1.
EURid
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EURid vzw/asbl is a non-profit organisation appointed by the European Commission on 8 April 2003 as the domain name registry to operate the new. eu top-level domain. EURid is a consortium of three European ccTLD operators, DNS Belgium, IIT-CNR and NIC-SE and it has been established in Belgium, having its headquarters in Brussels. In October 2006, they opened their first branch office in Stockholm, two further branch offices have been opened in Italy and the Czech Republic. There are four members, the Academic and Research Network of Slovenia, the registry for. si, the national top-level domain for Slovenia, CZ. NIC. EURid uses the Extensible Provisioning Protocol which enables registrars to perform operations on. eu domain names directly, official Website WHOIS for. eu domain names
2.
European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
3.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
4.
.eu
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. eu is the country code top-level domain for the European Union. Launched on 7 December 2005, the domain is available for any person, trademark owners were able to submit registrations through a sunrise period, in an effort to prevent cybersquatting. Full registration started on 7 April 2006, the. eu TLD was approved by ICANN on 22 March 2005 and put in the Internet root zone on 2 May 2005. Even though the EU is not a country, there are precedents of issuing top-level domains to other entities—e. g. nato. See also GeoTLD. eu. int was the subdomain most used by the European Commission, the. eu domain was launched in December 2005, and because of this most. eu. int domain names changed to. europa. eu on Europe day,9 May 2006. The Sunrise Period was broken into two phases, the first phase, which began on 7 December 2005 was to facilitate applications by registrants with prior rights based on trademarks and geographic names. The second phase began on 7 February 2006 and covered company, trade, in the case of all Sunrise applications, the application needed to be accompanied by documents proving the claim to ownership of a certain right. The decision was made by PricewaterhouseCoopers Belgium, which had been chosen as the validation agent by EURid. On 7 February 2006, the registry was opened for company, trade, in the first 15 minutes, there were 27,949 total applications, and after one hour,71,235. On 7 April 2006 at 11 am CET registration became possible for non-trademark holders, most people requesting domains had asked their registrars to put their requested domains in a queue, ensuring the best chance to register a domain. This way more than 700,000 domains were registered during the first 4 hours of operation, by August 2006,2 Million. eu domains had been registered. It is now the fourth-largest ccTLD in Europe, after. de. uk and. nl, bob Parsons, CEO and co-founder of Go Daddy, criticized the landrush process designed by EURid. Particularly, he condemned the use of companies by some registrars. In his blog, he stated These companies, instead of only registering their real active registrars and these phantom registrars effectively had hundreds of opportunities of registering a domain whereas a genuine registrar effectively only had one opportunity to register the same domain. Thus some registrants were crowded out of the. eu landrush process, patrik Lindén, spokesman for EURid at the time, denied the allegations by Parsons, stating that verified that each registrar was an individual legal entity. Each had to sign an agreement with us, and prepay €10,000, take a moment and think about what that means. You can form a “legal entity” for $50 – an LLC –, is that what we want a registry to do. The EURid organisation investigated some allegations of abuse, and in July 2006 announced the suspension of over 74,000 domain names, the status of the domains was changed from ACTIVE to ON-HOLD
5.
European Economic Area
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The EEA was established on 1 January 1994 upon entry into force of the EEA Agreement. The EEA Agreement specifies that membership is open to member states of either the European Union or European Free Trade Association, EFTA states which are party to the EEA Agreement participate in the EUs internal market without being members of the EU. They adopt most EU legislation concerning the single market, however with notable exclusions including laws regarding agriculture, the EEAs decision-shaping processes enable EEA EFTA member states to influence and contribute to new EEA policy and legislation from an early stage. Third country goods are excluded for these states on rules of origin, membership has grown to 31 states as of 2016,28 EU member states, as well as three of the four member states of the EFTA. The Agreement is applied provisionally with respect to Croatia—the remaining and most recent EU member state—pending ratification of its accession by all EEA parties. One EFTA member, Switzerland, has not joined the EEA, in the late 1980s, the EFTA member states, led by Sweden, began looking at options to join the then European Communities. The reasons identified for this are manifold, many authors cite the economic downturn in the beginning of the 1980s, and the subsequent adoption by the European Union of the Europe 1992 agenda as a primary reason. Other authors point to the end of the Cold War, which joining the EU less politically controversial for neutral countries. Delors proposed a European Economic Space in January 1989, which was renamed the European Economic Area. By the time the EEA was established, however, several developments hampered its credibility, first of all, Switzerland rejected the EEA agreement in a national referendum on 6 December 1992 obstructing full EU-EFTA integration within the EEA. Furthermore, Austria had applied for full EEC membership in 1989, and was followed by Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland between 1991 and 1992. The EEA Agreement was signed in Porto on 2 May 1992 by the seven states of the European Free Trade Association. Switzerland is instead linked to the EU by a series of bilateral agreements, liechtensteins participation in the EEA was delayed until 1 May 1995. As of 2014 the contracting parties to the EEA are 3 of the 4 EFTA member states and 27 of the 28 EU member states, after Slovenia, Croatia has recovered best from the break-up of the former Yugoslavia and is the second former Yugoslav state to join the EU. According to Eurostat, Croatia has a market economy and its GDP per capita in 2010 was 61 per cent of the EU average. EU accession negotiations were concluded on 30 June 2011, and the Treaty of Accession was signed on 9 December 2011 in Brussels, Accession negotiations were expected to be completed by the autumn of 2013, and on 20 November 2013 it was announced that an enlargement agreement was reached. As of January 2017, the agreement has been ratified by 15 out of 31 EEA member states, the agreement did not fully enter into force until 9 November 2011. On the other hand, the EEA Agreement was applied on a basis to the 10 acceding countries in May 2004 as from the date of their accession to the EU
6.
