1.
Extinct language
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An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if it has no living descendants. A dead language is one that is no longer the language of any community, even if it still in use. A language that currently has living native speakers is called a modern language, as of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are languages in danger of extinction, one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050. Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death while being replaced by a different one. For example, some Native American languages were replaced by English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, such languages are sometimes also referred to as dead languages, but more typically as classical language. g. Old English or Old High German relative to their descendants, English. Minor languages are endangered due to economic and cultural globalization. Second, the gradual process of language death may occur over several generations. The third and most rare outcome is for the group to maintain as much of its native language as possible, while borrowing elements of the dominant languages grammar. Institutions such as the system, as well as forms of media such as the Internet, television. Language revival is the attempt to re-introduce a recently-extinct language in use by a new generation of native speakers. The optimistic neologism sleeping beauty languages has been used to such a hope. Hebrew is an example of a language that has successfully been revived for everyday use. The revival of Hebrew has been successful due to extraordinarily favourable conditions. Revival attempts of minor languages with no status as liturgical language typically have more modest results and this is a list of languages reported as having become extinct after the year 2000. For a more complete list, see List of extinct languages
2.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
3.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
4.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
5.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
6.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
7.
Swaziland
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Swaziland, officially the Kingdom of Eswatini, is a sovereign state in Southern Africa. It is neighboured by Mozambique to its northeast and by South Africa to its north, west and south, the country and its people take their names from Mswati II, the 19th-century king under whose rule Swazi territory was expanded and unified. At no more than 200 kilometres north to south and 130 kilometres east to west, despite its size, its climate and topography are diverse, ranging from a cool and mountainous highveld to a hot and dry lowveld. The population is primarily ethnic Swazis whose language is Swati and they established their kingdom in the mid-18th century under the leadership of Ngwane III, the present boundaries were drawn up in 1881. After the Anglo-Boer War, Swaziland was a British protectorate from 1903 until 1967 and it regained its independence on 6 September 1968. The country is a monarchy, ruled by iNgwenyamaiNgwenyama Mswati III since 1986. He is head of state and appoints the prime ministers. Elections are held five years to determine the House of Assembly majority. The current constitution was adopted in 2005, Swaziland is a developing country with a small economy. Its GDP per capita of $9,714 means it is classified as a country with a lower-middle income, as a member of the Southern African Customs Union and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, its main local trading partner is South Africa. Swazilands currency, the lilangeni, is pegged to the South African rand, Swazilands major overseas trading partners are the United States and the European Union. The majority of the employment is provided by its agricultural. Swaziland is a member of the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Swazi population faces major health issues, HIV/AIDS and, to a lesser extent, tuberculosis are serious challenges. As of 2013, Swaziland has a life expectancy of 50 years. The population of Swaziland is fairly young with an age of 20.5 years. The present population growth rate is 1. 195%, Swaziland is well known for its culture. Umhlanga, held in August/September and incwala, the kingship dance held in December/January, are the nations most important events, artifacts indicating human activity dating back to the early Stone Age, around 200,000 years ago, have been found in the Kingdom of Swaziland. Prehistoric rock art paintings date from c.25,000 BC, the earliest known inhabitants of the region were Khoisan hunter-gatherers
8.
Palatal clicks
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Not to be confused with the alveolar clicks. Unicode uses the obsolete description alveolar click for the palatal-click letter ⟨ǂ⟩, the palatal or palato-alveolar clicks are a family of click consonants found only in Africa. The tongue is flat, and is pulled back rather than down as in the postalveolar clicks. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the place of articulation of sounds is ⟨ǂ⟩. An older variant, the double-barred esh, ⟨ ʄ ⟩, is sometimes seen and this may be combined with a second letter or a diacritic to indicate the manner of articulation, though this is commonly omitted for tenuis clicks. In the orthographies of individual languages, palatal clicks may be either with digraphs based on the pipe letter of the IPA. Nama and most Saan languages use the former, conventions for the latter include multigraphs based on ⟨ç⟩ in Juǀʼhoansi and originally in Naro, the latter since changed to ⟨tc⟩, and on ⟨qc⟩. In the 19th century, ⟨v⟩ was sometimes used, this might be the source of the Doke letter for the palatal click, ⟨ↆ⟩. Features of palato-alveolar clicks, The basic articulation may be voiced, nasal, aspirated, glottalized, the forward place of articulation is broad, with the tongue flat against the roof of the mouth from the alveolar ridge to the palate. The release is a sharp, plosive sound, clicks may be oral or nasal, which means that the airflow is either restricted to the mouth, or passes through the nose as well. They are central consonants, which means they are produced by releasing the airstream at the center of the tongue, the release of the forward closure produces the click sound. Voiced and nasal clicks have a simultaneous pulmonic egressive airstream, palatal clicks only occur in the southern African Khoisan languages, where they are extremely common, and in the single Bantu language Yeyi. Ekoka. Kung has a series of laminal postalveolar-to-palatal clicks with a noisy and these have been variously described as fricated alveolar clicks and as retroflex clicks. Like the clicks they derive from, they do not have the tongue root. A provisional transcription for the click is ⟨ǃ͡s⟩, though this misleadingly suggests that the clicks are affricates. Alveolar clicks Bilabial clicks Dental clicks Lateral clicks Retroflex clicks Index of phonetics articles
9.
