, an investigative article by The Huffington Post in November 2016 analyzed his social media and concluded that he was living in Germany. The Daily Stormer takes its name from the Nazi Partys tabloid newspaper Der Stürmer and its publisher, Julius Streicher, was executed after the war for crimes against humanity. Anglin asserts that the purpose of The Daily Stormer is to provide a means to propagandize people … to get them to look at the world in a certain way. Headlines include All Intelligent People in History Disliked Jews and Adolf Hitler, the site bills itself as Americas #1 Most-Trusted Republican News Source. According to The Jewish Chronicle, The Daily Stormer posts hundreds of racist articles targeting black people, Muslims, the website offers pro-separatist coverage of the conflict in Eastern Ukraine, which Anglin considers the correct moral position. Anglin claimed in May 2016 that the traffic had doubled over the last six months
9.
Donald Trump
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Donald John Trump is the 45th and current President of the United States. Prior to entering politics he was a businessman and television personality, Trump was born and raised in Queens, New York City, and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He then took charge of The Trump Organization, the estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother, which he ran for four. During his real career, Trump has built, renovated, and managed numerous office towers, hotels, casinos. Besides real estate, he started several ventures and has lent the use of his name for the branding of various products. He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015, and he hosted The Apprentice, as of 2017, Forbes listed him as the 544th wealthiest person in the world with a net worth of $3.5 billion. Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for office in 1987. He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000, but withdrew his candidacy early on, in June 2015, he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among 17 candidates in the Republican primaries. His final opponents suspended their campaigns in May 2016, and in July he was nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate. His campaign received unprecedented media coverage and international attention, many of the statements he made at rallies, in interviews, or on social media were controversial or false. Trump won the election on November 8,2016, in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton. His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist, protectionist, Trump was born on June 14,1946 at the Jamaica Hospital Medical Center, Queens, New York City. He was the fourth of five born to Frederick Christ Fred Trump. His siblings are Maryanne, Fred Jr. Elizabeth, and Robert, Trumps ancestors originated from the village of Kallstadt, Palatinate, Germany on his fathers side, and from the Outer Hebrides isles of Scotland on his mothers side. All his grandparents, and his mother, were born in Europe and his mothers grandfather was also christened Donald. On a visit to his village, he met Elisabeth Christ. He died from the flu pandemic of 1918 and Elizabeth incorporated the family real estate business, Elizabeth Trump and Son, which would later become The Trump Organization. Trumps father Fred was born in the Bronx, and worked with his mother since he was 15 as a real estate developer, primarily in the New York boroughs of Queens and he eventually built and sold thousands of houses, barracks and apartments
10.
Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016
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The 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump, an American businessman, television personality, and author, was formally launched on June 16,2015, at Trump Tower in New York City. Trump was the Republican nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election, having won the most state primaries, caucuses and he chose Mike Pence, the sitting Governor of Indiana, as his vice presidential running mate. On November 8,2016, Trump and Pence were elected president, some of his remarks were controversial and helped his campaign garner extensive coverage by the mainstream media, trending topics, and social media. Trumps campaign rallies attracted large crowds, as well as public controversy, Trump was accused of inciting violence at his rallies. Trumps disdain for political correctness was a theme of his campaign. Many, including some mainstream commentators and some prominent Republicans, viewed him as appealing to racism, since the 1988 presidential election, Trump was discussed as a potential candidate for President in nearly every election. In October 1999, Trump declared himself a candidate for the Reform Partys presidential nomination. In 2004, Trump said that he identified as a Democrat, Trump rejoined the Republican Party in September 2009, chose no party affiliation in December 2011, and again rejoined the GOP in April 2012. In early 2011, presidential speculation reached its highest point and Trump began to take a lead in polls among Republican candidates in the 2012 election, at the 2011 Conservative Political Action Conference, Trump said he is pro-life and against gun control. He also spoke before Tea Party supporters, early polls for the 2012 election had Trump among the leading candidates. In December 2011, Trump placed sixth in the ten most admired men and women living of 2011 USA Today/Gallup telephone survey, however, Trump announced in May 2011 that he would not be a candidate for the office. In 2013, Trump researched a possible run for President of the United States in 2016, in February 2015, Trump did not renew his television contract for The Apprentice, which raised speculation of his candidacy for President of the United States in 2016. Later that year, Trump was a speaker at the Conservative Political Action Conference. Trump formally announced his candidacy on June 16,2015, with a campaign rally, in his speech, Trump drew attention to domestic issues such as illegal immigration, offshoring of American jobs, the U. S. national debt, and Islamic terrorism. The campaign slogan was announced as Make America Great Again, Trump declared that he would self-fund his presidential campaign, and would refuse any money from donors and lobbyists. Ladbrokes offered 150/1 odds of Trump winning the presidency, following the announcement, most of the medias attention focused on Trumps comment on illegal immigration, When Mexico sends its people, theyre not sending their best. Theyre sending people that have lots of problems, and theyre bringing those problems with, and some, I assume, are good people. Trumps statement was controversial and led several businesses and organizations—including NBC, Macys, Univision, after the public backlash, Trump stood by his comments, citing news articles to back his claims
11.