Member state of the European Union
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The European Union comprises 28 member states. Each member state is party to the treaties of the union and thereby subject to the privileges. Unlike members of most international organisations, the states of the EU are subjected to binding laws in exchange for representation within the common legislative. Member states must agree unanimously for the EU to adopt policies concerning defence, subsidiarity is a founding principle of the EU. In 1957, six core states founded the EUs predecessor, the European Economic Community, the remaining states have acceded in subsequent enlargements. On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the newest member state of the EU, Enlargement of the Union is also contingent upon the consent of all existing members and the candidates adoption of the existing body of EU law, known as the acquis communautaire. There is disparity in the size, wealth and political system of member states, while in some areas majority voting takes place where larger states have more votes than smaller ones, smaller states have disproportional representation compared to their population. No member state has withdrawn or been suspended from the EU, in June 2016, the UK held a referendum on membership of the EU, resulting in 51. 89% of votes cast in favour to leaving. Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017 to formally initiate the withdrawal process, notes Enlargement is, and has been, a principal feature of the Unions political landscape. The EUs predecessors were founded by the Inner Six, those willing to forge ahead with the Community while others remained skeptical. It was only a decade before the first countries changed their policy and attempted to join the Union, French President Charles de Gaulle feared British membership would be an American Trojan horse and vetoed its application. Applying in 1969 were the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, however, declined to accept the invitation to become a member when the electorate voted against it, leaving just the UK, Ireland and Denmark to join. But despite the setbacks, and the withdrawal of Greenland from Denmarks membership in 1985, in 1987, the geographical extent of the project was tested when Morocco applied, and was rejected as it was not considered a European country. The year 1990 saw the Cold War drawing to a close, meanwhile, the members of the former Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia were all starting to move towards EU membership. Ten of these joined in an enlargement on 1 May 2004 symbolising the unification of East. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, the year 2013 saw the latest member, Croatia, accede to the Union, and the EU has prioritised membership for the rest of the Balkans – namely Western Balkans. Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey are all formal, turkish membership, pending since the 1980s, is a more contentious issue but it entered negotiations in 2005. According to the Copenhagen criteria, membership of the European Union is open to any European country that is a stable, free market liberal democracy that respects the rule of law and human rights
7.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
8.
Liechtenstein
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Liechtenstein, officially the Principality of Liechtenstein, is a doubly landlocked German-speaking microstate in Central Europe. It is a monarchy with the rank of principality, headed by the Prince of Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein is bordered by Switzerland to the west and south and Austria to the east and it has an area of just over 160 square kilometres and an estimated population of 37,000. Divided into 11 municipalities, its capital is Vaduz and its largest municipality is Schaan, the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in the world at 1. 5%. Liechtenstein has been known in the past as a tax haven, however. An alpine country, Liechtenstein is mainly mountainous, making it a winter sport destination, many cultivated fields and small farms are found both in the south and north. The country has a financial sector centered in Vaduz. Liechtenstein is a member of the European Free Trade Association, and while not being a member of the European Union and it also has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland. The oldest traces of human existence in Liechtenstein date back to the Middle Paleolithic era, neolithic farming settlements were founded in the valleys around 5300 BC. Hallstatt and La Tène cultures flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC possibly under influence from the Greek. One of the most important tribal groups in the Alpine region were the Helvetii, in 58 BC, at the Battle of Bibracte, Julius Caesar defeated the Alpine tribes, bringing the region under closer control of the Roman Empire. By 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor, Liechtenstein was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. The area was maintained by the Roman military, which maintained a large legionary camp called Brigantium near Lake Constance, a Roman road ran through the territory. In 259/60 Brigantium was destroyed by the Alemanni, a Germanic people who settled in the area in around 450. In the Early Middle Ages, the Alemanni had settled the eastern Swiss plateau by the 5th century, Liechtenstein was at the eastern edge of Alemannia. In the 6th century, the region became part of the Frankish Empire following Clovis Is victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504. The area that later became Liechtenstein remained under Frankish hegemony until the empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD following the death of Charlemagne. The territory of present-day Liechtenstein belonged to East Francia until it was reunified with Middle Francia under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD
9.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
10.
ICANN
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ICANN performs the actual technical maintenance work of the central Internet address pools and DNS root zone registries pursuant to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority function contract. The numbering facilities ICANN manages include the Internet Protocol address spaces for IPv4 and IPv6, ICANN also maintains registries of Internet Protocol identifiers. ICANN was created on September 18,1998, and incorporated on September 30,1998 and it is headquartered in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles. In 1997 Postel testified before Congress that this had come about as a task to this research work. The Information Sciences Institute was funded by the U. S. Department of Defense, as was SRI Internationals Network Information Center, which also performed some assigned name functions. As the Internet grew and expanded globally, the U. S. Department of Commerce initiated a process to establish a new organization to perform the IANA functions. The proposed rule making, or Green Paper, was published in the Federal Register on February 20,1998, NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23,1998, when the comment period closed. ICANN was formed in response to this policy, ICANN managed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority under contract to the United States Department of Commerce and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF. ICANN was incorporated in California on September 30,1998, with entrepreneur and it is a nonprofit public benefit corporation organized under the California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation Law for charitable and public purposes. ICANN was established in California due to the presence of Jon Postel, ICANN formerly operated from the same Marina del Rey building where Postel formerly worked, which is home to an office of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California. However, ICANNs headquarters is now located in the nearby Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles and they were also required to be financially independent from ICANN. On July 26,2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA function for a one to five years. The context of ICANNs relationship with the U. S. government was clarified on September 29,2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with the United States Department of Commerce and this document gave the DOC oversight over some of the ICANN operations. During July 2008, the DOC reiterated a statement that it has no plans to transition management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN. The letter also stresses the separate roles of the IANA and VeriSign, on September 30,2009, ICANN signed an agreement with the DOC that confirmed ICANNs commitment to a multistakeholder governance model, but did not remove it from DOC oversight and control. On March 10,2016, ICANN and the DOC signed a historic, culminating agreement to finally remove ICANN and IANA from the control, on October 1,2016, ICANN was freed from U. S. government oversight. During September and October 2003, ICANN played a role in the conflict over VeriSigns wild card DNS service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later endorsed by the Internet Architecture Board, after this action, VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27,2004, claiming that ICANN had exceeded its authority
11.