Alveolar clicks
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The alveolar or postalveolar clicks are a family of click consonants found only in Africa and in the Damin ritual jargon of Australia. The tongue is more or less concave, and is pulled down rather than back as in the palatal clicks, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the place of articulation of these sounds is ⟨ǃ⟩. The symbol is not a mark in origin, but rather a pipe with a subscript dot, ⟨ ǀ̣ ⟩. Prior to 1989, ⟨ʗ⟩ was the IPA letter for the clicks. The tail of ⟨ʗ⟩ may be the tail of retroflex consonants in the IPA, either letter may be combined with a second letter to indicate the manner of articulation, though this is commonly omitted for tenuis clicks, and increasingly a diacritic is used instead. Common alveolar clicks are, The last can be heard in the sample at right. The nasal click may also be heard at the right, in the orthographies of individual languages, the letters and digraphs for alveolar clicks may be based on either the pipe symbol of the IPA, ⟨ǃ⟩, or on the Latin ⟨q⟩ of Bantu convention. Nama and most Saan languages use the former, Naro, Sandawe, features of postalveolar clicks, The basic articulation may be voiced, nasal, aspirated, glottalized, etc. Clicks may be oral or nasal, which means that the airflow is restricted to the mouth. They are central consonants, which means they are produced by releasing the airstream at the center of the tongue, the release of the forward closure produces the click sound. Voiced and nasal clicks have a simultaneous pulmonic egressive airstream, english does not have an alveolar click as a phoneme, but a plain alveolar click does occur in mimesis, as a sound children use to imitate a horse trotting. In Sandawe, alveolar clicks commonly have a release, with the underside of the tip of the tongue subsequently striking the floor of the mouth. This allophone has been called flapped and slapped, sometimes the percussive slap is louder than the release, resulting in a sound that has been characterized as a cluck. The symbol for the sublingual percussive component is ⟨¡⟩ in the extensions to the IPA, the percussive allophones of the five Sandawe alveolar clicks are. A series of clicks in Ekoka. Kung have been described as retroflex or fricated alveolar clicks. Bilabial clicks Dental clicks Lateral clicks Palatal clicks Retroflex clicks Index of phonetics articles
10.
Nguni languages
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The Nguni languages are a group of Bantu languages spoken in southern Africa by the Nguni people. Nguni languages include Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Hlubi, Phuthi, Bhaca, Lala, Nhlangwini, the appellation Nguni derives from the Nguni cattle type. Ngoni is an older, or a shifted, variant and it is sometimes argued that use of Nguni as a generic label suggests a historical monolithic unity of the peoples in question, where in fact the situation may have been more complex. The linguistic use of the label is relatively stable, within a subset of Southern Bantu, the label Nguni is used both genetically and typologically. On more than one occasion, proposals have been put forward to create a unified Nguni language, in scholarly literature on southern African languages, the linguistic classificatory category Nguni is traditionally considered to subsume two subgroups, Zunda Nguni and Tekela Nguni. Spreading of high tones to the antepenultimate syllable, a distinction between high and low tones on noun prefixes, indicating different grammatical roles, accompanied in some cases by an overt pre-prefix called the augment. Development breathy-voiced consonants, acting as depressor consonants, compare the following sentences, Note, Xhosa ⟨tsh⟩ = Phuthi ⟨tjh⟩ = IPA, Phuthi ⟨tsh⟩ =, Zulu ⟨sh⟩ = IPA, but in the environment cited here /ʃ/ is nasally permuted to. Phuthi ⟨jh⟩ = breathy voiced = Xhosa, Zulu ⟨j⟩, proto-Nguni is the reconstructed ancestor of the Nguni languages. The sintu writing system, Isibheqe Sohlamvu, for Southern Bantu languages, is used to represent all Nguni languages consistently under one orthography and this includes Tekela languages, which, with the exception of Swati, are unstandardised in the Latin alphabet. Ngoni separated from all other Nguni languages subsequent to the political and social upheaval within southern Africa. IsiNgqumo is a spoken by the homosexuals of South Africa who speak Bantu languages, as opposed to Gayle. IsiNgqumo is based on a Nguni lexicon, aspects of Tone and Voice in Phuthi. Some features of the phonetic and grammatical structure of Baca, early Nguni History, The Linguistic Evidence and Its Correlation with Archeology and Oral Tradition. Wright, J. Politics, ideology, and the invention of the nguni, resistance and ideology in settler societies. Shaw, E. M. and Davison, P, the Southern Nguni South African Museum, Cape Town Ndlovu, Sambulo
11.
Bantu languages
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The Bantu languages, technically the Narrow Bantu languages, constitute a traditional branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Bantu languages are spoken largely east and south of present-day Cameroon, that is, in the regions commonly known as Central Africa, Southeast Africa, and Southern Africa. Parts of the Bantu area include languages from other language families, the Bantu language with the largest total number of speakers is Swahili, however, the majority of its speakers know it as a second language. According to Ethnologue, there are over 180 million L2 speakers, other major languages include Zulu with 27 million speakers and Shona with about 11 million speakers. Ethnologue separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which, the Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in West Africa. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, the technical term Bantu, meaning human beings or simply people, was first used by Wilhelm Bleek, as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the structures of Bantu languages. In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid groups has been called into doubt, a coherent classification of Narrow Bantu will likely need to exclude many of the Zone A and perhaps Zone B languages. There is no true genealogical classification of the Bantu languages, the most widely used classification, the alphanumeric coding system developed by Guthrie, is mainly geographic. The two groups have described as having mirror-image tone systems, where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone. Northwest Bantu is clearly not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 Tervuren proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, glottolog has incorporated many of these into their classification. The languages that share Dahls Law may also form a valid group, the infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu. The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the use of affixes. Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, the class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plural is indicated by a change of class, with a change of prefix
12.