Twitter
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Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
12.
Internet meme
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An Internet meme is an activity, concept, catchphrase or piece of media which spreads, often as mimicry, from person to person via the Internet. Some examples include posting a photo of people lying down in public places, a meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture. An Internet meme may take the form of an image, hyperlink, video, website and it may be just a word or phrase, including an intentional misspelling. These small movements tend to spread person to person via social networks, blogs, direct email. They may relate to various existing Internet cultures or subcultures, often created or spread on various websites, or by Usenet boards, fads and sensations tend to grow rapidly on the Internet, because the instant communication facilitates word-of-mouth transmission. The concept of the Internet meme was first proposed by Mike Godwin in the June 1993 issue of Wired, dawkins explained that Internet memes are thus a hijacking of the original idea, the very idea of a meme having mutated and evolved in this new direction. Further, Internet memes carry an additional property that ordinary memes do not—Internet memes leave a footprint in the media through which they propagate that renders them traceable and analyzable, Internet memes are a subset that Susan Blackmore called temes—memes which live in technological artifacts instead of the human mind. Image macros are often confused with internet memes and are often miscited as such, however, there is a key distinction between the two. Primarily this distinction lies within the subjects recognizability in internet pop-culture, in the early days of the Internet, such content was primarily spread via email or Usenet discussion communities. Messageboards and newsgroups were also popular because they allowed a simple method for people to information or memes with a diverse population of internet users in a short period. They encourage communication between people, and thus between meme sets, that do not normally come in contact, furthermore, they actively promote meme-sharing within the messageboard or newsgroup population by asking for feedback, comments, opinions, etc. This format is what gave rise to internet memes, like the Hampster Dance. Another factor in the increased meme transmission observed over the internet is its interactive nature, many phenomena are also spread via web search engines, internet forums, social networking services, social news sites, and video hosting services. Much of the Internets ability to spread information is assisted from results found through search engines, an Internet meme may stay the same or may evolve over time, by chance or through commentary, imitations, parody, or by incorporating news accounts about itself. Internet memes can evolve and spread rapidly, sometimes reaching worldwide popularity within a few days. Internet memes usually are formed from some social interaction, pop culture reference and their rapid growth and impact has caught the attention of both researchers and industry. Academically, researchers model how they evolve and predict which memes will survive, commercially, they are used in viral marketing where they are an inexpensive form of mass advertising. One empirical approach studied meme characteristics and behavior independently from the networks in which they propagated, theoretical studies on media psychology and communication have aimed to characterise and analyse the concept and representations in order to make it accessible for the academic research
13.