Supranational
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A supranational union is a type of multinational political union where negotiated power is delegated to an authority by governments of member states. The concept of union is sometimes used to describe the European Union. The EU is the entity which provides for international popular elections. The term supranational is used in a loose, undefined sense in other contexts. Another method of decision-making in international organisations is intergovernmentalism, in state governments play a more prominent role. He thought this might begin with the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union and he broached the idea in a November 1945 and November 1947 articles in The Atlantic Monthly that described how the constitution of such an organization might be written. In an April 1948 address at Carnegie Hall, he reiterated, There is only one path to peace and security, the term supranational occurs in an international treaty for the first time in the Treaty of Paris,18 April 1951. This new legal term defined the Community method in creating the European Coal and Steel Community and it defines the relationship between the High Authority or European Commission and the other four institutions. In the treaty, it relates to a new democratic and legal concept, the Founding Fathers of the European Community and the present European Union said that supranationalism was the cornerstone of the governmental system. This is enshrined in the Europe Declaration made on 18 April 1951 and this Europe remains open to all nations. We profoundly hope that other nations will join us in our common endeavour and it was made to recall future generations to their historic duty of uniting Europe based on liberty and democracy under the rule of law. Thus, they viewed the creation of a wider and deeper Europe as intimately bound to the development of the supranational or Community system. This Europe was open to all nations who were free to decide, a supranational union is a supranational polity which lies somewhere between a confederation that is an association of States and a federation that is a state. The EU has supranational competences, but it possesses these competences only to the extent that they are conferred on it by its member states. Within the scope of competences, the union exercises its powers in a sovereign manner, having its own legislative, executive. The supranational Community also has a chamber for organised civil society including economic and social associations, unlike states in a federal super-state, member states retain ultimate sovereignty, although some sovereignty is shared with, or ceded to, the supranational body. Supranational agreements encourage stability and trust, because governments cannot break international accords at a whim, the supranational action may be time-limited. This was the case with the European Coal and Steel Community, supranational accords may be permanent, such as an agreement to outlaw war between the partners
12.
European Parliament
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The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Together with the Council of the European Union and the European Commission, the Parliament is composed of 751 members, who represent the second-largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world. It has been elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, voter turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, voter turnout in 2014 stood at 42. 54% of all European voters. The Parliament is the first institution of the EU, and shares equal legislative and it likewise has equal control over the EU budget. Finally, the European Commission, the body of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament elects the President of the Commission, and it can subsequently force the Commission as a body to resign by adopting a motion of censure. The President of the European Parliament is Antonio Tajani, elected in January 2017 and he presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the Group of the European Peoples Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. The last union-wide elections were the 2014 elections, the European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels, the city of Luxembourg and Strasbourg. Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices, meetings of the whole Parliament take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee meetings are held in Brussels, the Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and it was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers. Its development since its foundation shows how the European Unions structures have evolved without a master plan. Some, such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post, said of the union, nobody would have designed a government as complex. Even the Parliaments two seats, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements, the body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europes Assembly to perform the task, a separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term representatives of the people. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the treaty to establish a European Political Community
13.
Europa.eu
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Europa is the official Web portal of the European Union. Europa. eu is the domain of the EU institutions. The European institutions websites use a second level domain. europa. eu. This means that all agencies and institutions have their name in addition to the subdomain europa. eu as a standard Web address. For example, the address of the Institute for Security Studies is iss. europa. eu, EUROPA was first published in February 1995 at the G7 ministerial meeting on information society in Brussels. Documents that are not legally binding are usually published in English, French, in January 2007, EU commissioner Franco Frattini criticised the Web service for not translating an article about the 50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome into Italian, his own language
14.
Europe day
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In Europe, Europe Day is an annual celebration of peace and unity in Europe. There are two designations of Europe Day,5 May for the Council of Europe, and 9 May for the European Union. The latter is the EUs flag day and has a greater visibility, Europe Day is one of a number of European symbols designed to foster unity among Europeans. The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949, in 1985, the European Communities adopted the European symbols of the Council of Europe such as the Flag of Europe. However, the Community leaders decided to hold their Europe Day in commemoration of the Schuman Declaration of 9 May 1950, hence, at the 1985 Milan European Council,29 September was adopted as the EUs flag day. The European Constitution would have legally enshrined all the European symbols in the EU treaties, however the treaty failed, the Constitutions replacement, the Treaty of Lisbon, contains a declaration by sixteen members supporting the symbols. The European Parliament formally recognised the 9 May holiday in October 2008,9 May is celebrated in various forms in most member states of the European Union and EU candidate countries such as Turkey. Due to the nature of the day, it sees attempts at teaching people about the European Union. The flag as another symbol plays a role in general celebrations. In contrast, the Schuman declaration was merely proposing the pooling of French and West German coal, since 2003, Ukraine celebrates Europe Day on the third Saturday of May. 5 May coincides with Liberation Day in Denmark and the Netherlands, celebrating the surrender of German troops there,9 May coincides with Victory Day, the end of World War II in the former Soviet Union and Liberation Day in the Channel Islands. It is offset precisely half a year with German Schicksalstag
15.