Uvular consonant
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Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. Uvulars may be stops, fricatives, nasals, trills, or approximants, though the IPA does not provide a separate symbol for the approximant, and the symbol for the voiced fricative is used instead. Uvular affricates can certainly be made but are rare, they occur in some southern High-German dialects, as well as in a few African, uvular consonants are typically incompatible with advanced tongue root, and they often cause retraction of neighboring vowels. Uvular consonants are found in many African and Middle-Eastern languages, most notably Arabic. In parts of the Caucasus mountains and northwestern North America, nearly every language has uvular stops, two uvular Rs are found in north-western Europe. It was once thought that they spread from northern French, the voiceless uvular stop is transcribed as in both the IPA and SAMPA. It is pronounced somewhat like the velar stop, but with the middle of the tongue further back on the velum. The voiced equivalent of, is much rarer and it is like the voiced velar stop, but articulated in the same uvular position as. Few languages use this sound, but it is found in Persian and in several Northeast Caucasian languages and it may also occur as an allophone of another uvular consonant - in Kazakh, the voiced uvular stop is an allophone of the voiced uvular fricative after the velar nasal. The voiceless uvular fricative is similar to the velar fricative. It is found instead of in some dialects of German, Spanish, uvular flaps have been reported for Kube and for the variety of Khmer spoken in Battambang. The Tlingit language of the Alaskan Panhandle has ten uvular consonants, in featural phonology, uvular consonants are most often considered to contrast with velar consonants in terms of being and. Prototypical uvulars also appear to be, since palatalized consonants are, the appearance of palatalized uvulars in a few languages such as Ubykh is difficult to account for. According to Vaux, they hold the features, the last being the distinguishing feature from a palatalized velar consonant. The uvular trill is used in dialects of French, German, Dutch, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian, as well as sometimes in Modern Hebrew. As with most trills, uvular trills are often reduced to a single contact, unlike other uvular consonants, the uvular trill is articulated without a retraction of the tongue, and therefore doesnt lower neighboring high vowels the way uvular stops commonly do. Several other languages, including Inuktitut, Abkhaz, Uyghur and some varieties of Arabic, have a voiced uvular fricative, in Lakhota the uvular trill is an allophone of the voiced uvular fricative before /i/. Uvularization Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Guttural R Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
13.
Bilabial consonant
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In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are, Owere Igbo has a six-way contrast among bilabial stops, approximately 0. 7% of the worlds languages lack bilabial consonants altogether, including Tlingit, Chipewyan, Oneida, and Wichita. The extensions to the IPA also define a bilabial percussive for striking the lips together, a lip-smack in the non-percussive sense of the lips noisily parting would be. The IPA chart shades out bilabial lateral consonants, which is read as indicating that such sounds are not possible. The fricatives and are often lateral, but no language makes a distinction for centrality so the allophony is not noticeable, place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages, mcDorman, Richard E. Labial Instability in Sound Change, Explanations for the Loss of /p/
14.
Alveolar consonant
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Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue, as in English, or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip, as in French and Spanish. The laminal alveolar articulation is often called dental, because the tip of the tongue can be seen near to or touching the teeth. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have symbols for the alveolar consonants. Rather, the symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized like English palato-alveolar sh. To disambiguate, the bridge may be used for a dental consonant, note that differs from dental in that the former is a sibilant and the latter is not. Differs from postalveolar in being unpalatalized, the bare letters, etc. cannot be assumed to specifically represent alveolars. If it is necessary to specify a consonant as alveolar, a diacritic from the Extended IPA may be used, the letters ⟨s, t, n, l⟩ are frequently called alveolar, and the language examples below are all alveolar sounds. Alveolar consonants are transcribed in the IPA as follows, The alveolar or dental consonants and are, along with, nonetheless, there are a few languages that lack them. A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound, such as Makah, lack nasals and therefore, colloquial Samoan, however, lacks both and, but it has a lateral alveolar approximant /l/. In Standard Hawaiian, is an allophone of /k/, but /l/, in labioalveolars, the lower lip contacts the alveolar ridge. Such sounds are typically the result of a severe overbite, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
15.
Palatal consonant
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Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate. Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex, the most common type of palatal consonant is the extremely common approximant, which ranks as among the ten most common sounds in the worlds languages. The nasal is also common, occurring in around 35 percent of the languages, in most of which its equivalent obstruent is not the stop. Consonants with other primary articulations may be palatalized, that is, for example, English has such a palatal component, although its primary articulation involves the tip of the tongue and the upper gum. In phonology, alveolo-palatal, palatoalveolar and palatovelar consonants are commonly grouped as palatals, sometimes palatalized alveolars or dentals can be analyzed in this manner as well. Palatal consonants can be distinguished from palatalized consonants and consonant clusters of a consonant, palatal and palatalized consonants are both single phonemes, whereas a sequence of a consonant and is logically two phonemes. Irish distinguishes the palatal nasal /ɲ/ from the alveolar nasal /nʲ/. In fact, some conservative Irish dialects have two palatalized alveolar nasals, distinguished as fortis vs. lenis. Also, languages that have sequences of consonants and /j/, but no separate palatal or palatalized consonants and this is due to the principle of least effort and is an example of the general phenomenon of coarticulation. For a table of examples of palatal /ɲ ʎ/ in the Romance languages, palatal consonants are written this way in the International Phonetic Alphabet, Palatalization Palatalization Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages
16.