Pepe the Frog
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Pepe the Frog is a popular Internet meme. The fictional green anthropomorphic frog with a face and a humanoid body is originally from a comic series by Matt Furie called Boys Club. It became an Internet meme when its popularity grew across Myspace, Gaia Online. By 2015, it had one of the most popular memes used on 4chan. Beginning in 2015, his image has allegedly been appropriated as a symbol of the controversial alt-right movement, the Anti-Defamation League added Pepe the Frog to their database of hate symbols in 2016, adding that not all Pepe memes are racist. Since then, Pepes creator has expressed his dismay at Pepe being used as a hate symbol. The memes original use has evolved over time and has many variants, including Sad frog, Smug frog, Feels frog, Pepe the Frog was created by American artist Matt Furie. Its usage as a meme came from his comic, Boys Club #1, the progenitor of Boys Club was a zine that Furie made on Microsoft Paint called Playtime, which included Pepe as a character. He posted his comic in a series of posts on Myspace in 2005. In the comic, Pepe is seen urinating with his pants pulled down to his ankles, Furie took those posts down when the printed edition was published in 2006. Pepe was used in posts on Myspace and became an in-joke on Gaia Online. In 2008, the page containing Pepe and the catchphrase was scanned and uploaded to 4chans /b/ board and it took off among 4chan users, who adapted Pepes face and the catchphrase to fit different scenarios and emotions, such as melancholy, anger, and surprise. Color was also added, originally a black and white drawing, Pepe became green with brown lips. Feels Guy, or Wojak, originally an unrelated character typically used to express melancholy, was often paired with Pepe in user-made comics or images. Around 2015, as Pepes usage was increasing, a phenomenon began on 4chan where users would declare certain variants as rare and these images, sometimes as physical paintings, were put up for sale and auction on eBay and posted in listings on Craigslist. 4chan users referred to those who used the meme outside of the website as normies in response to the increase in usage. That year Pepe was #6 on Daily News and Analysis list of the most important memes and was the most retweeted meme on Twitter, during the 2016 United States presidential election, the meme was connected to Donald Trumps campaign. In October 2015, Donald Trump retweeted a Pepe representation of himself, later in the election, Roger Stone and Donald Trump Jr
14.
Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
15.
Ku Klux Klan
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Historically the KKK used terrorism, both physical assault and murder, against groups or individuals whom they opposed. All three movements have called for the purification of American society, and all are considered right-wing extremist organizations, the first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, with numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal law enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes, robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, the second group was founded in 1915, and it flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. This second organization adopted a white costume and used code words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings. The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local and they have focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a group by the Anti-Defamation League. As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total Klan membership nationwide at around 3,000, the second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to Americas Anglo-Saxon blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism. Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK, the manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski. According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities, Beginning in April,1867, the members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. Although there was little organizational structure above the level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name. Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement promoting resistance, for example, Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a chapter in Nashville, Tennessee. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies, it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the government passed the Enforcement Acts. The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives and it seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, it drove some people out of politics. Rable argues that the Klan was a failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says, the Klan declined in strength in part because of weaknesses, its lack of central organization. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South, for instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina
16.
Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
17.
Internet troll
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This sense of both the noun and the verb troll is associated with Internet discourse, but also has been used more widely. Media attention in recent years has equated trolling with online harassment, for example, the mass media have used troll to mean a person who defaces Internet tribute sites with the aim of causing grief to families. Application of the troll is subjective. Some readers may characterize a post as trolling, while others may regard the same post as a contribution to the discussion. Like any pejorative term, it can be used as an ad hominem attack, as noted in an OS News article titled Why People Troll and How to Stop Them, The traditional definition of trolling includes intent. That is, trolls purposely disrupt forums, whether someone intends to disrupt a thread or not, the results are the same if they do. Others have addressed the issue, e. g. Claire Hardaker, in her Ph. D. thesis Trolling in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Regardless of the circumstances, controversial posts may attract a strong response from those unfamiliar with the robust dialogue found in some online, rather than physical. The trollface is an occasionally used to indicate trolling in Internet culture. At times, the word can be abused to refer to anyone with controversial opinions they disagree with, such usages goes against the ordinary meaning of troll in multiple ways. Most importantly, trolls dont actually believe the views they claim. Farhad Manjoo criticises this view, noting that if the person really is trolling, there are competing theories of where and when troll was first used in Internet slang, with numerous unattested accounts of BBS and UseNet origins in the early 1980s or before. The English noun troll in the sense of ugly dwarf or giant dates to 1610. The word evokes the trolls of Scandinavian folklore and childrens tales, antisocial, quarrelsome, early non-Internet slang use of trolling can be found in the military, by 1972 the term trolling for MiGs was documented in use by US Navy pilots in Vietnam. It referred to use of. decoys, with the mission of drawing. fire away, the contemporary use of the term is alleged to have appeared on the Internet in the late 1980s, but the earliest known attestation according to the Oxford English Dictionary is in 1992. The context of the quote cited in the Oxford English Dictionary sets the origin in Usenet in the early 1990s as in the phrase trolling for newbies, as used in alt. folklore. urban. Commonly, what is meant is a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, for example, a veteran of the group might make a post on the common misconception that glass flows over time. Long-time readers would recognize the posters name and know that the topic had been discussed a lot, but new subscribers to the group would not realize
18.