PricewaterhouseCoopers
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PricewaterhouseCoopers is a multinational professional services network headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the second largest professional services firm in the world, vault Accounting 50 has ranked PwC as the most prestigious accounting firm in the world for seven consecutive years, as well as the top firm to work for in North America for three consecutive years. PwC is a network of firms in 157 countries,756 locations, as of 2015, 22% of the workforce worked in Asia, 26% in North America and Caribbean and 32% in Western Europe. The companys global revenues were $35.9 billion in FY2016, of which $15.2 billion was generated by its Assurance practice, $9.1 billion by its Tax practice, the firm was formed in 1998 by a merger between Coopers & Lybrand and Price Waterhouse. The trading name was shortened to PwC in September 2010 as part of a rebranding, as of 2016, PwC is the 5th-largest privately owned company in the United States. The firm was created in 1998 when Coopers & Lybrand merged with Price Waterhouse, both firms had histories dating back to the 19th century. In 1854 William Cooper founded a practice in London, which became Cooper Brothers seven years later when his three brothers joined. In 1898, Robert H. Montgomery, William M. Lybrand, Adam A. Ross Jr. and his brother T. Edward Ross formed Lybrand, Ross Brothers and Montgomery in the United States. In 1957 Cooper Brothers, Lybrand, Ross Bros & Montgomery, in 1973 the three member firms in the UK, US and Canada changed their names to Coopers & Lybrand. Then in 1980 Coopers & Lybrand expanded its expertise in insolvency substantially by acquiring Cork Gully, in 1990 in certain countries including the UK, Coopers & Lybrand merged with Deloitte Haskins & Sells to become Coopers & Lybrand Deloitte, in 1992 they reverted to Coopers & Lybrand. Samuel Lowell Price, an accountant, founded a practice in London in 1849. In 1865 Price went into partnership with William Hopkins Holyland and Edwin Waterhouse, Holyland left shortly afterwards to work alone in accountancy and the firm was known from 1874 as Price, Waterhouse & Co. The original partnership agreement, signed by Price, Holyland and Waterhouse could be found in Southwark Towers, by the late 19th century, Price Waterhouse had gained significant recognition as an accounting firm. As a result of growing trade between the United Kingdom and the United States, Price Waterhouse opened an office in New York in 1890, and the American firm itself soon expanded rapidly. It was said by those involved with the merger that at the end of the discussion, the partners at the table realized they had different views of business. In 1998, Price Waterhouse merged with Coopers & Lybrand to form PricewaterhouseCoopers, after the merger the firm had a large professional consulting branch, as did other major accountancy firms, generating much of its fees. Management Consulting Services was the fastest growing and often most profitable area of the practice, the major cause for growth in the 1990s was the implementation of complex integrated ERP systems for multi-national companies. PwC came under increasing pressure to avoid conflicts of interests by not providing some consulting services, particularly financial systems design and implementation, since it audited a large proportion of the worlds largest companies, this was beginning to limit its consulting market
16.
Go Daddy
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GoDaddy Inc. is an American publicly traded Internet domain registrar and web hosting company. As of December 2014, GoDaddy served approximately 13 million customers and had 4,908 employees worldwide, the company is known for its advertising. It has been involved in controversies related to censorship. GoDaddy was founded in 1997 by Baltimore, Maryland, entrepreneur Bob Parsons, prior to GoDaddy, Parsons sold his financial software services company, Parsons Technology, Inc. to Intuit for $64m in 1994. Parsons came out of his retirement in 1997 to launch Jomax Technologies, GoDaddy received a strategic investment from top venture capital funds, KKR, Silver Lake, and Technology Crossover Ventures. In 1999, a group of employees at Jomax Technologies were brainstorming, an employee said, How about Big Daddy. However, the name had already been purchased. Parsons replied, How about Go Daddy, the name was available, so he bought it. Parsons said the company stuck with the name because it made people smile, the company changed its name branding from Go Daddy to GoDaddy in February 2006. In 2001, soon after Network Solutions was no longer the place to register a domain, GoDaddy was approximately the same size as competitors Dotster. In April 2005, GoDaddy became the largest ICANN-accredited registrar on the Internet, in July 2012, GoDaddy announced it would acquire Outright for an undisclosed amount. In August 2013, GoDaddy announced it would acquire Locu for $70 million, in September 2013, GoDaddy acquired domain marketplace Afternic from NameMedia. GoDaddy will also acquire domain parking service SmartName and business name generator NameFind, on October 15,2013, GoDaddy acquired web hosting service provider Media Temple. In a newsletter sent to its customers, Media Temple said that they will continue operating as an independent, in July 2014, GoDaddy acquired Canary, a small Cambridge-based smart calendar service. On August 20,2014, GoDaddy acquired Mad Mimi, a Brooklyn-based email marketing service, in April 2015 and November 2015, GoDaddy acquired the domain portfolios of Marchex and Worldwide Media respectively. On May 17,2016, GoDaddy acquired FreedomVoice for $42 million in cash, FreedomVoice is a provider of cloud-based VoIP phone systems across the United States. On December 6,2016, GoDaddy announced its acquisition of Host Europe Group, in 2013, GoDaddy was reported as the largest ICANN-accredited registrar in the world, at the size of four times their closest competitor. They also have a 270,000 square foot facility in Phoenix,2010 – BBB of Great Arizona Business Ethics Awards finalist
17.
.de
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. de is the country code top-level domain for the Federal Republic of Germany. DENIC does not require specific second-level domains, and there are no official ccSLDs under. de ccTLD, the name is based on the first two letters of the German name for Germany. It is third after. com and. cn among all TLDs, the first point of registration for. de domains was at the Department of Computer Science of the University of Dortmund. Uni-dortmund. de was among the first registered. de-domains. de registrations may be ordered from DENIC. Previously, domain names had to be at least three letters long, there were a few two-letter domains registered before the rule was put in place, db. de, ix. de, and hq. de. A fourth domain, bb. de, was later deregistered, as of 23 October 2009, DENIC allowed the registration of single- and two-letter domains as well as number-only domains. Registrations of internationalized domain names are also accepted so that all diacritics of German, many diacritics of other languages, in many of the Romance languages, e. g. Spanish, French, Romanian and Portuguese, de expresses the genitive of a noun
18.
.nl
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. nl is the Internet country code top-level domain for the Netherlands. Registrations are processed via a network of participants and it is one of the more popular ccTLDs, ranked 6th in the quarterly VeriSign Domain Name Industry Brief of September 2016 for the third quarter of 2016, with over 5.6 million registered domain names. It was one of the first ccTLD to be registered, when the authority for the. nl domain was handed over to Piet Beertema of the Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica in 1986. Since January 31,1996. nl domains are registered by the Stichting Internet Domeinregistratie Nederland, registrars have to pay SIDN a fee for each domain since April 1,1996, until then registration was free. SIDN does not deal directly with Registrants, in the early days, most of the registrants were universities and research departments of large companies, such as Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium. Individuals are allowed to register a second-level. nl domain since 2003, as a forerunner, individuals were allowed to register a third-level domain since 2000. Such personal domains had the form of janjansen.123. nl and they never became popular, and registration has been suspended since 2006. Because there are only around 500 of such domains registered, in contrast to about 5 million second-level domains, official second-level domains do not exist. A number of companies have taken the opportunity to register domains like co. nl and com. nl, using them to sell second-level domains. These are not affiliated with SIDN. bq. an. aw. cw. eu. sx. frl. nl Domain Delegation Data. nl Registry website List of. nl registrars
19.