Velar consonant
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Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth. They often become automatically fronted, that is partly or completely palatal before a front vowel, and retracted. Palatalised velars are sometimes referred to as palatovelars, many languages also have labialized velars, such as, in which the articulation is accompanied by rounding of the lips. There are also labial-velar consonants, which are articulated at the velum and at the lips. This distinction disappears with the approximant since labialization involves adding of a labial approximant articulation to a sound, a velar trill or tap is not possible, see the shaded boxes on the table of pulmonic consonants. The velar consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are, The velar consonant is the most common consonant in human languages, the only languages recorded to lack velars may be Xavante, Tahitian, Wutung, Vanimo, Nori, and Waimiri-Atroarí. An areal feature of the Pacific Northwest coast is that historical *k became palatalized in many languages, likewise, historical *k’ has become and historical *x has become, there was no *g or *ŋ. In the Northwest Caucasian languages, historical * has also become palatalized, becoming /kʲ/ in Ubykh, in both regions the languages retain a labiovelar series as well as uvular consonants. In the languages of those families that retain plain velars, both the plain and labialized velars are pre-velar, perhaps to make them distinct from the uvulars which may be post-velar. Prevelar consonants are susceptible to palatalization, a similar system, contrasting *kʲ with *kʷ and leaving *k marginal at best, is reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European. Apart from the stop, no other velar consonant is particularly common, even the. Of course, there can be no phoneme /ɡ/ in a language that lacks voiced stops, like Mandarin Chinese, of the languages surveyed in the World Atlas of Language Structures, about 10% of languages that otherwise have /p b t d k/ are missing /ɡ/. Pirahã has both a and a phonetically, however, the does not behave as other consonants, and the argument has been made that it is phonemically /hi/, leaving Pirahã with only /ɡ/ as an underlyingly velar consonant. Hawaiian does not distinguish from, ⟨k⟩ tends toward at the beginning of utterances, before, since Hawaiian has no, and ⟨w⟩ varies between and, it is not clearly meaningful to say that Hawaiian has phonemic velar consonants. Several Khoisan languages have limited numbers or distributions of pulmonic velar consonants, khoekhoe, for example, does not allow velars in medial or final position, but in Juǀhoan velars are rare even in initial position. Normal velar consonants are dorso-velar, The dorsum of the rises to contact the velum of the roof of the mouth. In disordered speech there are also velo-dorsal stops, with the articulation, The velum lowers to contact the tongue. In the extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, these are transcribed by reversing the IPA letter for a velar consonant, velarization Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian
17.
Glottal consonant
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Glottal consonants are consonants using the glottis as their primary articulation. However, glottal consonants behave as consonants in many languages. For example, in Literary Arabic, most words are formed from a root C-C-C consisting of three consonants, which are inserted into templates such as /CaːCiC/ or /maCCuːC/. The glottal consonants /h/ and /ʔ/ can occupy any of the three root consonant slots, just like normal consonants such as /k/ or /n/, glottal consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet, In many languages, the fricatives are not true fricatives. This is a usage of the word. They instead represent transitional states of the glottis without a place of articulation. Is a breathy-voiced transition, and could be transcribed as, the glottal stop occurs in many languages. Often all vocalic onsets are preceded by a stop, for example in German. The Hawaiian language writes the glottal stop as the ‘okina ‘, because the glottis is necessarily closed for the glottal stop, it cannot be voiced. So-called voiced glottal stops are not full stops, but rather creaky voiced glottal approximants that may be transcribed and they occur as the intervocalic allophone of glottal stop in many languages. Gimi contrasts /ʔ/ and /ʔ̞/, corresponding to /k/ and /ɡ/ in related languages, glottalic consonant Glottalization Place of articulation Index of phonetics articles Guttural Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages
18.
Lateral consonant
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A lateral is an l-like consonant in which the airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but it is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth. Most commonly, the tip of the tongue makes contact with the teeth or the upper gum just behind the teeth. The most common laterals are approximants and belong to the class of liquids, plosives are never lateral, but they may have lateral release. The distinction is meaningless for nasals and for consonants articulated in the throat, consonants are not necessarily lateral or central. Some, such as Japanese r, are not defined by centrality, English has one lateral phoneme, the lateral approximant /l/, which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in lady or fly, is called clear l, in some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes. East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have, in many British accents, dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide. This process turns tell into something like, as must have happened with talk or walk at some stage, in central and Venice dialects of Venetian, intervocalic /l/ has turned into a semivocalic, so that the written word ła bała is pronounced. The orthography uses the letter ł to represent this phoneme, many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish. In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant, many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, however, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant. Also, a diacritic may be added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant, however, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States. For example, Tlingit has /tɬ, tɬʰ, tɬʼ, ɬ, ɬʼ/, other examples from the same area include Nuu-chah-nulth and Kutenai, and elsewhere, Chukchi and Kabardian. Standard Tibetan has a lateral approximant, usually romanized as lh. A uvular lateral approximant has been reported to occur in some speakers of American English, pashto has a retroflex lateral flap. There are a number of lateral click consonants,17 occur in. Xóõ. Lateral trills are also possible, but they do not occur in any known language and they may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow
19.