Trayvon Martin
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Trayvon Benjamin Martin was an African American from Miami Gardens, Florida, who, at 17 years old, was fatally shot by George Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch volunteer, in Sanford, Florida. Martin, who was serving a suspension, had gone with his father on a visit to his fathers fiancée at her townhouse at The Retreat at Twin Lakes in Sanford. On the evening of February 26, Martin went to a store and purchased candy. As Martin returned from the store, he walked through a neighborhood that had been victimized by several times that year. Zimmerman, a member of the community watch, spotted him, moments later, there was an altercation between the two individuals in which Zimmerman shot Martin in the chest. After national media focused on the tragedy, Zimmerman was eventually charged and tried in Martins death, a jury acquitted Zimmerman of second-degree murder and manslaughter in July 2013. Martin was born in Miami, Florida, and attended both Norland Middle School and Highland Oaks Middle School, in north Miami-Dade County, Florida. He attended Miami Carol City High School in Miami Gardens for his freshman and sophomore years, following Martins death, rallies, marches and protests were held across the nation. In March 2012, hundreds of students at his school held a walkout in support of him. An online petition calling for an investigation and prosecution of Zimmerman garnered 2.2 million signatures. Also in March, the media coverage surrounding Martins death became the first story of 2012 to be featured more than the presidential race, which was underway at the time. A national debate about racial profiling and stand your ground laws ensued, Martins life was scrutinized by the media and bloggers who examined the digital footprint he had left behind. On social media, the name Trayvon was tweeted more than two times in the 30 days following the shooting. More than 1,000 people attended the viewing of his remains the day before his funeral and he was buried in Dade-Memorial Park, in Miami. A memorial was dedicated to Martin at the Goldsboro Westside Historical Museum, Martin was born in Miami, Florida, to Sybrina Fulton and Tracy Martin, who divorced in 1999. At the time of the shooting, Fulton was a coordinator for the Miami Dade Housing Authority. Martins older brother, Jahavaris Fulton, was 21 years old at the time of his brothers death and was enrolled as a technology major at Florida International University. Jahavaris would later serve, in July 2013, as an intern for Representative Frederica Wilson, who represents Floridas 24th district, after his divorce from Sybrina Fulton, Martins father married Alicia Stanley who had two daughters from a previous marriage
19.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
20.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
21.
CNN
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
22.
Piedmont Park
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Piedmont Park is an urban park in Atlanta, Georgia, located about 1 mile northeast of Downtown, between the Midtown and Virginia Highland neighborhoods. Originally the land was owned by Dr. Benjamin Walker, who used it as his out-of-town gentlemans farm and he sold the land in 1887 to the Gentlemens Driving Club, who wanted to establish an exclusive club and racing ground for horse enthusiasts. The Driving Club entered an agreement with the Piedmont Exposition Company, headed by prominent Atlantan Charles A. Collier, to use the land for fairs and expositions and later gave the park its name. The park was designed by Joseph Forsyth Johnson to host the first of two major expositions held in the park in the late 19th century. The Piedmont Exposition opened in October 1887 to great fanfare, the event was a success and set the stage for the Cotton States and International Exposition which was held in the park seven years later in 1895. Both exhibitions showcased the prosperity of the region that had occurred during, in the early 20th century, a redesign plan called the Olmsted plan, was begun by the sons of New York Central Park architect, Frederick Law Olmsted. The effort led to the addition of scenic paths in the park, over the years, the park has also served as an athletic center for the city. Atlantas first professional team, the Atlanta Crackers, played in the park from 1902 to 1904. Several important intercollegiate rivalries were also forged in the including the University of Georgia vs. Georgia Tech baseball rivalry and Georgia versus Auburn football which has called the Deep Souths Oldest Rivalry. In 2008, a ceremony was held for a 53-acre extension to the park. On April 12,2011, Mayor Kasim Reed cut the ribbon to open the first phase of an expansion into the northern third of the park. Additional areas at the far north of the park are to be developed next, Atlanta was a rapidly growing city in the years before Piedmont Park. From 1860 to 1890, the population jumped from 9,554 to 65,533 residents and those years saw the opening of many education institutions such as Morehouse College, Clark College, Spelman College, Morris Brown College, Georgia School of Technology, and Agnes Scott College. Gordon, a distinguished Confederate general, was Governor of Georgia, the area soon to be known as Piedmont Park was owned by Benjamin Walker, who purchased the 189 acres in the 1830s from a man who had won the land in the land lottery. The driving club entered into an agreement with the Piedmont Exposition Company to use the grounds around the track as exposition space, Charles A. Collier, a prominent Atlanta businessman and former lawyer, was president of the company. Soon after, a building, grandstands, and club house were built for the track. The first exposition ever held in Piedmont Park, the Piedmont Exposition of 1887, the main building constructed for the Exposition was 570 feet long,126 feet wide, and two stories high
23.