Bob Parsons
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Robert Ralph Bob Parsons is an American entrepreneur, billionaire, and philanthropist. In 1997, he founded the GoDaddy group of companies, including domain name registrar GoDaddy. com, reseller registrar Wild West Domains, in July 2011, Parsons sold approximately 70 percent of Go Daddy to a private equity consortium and resigned his position as CEO. In June 2014, he stepped down from his position as Executive Chairman, Parsons owns 28 percent of the company and is its largest shareholder. As of September 2014, Parsons had a net worth of $1.85 billion and was ranked #353 on the Forbes 400 ranking of the worlds wealthiest people. Parsons is the CEO and founder of YAM Worldwide, Inc. which is home to his ventures in the fields of powersports, golf, real estate. In 2012, Parsons and his wife Renee founded The Bob & Renee Parsons Foundation, in December 2013, they joined The Giving Pledge, an initiative started by Bill and Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett that requires signators to commit at least half of their fortunes to charity. Parsons was born in Baltimore, Maryland and his family lived in Baltimores inner city and struggled financially. Parsons has said about those days, Ive earned everything Ive ever received, very little was given to me. Ive been working as long as I can remember, whether it was delivering or selling newspapers, pumping gas, working in construction or in a factory, Ive always been making my own money. After almost flunking out of school, Parsons enlisted in the United States Marine Corps. He was assigned to the 26th Marine Regiment which was attached to, in 1969, he served as a rifleman in the Delta Company of the 1st Battalion, 26th Marines, during a tour of duty in Vietnam, in the Quảng Nam Province. He was wounded on duty, medically evacuated and spent two months at a hospital recovering from his wounds. As a result of his service and injury, he earned the Combat Action Ribbon, the Vietnam Gallantry Cross, in 1975, Parsons obtained an accounting degree from the University of Baltimore, graduating magna cum laude. He then began his career in IT and software sales industry The University of Baltimore conferred an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree on May 21,2008, in 1984, he founded Parsons Technology in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and began selling MoneyCounts, a home accounting program. In late 1987, Parsons was able to quit his job, eventually, Parsons Technology grew to be a 1, 000-employee, privately held company. On September 27,1994, Parsons completed the sale of Parsons Technology to Intuit, Parsons founded the Internet domain registrar and Web hosting company GoDaddy in 1997. In July 2011, Parsons sold approximately 70 percent of GoDaddy to a private equity consortium led by KKR & Co. L. P. and Silver Lake, in June 2014, Parsons stepped down from his position as Executive Chairman. He currently serves on GoDaddys board, Parsons owns 28 percent of the company and is its largest shareholder
20.
Limited liability company
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A limited liability company is the United States-specific form of a private limited company. It is a structure that combines the pass-through taxation of a partnership or sole proprietorship with the limited liability of a corporation. An LLC is not a corporation, it is a form of a company that provides limited liability to its owners in many jurisdictions. LLCs do not need to be organized for profit, a Limited Liability Company is a hybrid business entity having certain characteristics of both a corporation and a partnership or sole proprietorship. An LLC, although a business entity, is a type of unincorporated association and is not a corporation, the primary characteristic an LLC shares with a corporation is limited liability, and the primary characteristic it shares with a partnership is the availability of pass-through income taxation. It is often more flexible than a corporation, and it is well-suited for companies with a single owner, in the absence of express statutory guidance, most American courts have held that LLC members are subject to the same common law alter ego piercing theories as corporate shareholders. However, it is difficult to pierce the LLC veil because LLCs do not have many formalities to maintain. So long as the LLC and the members do not commingle funds, membership interests in LLCs and partnership interests are also afforded a significant level of protection through the charging order mechanism. The charging order limits the creditor of a debtor-partner or a debtor-member to the share of distributions. Limited liability company members may, in circumstances, also incur a personal liability in cases where distributions to members render the LLC insolvent. State statutes typically provide automatic or default rules for how an LLC will be governed unless the operating agreement provides otherwise. Similarly, the phrase unless otherwise provided for in the by laws is found in all corporation law statutes. The limited liability company has grown to one of the most prevalent business forms in the entire United States. Under the amendment, parties to an LLC remain free to expand, restrict, section 18-101, a Delaware LLC operating agreement can be written, oral or implied. It sets forth member capital contributions, ownership percentages, and management structure, like a prenuptial agreement, an operating agreement can avoid future disputes between members by addressing buy-out rights, valuation formulas, and transfer restrictions. A written LLC operating agreement should be signed by all of its members, for U. S. federal income tax purposes, an LLC is treated by default as a pass-through entity. Thus, income from the LLC is taxed at the tax rates. The default tax status for LLCs with multiple members is as a partnership, an LLC with either single or multiple members may elect to be taxed as a corporation through the filing of IRS Form 8832
21.
Europa (web portal)
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Europa is the official Web portal of the European Union. Europa. eu is the domain of the EU institutions. The European institutions websites use a second level domain. europa. eu. This means that all agencies and institutions have their name in addition to the subdomain europa. eu as a standard Web address. For example, the address of the Institute for Security Studies is iss. europa. eu, EUROPA was first published in February 1995 at the G7 ministerial meeting on information society in Brussels. Documents that are not legally binding are usually published in English, French, in January 2007, EU commissioner Franco Frattini criticised the Web service for not translating an article about the 50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome into Italian, his own language
22.