Nasal consonant
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Examples of nasals in English are and, in words such as nose and mouth. Nasal occlusives are nearly universal in human languages, there are also other kinds of nasal consonants in some languages. Nearly all nasal consonants are nasal occlusives, in which air escapes through the nose but not through the mouth, the oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound. Rarely, non-occlusive consonants may be nasalized, most nasals are voiced, and in fact, the nasal sounds and are among the most common sounds cross-linguistically. Voiceless nasals occur in a few such as Burmese, Welsh, Icelandic. In terms of acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which means that they do not significantly restrict the escape of air, however, nasals are also obstruents in their articulation because the flow of air through the mouth is blocked. This duality, a sonorant airflow through the nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, for example, nasals tend to pattern with other sonorants such as and, but in many languages, they may develop from or into stops. Acoustically, nasals have bands of energy at around 200 and 2,000 Hz.1, ^ The symbol ⟨n⟩ is commonly used to represent the dental nasal as well, rather than ⟨n̪⟩, as it is rarely distinguished from the alveolar nasal. Examples of languages containing nasal occlusives, The voiced retroflex nasal is is a sound in Languages of India. Many Germanic languages, including German, Dutch, English and Swedish, as well as varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and Cantonese, have, tamil has a six-fold distinction between, and. Catalan, Occitan, Spanish, and Italian have, as phonemes, nevertheless, in several American dialects of Spanish, there is no palatal nasal but only a palatalized nasal, as in English canyon. In Brazilian Portuguese and Angolan Portuguese, written ⟨nh⟩, is pronounced as, a nasal palatal approximant. Semivowels in Portuguese often nasalize before and always after nasal vowels, resulting in, what would be coda nasal occlusives in other West Iberian languages is only slightly pronounced before dental consonants. Outside this environment the nasality is spread over the vowel or become a nasal diphthong, the Mapos Buang language of New Guinea has an unusual three-way dorsal distinction between, and uvular. The presence of on a level is extremely rare cross-lingually, especially when the language also has other phonemic dorsal nasals present as in the case of Mapos Buang. The term nasal occlusive is generally abbreviated to nasal, however, there are also nasalized fricatives, nasalized flaps, nasal glides, and nasal vowels, as in French, Portuguese, and Polish. In the IPA, nasal vowels and nasalized consonants are indicated by placing a tilde over the vowel or consonant in question, French sang, a few languages have phonemic voiceless nasal occlusives. Among them are Icelandic, Faroese, Burmese, Jalapa Mazatec, Kildin Sami, Welsh, iaai of New Caledonia has an unusually large number of them, with /m̥ m̥ʷ n̪̊ ɳ̊ ɲ̊ ŋ̊/, along with a number of voiceless approximants
20.
Voice (phonetics)
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Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterise speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless or voiced. It can also refer to a classification of sounds that tend to be associated with vocal cord vibration. That is the primary use in phonology to describe phonemes or in phonetics to describe phones. At the articulatory level, a sound is one in which the vocal cords vibrate. For example, voicing accounts for the difference between the pair of sounds associated with the English letters s and z, the two sounds are transcribed as and to distinguish them from the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations, depending on the context. If one places the fingers on the box, one can feel a vibration while zzzz is pronounced. In most European languages, with an exception being Icelandic, vowels. When used to classify speech sounds, voiced and unvoiced are merely used to group phones and phonemes together for the purposes of classification. The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and voiced pairs of consonants, in addition, there is a diacritic for voicedness, ⟨◌̬⟩. Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiceless sounds, in Unicode, the symbols are encoded U+032C ◌̬ COMBINING CARON BELOW and U+0325 ◌̥ COMBINING RING BELOW. For the example, ₍s̬₎ could be an with voicing in the middle, partial voicing can also be indicated in the normal IPA with transcriptions like and. The distinction between the use of voice and the phonological use rests on the distinction between phone and phoneme. The difference is best illustrated by a rough example, the English word nods is made up of a sequence of phonemes, represented symbolically as /nɒdz/, or the sequence of /n/, /ɒ/, /d/, and /z/. Each symbol is a representation of a phoneme. That awareness is an inherent part of speakers mental grammar that allows them to recognise words, however, phonemes are not sounds in themselves. Rather, phonemes are, in a sense, converted to phones before being spoken. The /z/ phoneme, for instance, can actually be pronounced as either the phone or the phone since /z/ is frequently devoiced, even in fluent speech, the sequence of phones for nods might be transcribed as or, depending on the presence or strength of this devoicing. While the phone has articulatory voicing, the phone does not have it, what complicates the matter is that for English, consonant phonemes are classified as either voiced or voiceless even though it is not the primary distinctive feature between them
21.