Atlanta
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Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs
24.
Ahrar al-Sham
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Ahrar al-Sham was led by Hassan Aboud until his death in 2014. In July 2013, Ahrar al-Sham had 10,000 to 20,000 fighters and it was the principal organization operating under the umbrella of the Syrian Islamic Front and was a major component of the Islamic Front. With an estimated 20,000 fighters in 2015, Ahrar al-Sham became the largest rebel group in Syria after the Free Syrian Army became less powerful, the group along with Jaysh al-Islam are the main rebel groups supported by Turkey and Saudi Arabia. Ahrar al-Sham has defined itself in this way, The Islamic Movement of Free Men of the Levant is an Islamist, reformist and it is integrated with the Islamic Front and is a comprehensive and Islamic military, political and social formation. The group has a Syrian leadership and emphasizes that its campaign is for Syria and it also described the uprising as a jihad against a Safawi plot to spread Shiism and establish a Shiite state from Iran through Iraq and Syria, and extending to Lebanon and Palestine. Ahrar al-Sham has claimed that it only targets government forces and militia and it provides humanitarian services and relief to local communities, in addition to pamphlets promoting religious commitment in daily life. Ahrar al-Sham leader Hassan Aboud stated that Ahrar al-Sham worked with Nusra Front, Aboud also said Ahrar worked with Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in some battles, but that their agenda was disagreeable. Aboud claimed that in Syria there are no secular groups, Aboud condemned democracy in an interview with Al-Jazeera, saying that Democracy is people governing people, according to rules they please. We say that we have a system whose law is Allahs for his creatures. Mohamed Najeeb Bannan, an Islamic Front Sharia Court Judge in Aleppo, stated, the cases are different, from robberies to drug use, to moral crimes. Its our duty to look at any crime that comes to us, after the regime has fallen, we believe that the Muslim majority in Syria will ask for an Islamic state. Of course, its important to point out that some say the Islamic Sharia will cut off peoples hands and heads. And to start off by killing, crucifying etc and that is not correct at all. This goes against the beliefs of religious scholars around the world and this is going to cause a lot of trouble. Anyone who opposes will be considered against Sharia and will be severely punished, Ahrar al-Sham, and the Islamic Front in general, issued condolences for Afghan Taliban leader Mullah Omar upon his death. In August 2015, Ahrar al-Sham commander Eyad Shaar said We are part of Syrian society, Ahrar al-Shams political representative stated in December 2015 that Ahrar al-Sham are not related with al Qaeda, we only fight with them against Assad and ISIS. A political activist was abducted and detained by Ahrar al-Sham for having not worn a veil, at least three children have been recorded to be abducted by Jabhat al-Nusra and Ahrar al-Sham between 2012 and 2015, two of them were still missing. Lawyers and political activists have faced attacks by Ahrar al-Sham and other Islamist rebel groups due to their political activities
25.