.eu.int
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. eu is the country code top-level domain for the European Union. Launched on 7 December 2005, the domain is available for any person, trademark owners were able to submit registrations through a sunrise period, in an effort to prevent cybersquatting. Full registration started on 7 April 2006, the. eu TLD was approved by ICANN on 22 March 2005 and put in the Internet root zone on 2 May 2005. Even though the EU is not a country, there are precedents of issuing top-level domains to other entities—e. g. nato. See also GeoTLD. eu. int was the subdomain most used by the European Commission, the. eu domain was launched in December 2005, and because of this most. eu. int domain names changed to. europa. eu on Europe day,9 May 2006. The Sunrise Period was broken into two phases, the first phase, which began on 7 December 2005 was to facilitate applications by registrants with prior rights based on trademarks and geographic names. The second phase began on 7 February 2006 and covered company, trade, in the case of all Sunrise applications, the application needed to be accompanied by documents proving the claim to ownership of a certain right. The decision was made by PricewaterhouseCoopers Belgium, which had been chosen as the validation agent by EURid. On 7 February 2006, the registry was opened for company, trade, in the first 15 minutes, there were 27,949 total applications, and after one hour,71,235. On 7 April 2006 at 11 am CET registration became possible for non-trademark holders, most people requesting domains had asked their registrars to put their requested domains in a queue, ensuring the best chance to register a domain. This way more than 700,000 domains were registered during the first 4 hours of operation, by August 2006,2 Million. eu domains had been registered. It is now the fourth-largest ccTLD in Europe, after. de. uk and. nl, bob Parsons, CEO and co-founder of Go Daddy, criticized the landrush process designed by EURid. Particularly, he condemned the use of companies by some registrars. In his blog, he stated These companies, instead of only registering their real active registrars and these phantom registrars effectively had hundreds of opportunities of registering a domain whereas a genuine registrar effectively only had one opportunity to register the same domain. Thus some registrants were crowded out of the. eu landrush process, patrik Lindén, spokesman for EURid at the time, denied the allegations by Parsons, stating that verified that each registrar was an individual legal entity. Each had to sign an agreement with us, and prepay €10,000, take a moment and think about what that means. You can form a “legal entity” for $50 – an LLC –, is that what we want a registry to do. The EURid organisation investigated some allegations of abuse, and in July 2006 announced the suspension of over 74,000 domain names, the status of the domains was changed from ACTIVE to ON-HOLD
23.
Basque Country (greater region)
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The Basque Country is the name given to the home of the Basque people in the western Pyrenees that straddles the border between France and Spain on the Atlantic coast. Euskal Herria is the oldest documented Basque name for the area they inhabit, dating to the 16th century and it comprises the Autonomous Communities of the Basque Country and Navarre in Spain and the Northern Basque Country in France. The region is home to the Basque people, their language, culture, the name in Basque is Euskal Herria. The name is difficult to translate into other languages due to the wide range of meanings of the Basque word herri. It can be translated as nation, country, land, people, population and town, village, the first part, Euskal, is the adjectival form of Euskara the Basque language. Thus a more literal translation would be country/nation/people/settlement of the Basque language, some Basques refer to the seven traditional districts collectively as Zazpiak Bat, meaning The Seven One, a motto coined in the late 19th century. In most contemporary sources it covers the arrondissement of Bayonne and the cantons of Mauléon-Licharre and Tardets-Sorholus, within these conventions, the area of Northern Basque Country is 2,995 square kilometres. As emphasized by Jean Goyhenetche, it would be accurate to depict it as the reunion of five entities, Labourd, Lower Navarre, Soule but also Bayonne. The Southern Basque Country, known in Basque as Hegoalde is the part of the Basque region that lies completely within Spain and it is the largest and most populated part of the Basque Country. It includes two main regions, the Basque Autonomous Community and the Chartered Community of Navarre and its name refers to the charters, the Fueros of Navarre. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 states that Navarre may become a part of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country if it is so decided by its people, to date, there has been no implementation of this law. The latter has repeatedly asked for an amendment to the Constitution to remove this clause, the Basque Country region is dominated by a warm, humid and wet oceanic climate and the coastal area is part of Green Spain and by extension it affects Bayonne and Biarritz as well. Inland areas in Navarre and the regions of the autonomous community are transitional with continental mediterranean climate with somewhat larger temperature swings between seasons. The list only sources locations in Spain, but Bayonne/Biarritz have a similar climate as nearby Hondarribia on the Spanish side of the border. According to some theories, Basques may be the least assimilated remnant of the Paleolithic inhabitants of Western Europe to the Indo-European migrations, Basque tribes were mentioned by Greek writer Strabo and Roman writer Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani, and others. Geographically, the Basque Country was inhabited in Roman times by several tribes, the Vascones, the Varduli, the Caristi, the Autrigones, the Berones, the Tarbelli, and the Sibulates. Many believe that except for the Berones and Autrigones they were non-Indo-European peoples, some ancient place-names, such as Deba, Butrón, Nervión, Zegama, suggest the presence of non-Basque peoples at some point in protohistory. The Vascones around Pamplona, after fighting against Franks and Visigoths, founded the Kingdom of Pamplona
24.
Euskadi
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The Basque Country is an autonomous community of northern Spain. It includes the Basque provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa, the Basque Country or Basque Autonomous Community was granted the status of nationality within Spain, attributed by the Spanish Constitution of 1978. The term Basque Country may also refer to the cultural region, the home of the Basque people. The territory has three areas, which are defined by the two parallel ranges of the Basque Mountains. The main range of forms the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. The highest point of the range is in the Aizkorri massif, the three areas are, Formed by many valleys with short rivers that flow from the mountains to the Bay of Biscay, like the Nervión, Urola or Oria. The coast is rough, with cliffs and small inlets. The main features of the coast are the Bilbao Abra Bay and the Estuary of Bilbao, the Urdaibai estuary, between the two mountain ranges, the area is occupied mainly by a high plateau called Llanada Alavesa, where the capital Gasteiz is located. The rivers flow south from the mountains to the Ebro River, the main rivers are the Zadorra River and Bayas River. From the southern mountains to the Ebro is the so-called Rioja Alavesa, some of Spains production of Rioja wine takes place here. Precipitation average is about 1200 mm, the middle section is more influence by the continental climate, but with a varying degree of the northern oceanic climate. This gives warm, dry summers and cold, snowy winters, the Ebro valley has a pure continental climate, winters are cold and dry and summers very warm and dry, with precipitation peaking in spring and autumn. Precipitation is scarce and irregular, as low as 300 mm, almost half of the 2,155,546 inhabitants of the Basque Autonomous Community live in Greater Bilbao, Bilbaos metropolitan area. Of the ten most populous cities, six form part of Bilbaos conurbation, with 28. 2% of the Basque population born outside this region, immigration is crucial to Basque demographics. Over the 20th century most of this came from other parts of Spain, typically from Galicia or Castile. Over recent years, sizeable numbers of population have returned to their birthplaces and most immigration to the Basque country now comes from abroad. Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Basque Country, bilbao-Bilbo Vitoria-Gasteiz San Sebastián-Donostia Barakaldo Getxo Irun Portugalete Santurtzi Basauri Errenteria Spanish and Basque are co-official in all territories of the autonomous community. The Basque-speaking areas in the autonomous community are set against the wider context of the Basque language, spoken to the east in Navarre
25.