Affricate consonant
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An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation. It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair, English has two affricate phonemes, and, often spelled ch and j. However, voiced affricates other than are relatively uncommon, for several places of articulation they are not attested at all. Much less common are labiodental affricates, such as in German and Izi, or velar affricates, worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the corresponding stop consonants, and, are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the release is lateral, such as the sound found in Nahuatl. Some other Athabaskan languages, such as Dene Suline, have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral, and. Affricates are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by a combination of two letters, one for the element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, the tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because this is more legible. Thus, ⟨p͡f, t͡sʼ, d͡z, t͡ɬ, d͡ɮ, t͡ʃʼ, d͡ʒ, t͡ɕʼ, d͡ʑ, t͡ʂʼ, d͡ʐ , k͡xʼ⟩ or ⟨p͜f, t͜sʼ, d͜z, t͜ɬ, d͜ɮ, t͜ʃʼ, d͜ʒ, t͜ɕʼ, d͜ʑ, t͜ʂʼ, d͜ʐ , k͜xʼ⟩. A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript. ⟨pᶠ, tˢ, dᶻ, tᶴ, dᶾ, however, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate. Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available in Unicode for the six common affricates ⟨ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ⟩. Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a stop plus a fricative, however, in languages where there is no such distinction, such as English, the tie bars are commonly dropped. In other phonetic transcription systems, such as the Americanist system, the affricates, are transcribed respectively as ⟨c⟩ or ⟨¢⟩, ⟨j⟩, ⟨ƶ⟩, or ⟨ʒ⟩, ⟨c⟩ or ⟨č⟩, ⟨ǰ⟩, ⟨ǧ⟩, or ⟨ǯ⟩, ⟨ƛ⟩, and ⟨λ⟩ or ⟨dl⟩. Within the IPA, and are transcribed with the symbols for the palatal stops, ⟨c⟩. In some languages, affricates contrast phonemically with stop–fricative sequences, Polish affricate /t͡ʂ/ in czysta clean versus stop–fricative /tʂ/ in trzysta three hundred, klallam affricate /t͡s/ in k’ʷə́nc look at me versus stop–fricative /ts/ in k’ʷə́nts he looks at it. The exact phonetic difference varies between languages, in stop–fricative sequences, the stop has a release burst before the fricative starts, but in affricates, the fricative element is the release. Phonologically, stop–fricative sequences may have a boundary between the two segments, but not necessarily. In English, /ts/ and /dz/ are considered phonemically stop–fricative sequences because they contain a morpheme boundary
22.
Fricative consonant
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Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. This turbulent airflow is called frication, a particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants. When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a channel, but in addition. English, and are examples of sibilants, the usage of two other terms is less standardized, Spirant can be a synonym of fricative, or refer to non-sibilant fricatives only. Strident could mean just sibilant, but some authors include also labiodental, lateral or uvular fricatives in the class. However, at the place of articulation, the tongue may take several shapes, domed, laminal, or apical, and each of these is given a separate symbol. Prototypical retroflexes are subapical and palatal, but they are written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, voiced uvular fricative voiced pharyngeal fricative No language distinguishes voiced fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeal, approximants are more numerous than fricatives, a fricative realization may be specified by adding the uptack to the letters. Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, however, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives. In addition, is called a voiceless labial-velar fricative. True doubly articulated fricatives may not occur in any language, Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis fricatives. Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants, however, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare. Contrasts with in Korean, aspirated fricatives are found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages. The record may be Cone Tibetan, which has four contrastive aspirated fricatives, /sʰ/ /ɕʰ/, /ʂʰ/, some South Arabian languages have /z̃/, Umbundu has /ṽ/, and Kwangali and Souletin Basque have /h̃/. In Coatzospan Mixtec, appear allophonically before a vowel, and in Igbo nasality is a feature of the syllable. H is not a fricative in English, until its extinction, Ubykh may have been the language with the most fricatives, some of which did not have dedicated symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English, by contrast, approximately 8. 7% of the worlds languages have no phonemic fricatives at all
23.
Click consonant
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Clicks are speech sounds that occur as consonants in many languages of Southern Africa and in three languages of East Africa. Examples familiar to English-speakers are the tsk. tsk. or tut-tut used to express disapproval or pity, used to spur on a horse, and the clip-clop. Sound children make with their tongue to imitate a horse trotting, technically, clicks are obstruents articulated with two closures in the mouth, one forward and one at the back. The enclosed pocket of air is rarefied by an action of the tongue. Click consonants occur at five places of articulation. IPA represents a click by placing the assigned symbol for the place of click articulation adjacent to a symbol for a sound at the rear place of articulation. The IPA symbols are used in writing most Khoisan languages, but Bantu languages such as Zulu typically use Latin ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩ and ⟨q⟩ for dental, lateral, the easiest clicks for English speakers are the dental clicks written with a single pipe, ǀ. They are all sharp squeaky sounds made by sucking on the front teeth, a simple dental click is used in English to express pity or to shame someone, and sometimes to call an animal, and is written tsk. in American English and tut. in British English. Curiously, in Italian this sound means no used as an answer to a direct question, next most familiar to English speakers are the lateral clicks written with a double pipe, ǁ. They are also sounds, though less sharp than ǀ. A simple lateral click is made in English to get a horse moving, then there are the labial clicks, written with a bulls eye, ʘ. These are lip-smacking sounds, but without the pursing of the found in a kiss. The above clicks sound like affricates, in that they involve a lot of friction, the other two families are more abrupt sounds that do not have this friction. Like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle and these sounds can be quite loud. Finally, the clicks, ǂ, are made with a flat tongue. Clicks occur in all three Khoisan language families of southern Africa, where they may be the most numerous consonants, to a lesser extent they occur in three neighbouring groups of Bantu languages—which borrowed them, directly or indirectly, from Khoisan. These sounds occur not only in borrowed vocabulary, but have spread to native Bantu words as well, some creolized varieties of Afrikaans, such as Oorlams, retain clicks in Khoekhoe words. Three languages in East Africa use clicks, Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania, and Dahalo and it is thought the latter may remain from an episode of language shift
24.