Aleppo
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Aleppo is a city in Syria, serving as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,132,100, Aleppo was the largest Syrian city before the Syrian Civil War, however, now Aleppo is likely the second-largest city in Syria after the capital Damascus. Aleppo is an ancient city, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, such a long history is attributed to its strategic location as a trading center midway between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia. For centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in the Syrian region, and it was also one of the largest cities in the Levant before the advent of the Syrian Civil War. The citys significance in history has been its location at one end of the Silk Road, when the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was diverted to sea and Aleppo began its slow decline. At the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, Aleppo ceded its northern hinterland to modern Turkey, in the 1940s, it lost its main access to the sea, Antakya and İskenderun, also to Turkey. Finally, the isolation of Syria in the past few decades further exacerbated the situation and this decline may have helped to preserve the old city of Aleppo, its medieval architecture and traditional heritage. It won the title of the Islamic Capital of Culture 2006, during the Battle of Aleppo the city suffered massive destruction, and has been the worst-hit city in the Syrian Civil War. In December 2016, the Syrian government achieved full control of Aleppo following a successful offensive, modern-day English-speakers commonly refer to the city as Aleppo. It was known in antiquity as Khalpe, Khalibon, and to the Greeks, during the Crusades, and again during the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon of 1923–1946, the name Alep was used. Aleppo represents the Italianised version of this, the original ancient name, Halab, has survived as the current Arabic name of the city. Some have proposed that halab means iron or copper in Amorite languages, the modern-day Arabic nickname of the city, ash-Shahbaa, which means the white-colored, also allegedly derives from the famous white marble of Aleppo. From the 11th century it was common usage to apply the term Aram-Zobah to the area of Aleppo. Aleppo has scarcely been touched by archaeologists, since the city occupies its ancient site. The site has been occupied from around 5000 BC, as shown by excavations in Tallet Alsauda, Aleppo appears in historical records as an important city much earlier than Damascus. The first record of Aleppo comes from the third millennium BC, some historians, such as Wayne Horowitz, identify Aleppo with the capital of an independent kingdom closely related to Ebla, known as Armi, although this identification is contested. The main temple of the storm god Hadad was located on the hill in the center of the city. In the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Empire period, Aleppos name appears in its form as Ḥalab for the first time
26.
Satellite
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In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
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Topological
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In mathematics, topology is concerned with the properties of space that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing. This can be studied by considering a collection of subsets, called open sets, important topological properties include connectedness and compactness. Topology developed as a field of study out of geometry and set theory, through analysis of such as space, dimension. Such ideas go back to Gottfried Leibniz, who in the 17th century envisioned the geometria situs, Leonhard Eulers Seven Bridges of Königsberg Problem and Polyhedron Formula are arguably the fields first theorems. The term topology was introduced by Johann Benedict Listing in the 19th century, by the middle of the 20th century, topology had become a major branch of mathematics. It defines the basic notions used in all branches of topology. Algebraic topology tries to measure degrees of connectivity using algebraic constructs such as homology, differential topology is the field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to geometry and together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds. Geometric topology primarily studies manifolds and their embeddings in other manifolds, a particularly active area is low-dimensional topology, which studies manifolds of four or fewer dimensions. This includes knot theory, the study of mathematical knots, Topology, as a well-defined mathematical discipline, originates in the early part of the twentieth century, but some isolated results can be traced back several centuries. Among these are certain questions in geometry investigated by Leonhard Euler and his 1736 paper on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg is regarded as one of the first practical applications of topology. On 14 November 1750 Euler wrote to a friend that he had realised the importance of the edges of a polyhedron and this led to his polyhedron formula, V − E + F =2. Some authorities regard this analysis as the first theorem, signalling the birth of topology, further contributions were made by Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Ludwig Schläfli, Johann