Euskara
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Basque is the language spoken by the Basques. Linguistically, Basque is unrelated to the languages of Europe and indeed, as a language isolate. The Basques are indigenous to, and primarily inhabit, the Basque Country, the Basque language is spoken by 27% of Basques in all territories. Of these, 93% are in the Spanish area of the Basque Country, native speakers live in a contiguous area that includes parts of four Spanish territories and the three ancient provinces in France. However, in those Basque-speaking regions that supported the uprising the Basque language was more than merely tolerated, overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. As a part of process, a standardized form of the Basque language. Besides its standardised version, the five historic Basque dialects are Biscayan, Gipuzkoan, and Upper Navarrese in Spain and they take their names from the historic Basque provinces, but the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries. Euskara Batua was created so that Basque language could be easily understood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque for education varies from region to region, a language isolate, Basque is believed to be one of the few surviving pre-Indo-European languages in Europe, and the only one in Western Europe. Basque has adopted a good deal of its vocabulary from the Romance languages, the Basque alphabet uses the Latin script. In Basque, the name of the language is officially Euskara, three etymological theories of the name Euskara are taken seriously by linguists and Vasconists. In French, the language is normally called basque, though in recent times euskara has become common, Spanish has a greater variety of names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as el vasco, la lengua vasca, both terms, vasco and basque, are inherited from Latin ethnonym Vascones, which in turn goes back to the Greek term οὐασκώνους, an ethnonym used by Strabo in his Geographica. The Spanish term Vascuence, derived from Latin vasconĭce, has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and is not well-liked amongst Basque speakers generally, Basque is geographically surrounded by Romance languages but is a language isolate unrelated to them. It is the last remaining descendant of one of the languages of Western Europe. Consequently, its prehistory may not be reconstructible by means of the comparative method except by applying it to differences between dialects within the language. Little is known of its origins, but a form of the Basque language likely was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages to the area. Others find this unlikely, see the aizkora controversy, Latin inscriptions in Gallia Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in the reconstructed proto-Basque language, for instance, the personal names Nescato and Cison
26.
Galicia (Spain)
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Galicia is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law. It had a population of 2,718,525 in 2016 and has an area of 29,574 km2. Galicia has over 1,660 km of coastline, including its islands and islets, among them Cíes Islands, Ons, Sálvora, Cortegada. Galicia was incorporated into the Roman Empire at the end of the Cantabrian Wars in 19 BC, in 410, the Germanic Suebi established a kingdom with its capital in Braga, this kingdom was incorporated into that of the Visigoths in 585. The Governor also presided the Real Audiencia do Reino de Galicia, from the 16th century, the representation and voice of the kingdom was held by an assembly of deputies and representatives of the cities of the kingdom, the Cortes or Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia. This institution was forcibly discontinued in 1833 when the kingdom was divided into four provinces with no legal mutual links. During the 19th and 20th centuries, demand grew for self-government and this resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of 1936, soon frustrated by Francos coup detat and subsequent long dictatorship. After democracy was restored the legislature passed the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, approved in referendum and currently in force, the interior of Galicia is characterized by a hilly landscape, mountain ranges rise to 2,000 m in the east and south. The coastal areas are mostly a series of rías and cliffs. The climate of Galicia is usually temperate and rainy, with drier summers. Its topographic and climatic conditions have made animal husbandry and farming the primary source of Galicias wealth for most of its history, allowing for a relative high density of population. With the exception of shipbuilding and food processing, Galicia was based on a farming and fishing economy until after the mid-20th century, in 2012, the gross domestic product at purchasing power parity was €56,000 million, with a nominal GDP per capita of €20,700. There are smaller populations around the cities of Lugo and Ourense. The political capital is Santiago de Compostela, in the province of A Coruña, Vigo, in the province of Pontevedra, is the most populous municipality, with 292,817, while A Coruña is the most populous city, with 215,227. 56% of the Galician population speak Galician as their first language and these Callaeci were the first tribe in the area to help the Lusitanians against the invading Romans. The Romans applied their name to all the tribes in the northwest who spoke the same language. In any case, Galicia, being per se a derivation of the ethnic name Kallaikói, the name evolved during the Middle Ages from Gallaecia, sometimes written Galletia, to Gallicia. This coincides with the spelling of the Castilian Spanish name, the historical denomination Galiza became popular again during the end of the 19th and the first three-quarters of the 20th century, and is still used with some frequency today
27.
.com
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A COM file is a type of simple executable file. On the Digital Equipment operating systems of the 1970s. COM was used as an extension for text files containing commands to be issued to the operating system. With the introduction of CP/M, the type of commonly associated with COM extension changed to that of executable files. This convention was carried over to MS-DOS. Even when complemented by the more general. exe file format for executables, the. COM file name extension has no relation to the. com top-level Internet domain name. However, this similarity in name has been exploited by malicious computer virus writers, the COM format is the original binary executable format used in CP/M and MS-DOS. It is very simple, it has no header, and contains no standard metadata, only code and this simplicity exacts a price, the binary has a maximum size of 65,280 bytes and stores all its code and data in one segment. In the Intel 8080 CPU architecture, only 65,536 bytes of memory could be addressed. Under CP/M, the first 256 bytes of memory, from 0000h to 00FFh were reserved for system use by the zero page. COM files fit this model perfectly, note that before the introduction of MP/M and Concurrent CP/M, there was no possibility of running more than one program or command at a time, the program loaded at 0100h was run, and no other. Although the file format is the same in MS-DOS and CP/M and it is possible to make a. COM file which will run under both operating systems. It is basically two different programs with the functionality in a single file, preceded by code selecting the one to use. C9h is an invalid opcode on the 8088/8086, and it cause an INT6 exception in v86 mode since the 386. Files may have names ending in. COM, but not be in the simple format described above, this is indicated by a magic number at the start of the file. For example, the COMMAND. COM file in DR DOS6.0 is actually in DOS executable format, in MS-DOS and compatible DOSes, there is no memory management provided for COM files by the loader or execution environment. All memory is available to the COM file. After execution, the operating system shell, COMMAND. COM, is reloaded. This leaves the possibilities that the COM file can either be simple, using a single segment, or arbitrarily complex
28.