Nasal clicks
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Nasal clicks are click consonants pronounced with nasal airflow. All click types have nasal variants, and these are attested in four or five phonations, voiced, voiceless, aspirated, murmured, modally voiced nasal clicks are ubiquitous, They are found in every language which has clicks as part of its regular sound inventory. This includes Damin, which has only nasal clicks, and Dahalo and they are fully nasalized throughout, like the pulmonic nasal and. That is, you pronounce a uvular sound with the back of your tongue, and make the click sound in the middle of it using the front of your tongue. They are typically transcribed something like ⟨ᵑǃ⟩, in Khoekhoe, they are written ⟨ǃn ǁn ǀn ǂn⟩, in Juǀʼhõa as ⟨nǃ nǁ nǀ nǂ⟩, and in Zulu, Xhosa, Sandawe, and Naro as ⟨nc nx nq ntc ⟩. They are typically transcribed something like ⟨ᵑǃʰ⟩ or ⟨ᵑ̊ǃʰ⟩, in Khoekhoe, they are written ⟨ǃh ǁh ǀh ǂh⟩, however, when embedded in a phrase after a vowel they tend to be partially voiced, the preceding vowel will also be nasalized or the click prenasalized. The description above is typical, characteristic of such as Khoekhoe. However, aspirated nasal clicks have a more extreme pronunciation in Taa, in this language they are not voiced after vowel sounds except in rapid speech, and in addition do not have nasal airflow, Trail reports that they instead have active ingressive pulmonic airflow. Breathy-voiced nasal clicks are less common and they are known from. Kung languages such as Juǀʼhoansi, from Taa, and from the Bantu languages Xhosa and Zulu. They are pronounced like modally voiced nasal clicks, but in addition are followed by a period of murmured phonation, and like other breathy-voiced consonants, may have a depressor effect on tone. They are typically transcribed something like ⟨ᵑǃʰ⟩ or ⟨ᵑǃʱ⟩, in Juǀʼhõa, they are written ⟨nǃh nǁh nǀh nǂh⟩, Glottalized nasal clicks are extremely common, but are covered in another article, Glottalized clicks. There are also preglottalized nasal clicks and these are pronounced like modally voiced nasal clicks, but the click release is preceded by a short period of nasalization that has a glottal-stop onset. They are considered unitary consonants, and not sequences of stop plus nasal click. They are only reported from a few languages, Taa, Ekoka. Kung, Glottalized clicks Pulmonic-contour clicks Ejective-contour clicks
25.
Glottalized clicks
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Glottalized clicks are click consonants pronounced with closure of the glottis. All click types have glottalized variants and they are very common, All of the Khoisan languages of Africa have them, as does Dahalo and the Bantu languages Yeyi and Xhosa. To pronounce them, you make a stop, which stops the flow of air. In all languages which have them, glottalized clicks are nasalized, glottalized nasal clicks are formed by closing the glottis so that the click is pronounced in silence, however, the nasal passage is left open, and any preceding vowel will be nasalized. They are typically transcribed something like. ’ or ŋ. ’ or ŋ̊. ’, when full glottal closer is made, there is no nasal airflow during the click itself, and there is a period of silence after the click and before the pronunciation of the vowel. That is, they are pronounced, etc, however, in many languages the glottal closure is not complete, in which case they are pronounced with accompanying voiceless nasal airflow and transcribed ⟨ŋ̊. ʔ⟩, etc. A more general transcription is ⟨ᵑ. ˀ⟩, superscripting the nasal and glottal components indicates that they are articulated simultaneously with the click, initially and in citation form, the nasal component may be inaudible. That is, in this position glottalized clicks differ from plain clicks in the gap between click and vowel, and from aspirated clicks in that gap is silent rather than noisy. In canonical form, a stop occurs between the release of the click and the start of the following vowel. However, in practice the glottalization often leaks, with a transition into the vowel. However, in position or embedded in a phrase after a vowel the nasalization can usually be heard. This is somewhat similar to aspirated nasal clicks, though in the case the nasal airflow continues through the click itself. In neither case is the following vowel normally nasalized, something which occurs with simple nasal clicks in languages like Gǀui, in a few languages—Gǀui, Taa, ǂ’Amkoe, and, in Millers analysis, Yeyi—there is in addition a series of oral, non-contour glottalized clicks. Miller treats the glottalization in these clicks as phonation, so that both oral and nasal clicks occur with five phonations, tenuis, voiced, aspirated, murmured, other series of glottalized clicks have only been reported from two languages, Taa and ǂ’Amkoe. Taa distinguishes the singular and plural of many nouns via a voiceless vs. voiced initial consonant, in the voiced versions the glottalization is delayed, so that the hold of the click is partially voiced or nasalized, that is, vs. and vs. The release of the voiced glottal click is creaky, as the voiceless nasal often is, in Millers treatment of phonation, this is perhaps a morphological contrast superimposed on the basic five-phonation system. A few languages also have preglottalized nasal clicks and these are pronounced like ordinary voiced nasal clicks, but are preceded by a very short period of prenasalization that has a glottal-stop onset. They are considered unitary consonants, and not sequences of stop plus nasal click
26.