Benedict Listing, Bernhard Riemann and Enrico Betti. Listing introduced the term Topologie in Vorstudien zur Topologie, written in his native German, in 1847, the term topologist in the sense of a specialist in topology was used in 1905 in the magazine Spectator. Their work was corrected, consolidated and greatly extended by Henri Poincaré, in 1895 he published his ground-breaking paper on Analysis Situs, which introduced the concepts now known as homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology. Unifying the work on function spaces of Georg Cantor, Vito Volterra, Cesare Arzelà, Jacques Hadamard, Giulio Ascoli and others, Maurice Fréchet introduced the metric space in 1906. A metric space is now considered a case of a general topological space. In 1914, Felix Hausdorff coined the term topological space and gave the definition for what is now called a Hausdorff space, currently, a topological space is a slight generalization of Hausdorff spaces, given in 1922 by Kazimierz Kuratowski
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Russian Air Force
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The Russian Air Force is a branch of the Russian Aerospace Forces, the latter being formed on the 1 August 2015 with the merger of the Russian Air Force and the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. The modern Russian Air Force was originally established on the 7 May 1992 following Boris Yeltsins creation of the Ministry of Defence, however the air force can trace its lineage and traditions back to the Imperial Russian Air Service and the Soviet Air Forces. The Russian Navy has its own air arm, the Russian Naval Aviation, general Pyotr Deynekin, the former deputy commander-in-chief of the Soviet Air Forces, became the first commander of the new organisation on 24 August 1991. Russia received the majority of the most modern fighters and 65% of the manpower, the major commands of the former Soviet VVS – the Long Range Aviation, Military Transport Aviation and Frontal Aviation were renamed, with few changes, Russian VVS commands. However, many regiments, aircraft, and personnel were claimed by the republics they were based in, some aircraft in Belarus and Ukraine were returned to Russia, sometimes in return for debt reductions, as well as a long range aviation division based at Dolon in Kazakhstan. During the 1990s, the financial stringency felt throughout the forces made its mark on the Air Forces as well. As a result of the cutbacks, infrastructure became degraded as well, the VVS participated in the First Chechen War and the Second Chechen War. These campaigns also presented significant difficulties for the VVS including the terrain, lack of significant fixed targets and insurgents armed with Stinger, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces remained independent for several years under Russian control, only merging with the Air Forces in 1998. The decree merging the two forces was issued by President Boris Yeltsin on 16 July 1997, during 1998 altogether 580 units and formations were disbanded,134 reorganized, and over 600 given a new jurisdiction. More than 600,000 tons of material changed location and 3500 aircraft changed airfields, Military Transport Aviation planes took more than 40,000 families to new residence areas. The short-lived operational commands were abolished, two air armies, 37th Air Army and 61st Air Army, were established directly under the Supreme Command. The former frontal aviation and anti-aircraft forces were organized as Air Force Armies, there were initially four such armies with headquarters in St. Petersburg, Rostov-on-Don, Khabarovsk, and Chita. Two military districts had separate Air and Air Defence Corps, when the Transbaikal Military District and Siberian Military District were merged, the 14th Air Army was reactivated to serve as the air force formation in the area. The number of servicemen in the Air Force was reduced to about 185,000 from the combined number of 318,000. 123,500 positions were abolished, including almost 1000 colonel positions, the resignation of 3000 other servicemen included 46 generals of which 15 were colonel generals. The former Army Aviation was subsequently managed by the Chief of the Department of Army Aviation, during the 2000s, the Air Forces continued to suffer from a lack of resources for pilot training. In the 1990s Russian pilots achieved approximately 10% of the hours of the United States Air Force. In 2007, under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, the Russian Air Force resumed the Soviet-era practice of deploying its strategic bomber aircraft on long-range patrols and this ended a 15-year unilateral suspension due to fuel costs and other economic difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet Union
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Gamergate controversy