.net
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. NET Framework is a software framework developed by Microsoft that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a class library named Framework Class Library and provides language interoperability across several programming languages. FCL and CLR together constitute. NET Framework, FCL provides user interface, data access, database connectivity, cryptography, web application development, numeric algorithms, and network communications. Programmers produce software by combining their source code with. NET Framework, the framework is intended to be used by most new applications created for the Windows platform. Silverlight was available as a web browser plugin, Microsoft began developing. NET Framework in the late 1990s, originally under the name of Next Generation Windows Services. By late 2000, the first beta versions of. NET1.0 were released, in August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Intel worked to standardize Common Language Infrastructure and C#. By December 2001, both were ratified Ecma International standards, International Organisation for Standardisation followed in April 2003. The current version of ISO standards are ISO-IEC23271,2012, while Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI and C#, ECMA and ISO require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. The firms agreed to meet these terms, and to make the patents available royalty-free, however, this did not apply for the part of. NET Framework not covered by ECMA-ISO standards, which included Windows Forms, ADO. NET, and ASP. NET. Patents that Microsoft holds in these areas may have deterred non-Microsoft implementations of the full framework, on 3 October 2007, Microsoft announced that the source code for. NET Framework 3.5 libraries was to become available under the Microsoft Reference Source License. The source code became available online on 16 January 2008 and included BCL, ASP. NET, ADO. NET, Windows Forms, WPF. Scott Guthrie of Microsoft promised that LINQ, WCF, and WF libraries were being added, in November 2014, Microsoft also produced an update to its patent grants, which further extends the scope beyond its prior pledges. The new grant does maintain the restriction that any implementation must maintain compliance with the mandatory parts of the CLI specification. On 31 March 2016, Microsoft announced at Microsoft Build that they will completely relicense Mono under an MIT License even in scenarios where formerly a commercial license was needed and it was announced that the Mono Project was contributed to the. NET Foundation. These developments followed the acquisition of Xamarin, which began in February 2016 and was finished on 18 March 2016. Microsofts press release highlights that the cross-platform commitment now allows for a fully open-source, however, Microsoft does not plan to release the source for WPF or Windows Forms. By implementing the core aspects of. NET Framework within the scope of CLI, microsofts implementation of CLI is Common Language Runtime. It serves as the engine of. NET Framework
29.
.org
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The domain name org is a generic top-level domain of the Domain Name System used in the Internet. The name is truncated from organization and it was one of the original domains established in 1985, and has been operated by the Public Interest Registry since 2003. The domain was intended for non-profit entities, but this restriction was not enforced and has been removed. The domain is used by schools, open-source projects, and communities. The number of registered domains in org has increased from fewer than one million in the 1990s, the domain. org was one of the original top-level domains, with com, us, edu, gov, mil and net, established in January 1985. It was originally intended for organizations or organizations of a non-commercial character that did not meet the requirements for other gTLDs. The MITRE Corporation was the first group to register an org domain with mitre. org in July 1985, the TLD has been operated since January 1,2003 by Public Interest Registry, who assumed the task from VeriSign Global Registry Services, a division of Verisign. Registrations of subdomains are processed via accredited registrars worldwide, anyone can register a second-level domain within org, without restrictions. In some instances subdomains are being used also by commercial sites, in some cases subdomains have been created for crisis management. Some cities, among them Rybnitsa in Transnistria) also have org domain names, such second-level domains are usually named org or or. In 2009, the org domain consisted of more than 8 million registered domain names,8.8 million in 2010, the Public Interest Registry registered the ten millionth. ORG domain in June,2012. When the 9.5 millionth. org was registered in December 2011. org, the org domain registry allows the registration of selected internationalized domain names as second-level domains. For German, Danish, Hungarian, Icelandic, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, spanish IDN registrations have been possible since 2007. This allows the verification of the authenticity and integrity of DNS data by conforming DNS clients. As of June 23,2010, DNSSEC was enabled for individual second-level domains, the Public Interest Registry charges its accredited registrars US $7.70 for each domain name. The registrars may set their charges to end users without restrictions
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.info
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The domain name info is a generic top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. The name is derived from information, though registration requirements do not prescribe any particular theme, the info TLD was a response to ICANNs highly publicized announcement, in late 2000, of a phased release of seven new generic top-level domains. The event was the first addition of major gTLDs since the Domain Name System was developed in the 1980s, the seven new gTLDs, selected from over 180 proposals, were meant in part to take the pressure off the com domain. The info domain has been the most successful of the seven new domain names, ICANN and Afilias have also sealed an agreement for country names to be reserved by ICANN under resolution 01.92. Info is a domain, meaning that anyone can obtain a second-level domain under info for any purpose, similar to the com. This is in contrast to TLDs such as edu or coop, info is the only top-level domain that was explicitly created and chartered for unrestricted use, though various other TLDs became that way as a de facto situation. Info stands for information in about 37 languages, and is a neutral name, Afilias, the registry operator of both the info and aero top-level domains, has been aggressive in its marketing of the domain, with significant registrar incentives and outreach events. The info domain has been operated by Afilias since its creation, in 2003, it was the first gTLD domain to support IETF standards-based internationalized domain names. The launching of info involved a Sunrise Period for trademark owners, followed by an open to all
European Union