Ethnologue
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Ethnologue, Languages of the World is a web-based publication that contains information about the 7,099 living languages in its 20th edition, which was released in 2017. The publication is well respected and widely used by linguists, Ethnologue is published by SIL International, a Christian linguistic service organization with an international office in Dallas, Texas. Ethnologue follows general linguistic criteria, which are based primarily on mutual intelligibility, shared language intelligibility features are complex, and usually include etymological and grammatical evidence that is agreed upon by experts. These lists of names are not necessarily complete, in 1984, Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called an SIL code, to identify each language that it described. This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of other standards, e. g. ISO 639-1, the 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7,148 language codes. In 2002, Ethnologue was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization to integrate its codes into an international standard. The 15th edition of Ethnologue was the first edition to use this standard and this standard is now administered separately from Ethnologue according to rules established by ISO, and since then Ethnologue relies on the standard to determine what is listed as a language. e. A language with which no-one retains a sense of ethnic identity, in December 2015, Ethnologue launched a soft paywall, users in high-income countries who want to refer to more than seven pages of data per month must buy a paid subscription. Ethnologues 18th edition describes 228 language families and six typological categories, in 1986, William Bright, then editor of the journal Language, wrote of Ethnologue that it is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world. In 2008 in the journal, Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona said, Ethnologue. has become the standard reference. However, he concluded that, on balance, Ethnologue is a comprehensive catalogue of world languages. Starting with the 17th edition, new editions of Ethnologue are to be published every year, linguasphere Observatory Register Glottolog Lists of languages List of language families Martin Everaert, Simon Musgrave, Alexis Dimitriadis, eds. The Use of Databases in Cross-Linguistic Studies, linguistic Genocide in Education-or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights. Evaluating language statistics, the Ethnologue and beyond
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Khoisan languages
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The Khoisan languages are the languages of Africa that have click consonants but do not belong to other language families. For much of the 20th century they were thought to have a relationship with each other. Ethnically, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and the San, two languages of east Africa, those of the Sandawe and Hadza, are also called Khoisan, although their speakers are ethnically neither Khoikhoi nor San. Before the Bantu expansion, Khoisan languages, or languages like them, were spread throughout southern and eastern Africa. They are currently restricted to the Kalahari Desert, primarily in Namibia and Botswana, most of the languages are endangered, and several are moribund or extinct. Language use is quite strong among the 20,000 speakers of Naro, Khoisan languages are best known for their use of click consonants as phonemes. These are typically written with such as ǃ and ǂ. Clicks are quite versatile as consonants, as they involve two articulations of the tongue which can operate partially independently, consequently, the languages with the greatest numbers of consonants in the world are Khoisan. The Juǀʼhoan language has 48 click consonants, among nearly as many non-click consonants, strident and pharyngealized vowels, the ǃXóõ and ǂHõã languages are even more complex. Grammatically, the southern Khoisan languages are generally fairly analytic, having several inflectional morphemes, Khoisan was proposed as one of the four families of African languages in Greenbergs classification. Westphal is known for his rejection of the Khoisan language family. Bonny Sands concluded that the family is not demonstrable with current evidence, dimmendaal summarized the general view with, it has to be concluded that Greenbergs intuitions on the genetic unity of Khoisan could not be confirmed by subsequent research. Today, the few scholars working on these languages treat the three as independent language families that cannot or can no longer be shown to be genetically related. Starostin accepts a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi is plausible, as is one between Tuu and Kxa, but sees no indication of a relationship between two groups or with Hadza. The putative branches of Khoisan are often considered independent families, in the absence of a demonstration that they are related according to the comparative method. See Khoe languages for speculations on the history of the region. With about 800 speakers in Tanzania, Hadza is no longer seen as a Khoisan language, genetically, the Hadza people are unrelated to the Khoisan peoples of Southern Africa, and their closest relatives may be among the Pygmies of Central Africa. Sandawe is not related to Hadza, despite their proximity, the Khoe family is both the most numerous and diverse family of Khoisan languages, with seven living languages and over a quarter million speakers
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Khoekhoe language
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It belongs to the Khoe language family, and is spoken in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa by three ethnic groups, the Nama, Damara, and Haiǁom. The Haiǁom, who had spoken a Juu language, later shifted to Khoekhoe, the name for Khoekhoegowab speakers, Khoekhoen, in English khoe is a person, with reduplication and the suffix -n to indicate the plural. Georg Friedrich Wreede was the first European to study the language, Khoekhoe is a national language in Namibia, where it is used for teaching up to the university level as well as in the public administration. In Namibia and South Africa, state-owned broadcasting corporations produce and broadcast radio programmes in Khoekhoegowab, ǂĀkhoe, itself a dialect cluster, and intermediate between Haiǁom and the Kalahari Khoe languages They are distinct enough that they might be considered two or three distinct languages. Eini is also close but is now counted as a distinct language. There are 5 vowel qualities, found as oral /i e a o u/, /u/ is strongly rounded, /o/ only slightly so. /a/ is the vowel with notable allophony, it is pronounced before /i/ or /u/. Nama has been described as having three or four tones, /á, ā, à/ or /a̋, á, à, ȁ/, the high tone is higher when it occurs on one of the high vowels or on a nasal than on mid or low vowels. The tones combine into a number of tone melodies, which have sandhi forms in certain syntactic environments. The most important melodies, in their citation and main forms, are as follows, Within a phrase. Within a word, the first syllable receives the most stress, subsequent syllables receive less and less stress and are spoken more and more quickly. Nama has 31 consonants,20 clicks and only 11 non-clicks, between vowels, /p/ is pronounced and /t/ is pronounced. The affricate series is strongly aspirated, and may be analysed phonemically as aspirated stops, Beach reported that the Khoehkoe of the time had a velar lateral ejective affricate, a common realisation or allophone of /kxʼ/ in languages with clicks. This sound no longer occurs in Khoekhoe but remains in its cousin Korana, the clicks are doubly articulated consonants. Each click consists of one of four primary articulations or influxes, the combination results in 20 phonemes. The aspiration on the aspirated clicks is often light but is raspier than the nasal clicks. The glottalised clicks are clearly voiceless due to the hold before the release, tindall notes that European learners almost invariably pronounce the lateral clicks by placing the tongue against the side teeth and that this articulation is harsh and foreign to the native ear. The Namaqua instead cover the whole of the palate with the tongue, lexical root words consist of two or rarely three moras, in the form CVCV, CVV, or CVN