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The Gamergate controversy concerns issues of sexism and progressivism in video game culture, stemming from a harassment campaign conducted primarily through the use of the Twitter hashtag #GamerGate. Gamergate is used as a term for the controversy, the harassment campaign and actions of those participating in it. Beginning in August 2014, Gamergate targeted several women in the game industry, including game developers Zoë Quinn and Brianna Wu. Harassment campaigns against Quinn and others were coordinated through these forums and included doxing, threats of rape, Most Gamergate supporters are anonymous, and the Gamergate movement has no official leaders, spokespeople, or manifesto. Statements claiming to represent Gamergate have been inconsistent and contradictory, making it difficult for commentators to identify goals, as a result, Gamergate has often been defined by the harassment its supporters have committed. Some Gamergate supporters have attempted to dissociate themselves from misogyny and harassment, many supporters of Gamergate oppose what they view as the increasing influence of feminism on video game culture. As a result, Gamergate is often viewed as a backlash against progressivism. Gamergate supporters claim to perceive collusion between the press and feminists, progressives, and social critics and these concerns have been dismissed by commentators as trivial, conspiracy theories, groundless, or unrelated to actual issues of ethics. Such concerns led users of the hashtag to launch email campaigns targeting firms advertising in publications of which they disapproved, Industry responses to Gamergate have been predominantly negative. The Entertainment Software Association and Sony Computer Entertainment have condemned Gamergate harassment, Gamergate has led figures both inside and outside the industry to focus on better methods of tackling online harassment. Representative Katherine Clark from Massachusetts has campaigned for a government response to online harassment. Within the industry, organizations such as the Crash Override Network, in February 2013, Zoë Quinn, an independent game developer, released Depression Quest, an interactive fiction browser game. The game was met with reviews in the gaming media. Quinn began to hate mail upon its release, leading her to change her phone number. In August 2014, Eron Gjoni, Quinns former boyfriend, published the Zoe Post, a 9, 425-word blog post that quoted from personal chat logs, emails, and text messages to describe their relationship. The post was linked on 4chan, where some erroneously claimed the relationship had induced Grayson to publish a review of Depression Quest. Grayson had never reviewed Quinns games and Graysons only article for Kotaku mentioning her was published before their relationship began, Gjoni later updated his blog post to acknowledge this. After Gjonis blog post, Quinn and her family were subjected to a virulent, the people behind this campaign initially referred to it as the quinnspiracy, but adopted the Twitter hashtag Gamergate after it was coined by actor Adam Baldwin near the end of August
30.
Mac Tonight
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Mac Tonight is a fictional character who appeared in television commercials for McDonalds restaurants in the 1980s, known for his crescent moon head, sunglasses, and piano-playing. The campaign used the music of Mack the Knife, composed by Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill, originally conceived as a promotion to increase dinner sales by Southern California licensees, Mac Tonights popularity led McDonalds to take it nationwide in 1987. McDonalds ceased airing the commercials after settling a lawsuit brought by Darins estate, the campaign was created locally for California McDonalds franchisees by Los Angeles firm Davis, Johnson, Mogul & Colombatto. The character, who plays a piano on a cloud, was intended to garner a cult-like following. After Christmas 1986, the campaign expanded to cities on the American West Coast. A crowd of 1,500 attended the visit of a character to a Los Angeles McDonalds. Happy Meal toys of the character were also produced, Doug Jones performed Mac Tonight for 27 spots over three years. In 2013, Doug Jones said that hats when my career took a turn that I was not expecting, I didnt know that was a career option. So, the referrals came from there, Mac Tonights voice was provided by Roger Behr. In 1997 and 1998, McDonalds sponsored NASCAR Hall of Famer Bill Elliott, in 2016, the Mac Tonight theme was McDonalds driver Jamie McMurrays Chip Ganassi Racing No.1 Chevrolet SS throwback scheme for Darlington Raceways Southern 500. Mac Tonight was reintroduced in advertisements in Southeast Asia in 2007, the Simpsons episode Kiss Kiss Bang Bangalore featured a cardboard cutout of Mac Tonight. Mac Tonight was also featured as a cover for Saint Pepsis album Late Night Delight, Moon Man is an alternative interpretation of Mac Tonight that advocates white supremacy, terrorism and genocide. The character was created in 2007 by the user farkle on the internet community YTMND, using a text-to-speech program by AT&T, other users made Moon Man sing and rap. The first such video had him performing Money in the Bank by Lil Scrappy, further videos were made portraying Moon Man as a racist. The Moon Man character is not endorsed by McDonalds, in 2015, the meme spread to websites such as 4chan and 8chan, as part of the alt-right movement. New songs were made supporting Donald Trump and police brutality and celebrating the Pulse nightclub shooting, youTube consistently removes Moon Man videos for violating its community guidelines on hate speech, and AT&T have edited its text-to-speech software to filter out the characters name and obscenities. Liberal website Salon compared Moon Man to Pepe the Frog, another character made into a racist meme. Information on Mac Tonight at Advertisingiconmuseum. com Doug Jones as Mac Tonight
