1.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
2.
Country code
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Country codes are short alphabetic or numeric geographical codes developed to represent countries and dependent areas, for use in data processing and communications. Several different systems have developed to do this. The term country code frequently refers to international dialing codes, the E.164 country calling codes and this standard defines for most of the countries and dependent areas in the world, a two-letter a three-letter, and a three-digit numeric code. For more applications see ISO 3166-1 alpha-2. S. government and in the CIA World Factbook, on September 2,2008, FIPS 10-4 was one of ten standards withdrawn by NIST as a Federal Information Processing Standard. GOST7.164 international telephone dialing codes, list of country calling codes with 1-3 digits and these prefixes are legally administered by the national entity to which prefix ranges are assigned. Diplomatic license plates in the United States, assigned by the U. S. State Department, north Atlantic Treaty Organisation used two-letter codes of its own, list of NATO country codes. They were largely borrowed from the FIPS 10-4 codes mentioned below, in 2003 the eighth edition of the Standardisation Agreement adopted the ISO3166 three-letter codes with one exception. The following can represent countries, The initial digits of International Standard Book Numbers are group identifiers for countries, areas, the first three digits of GS1 Company Prefixes used to identify products, for example, in barcodes, designate numbering agencies. A comparison with ISO, IFS and others with notes United Nations Region Codes
3.
University of Waikato
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The University of Waikato, informally Waikato University, is a comprehensive university in Hamilton, New Zealand, with a satellite campus located in Tauranga. Established in 1964, it was the first university in New Zealand to be designed from a blank canvas. The University of Waikato owes its existence to a group of Hamilton locals. The group was led by Douglas Seymour, a barrister, and subsequently Anthony Rufus Rogers and their campaign coincided with a shortage of teachers in the 1950s that prompted the New Zealand government to consider plans for a teachers’ college in the region. Where there was a college, there needed to be a university to give students access to undergraduate courses. In 1964, the two moved to their new home, and the following year the University of Waikato was officially opened by then Governor-General Sir Bernard Fergusson. The first Vice-Chancellor, Dr Don Llewellyn, was keen to develop the campus as one and build a single academic programme. But even the idea of co-location flew in the face of established practice, at this time the University comprised a School of Humanities and a School of Social Sciences. In 1969, Dr Llewellyn succeeded in persuading the authorities to fund the establishment of a School of Science. This was followed by the creation of Waikato Management School in 1972, Computer Science and Computing Services in 1973, a separate School of Māori and Pacific Development was formally established in 1996. In 1999, the original Schools of Humanities and Social Sciences were merged to form the School of Arts, in 1998, the University formed an alliance with the Bay of Plenty Polytechnic to facilitate teaching in the Western Bay of Plenty. The first students from the University of Waikato at Tauranga graduated at a ceremony held in Tauranga in 2001, in 2014, the University became smoke-free, disallowing smoking on campus and in University-owned vehicles. The Faculty of Law was founded in 1990 and is one of seven faculties that make up the University, the Faculty is located in the on the south east side of the Hillcrest Campus in Hamilton, which is accessible from Hillcrest Road. The Law Faculty is also located in Tauranga at the Tauranga University of Waikato campus, the Law Faculty adopted the principles of professionalism, biculturalism and the study of law in context. One of the key founders of the Waikato Faculty of Law was the 27th Speaker of the House Margaret Wilson who returned to faculty as a professor in January 2009. Margaret helped create the Law Faculty from just a dream to reality, the Faculty of Law annually takes in up to 400 full and part-time students into its LLB course, however in 2010 this number was deliberately decreased. The Faculty of Law focuses on Alternative Dispute Resolution as opposed to an adversarial approach. This gives them professional status when conducting these activities and is globally recognised, in September 2009, Professor Bradford W. Morse was welcomed to the University of Waikato, commencing the position as the new Dean of Law at the Law Faculty
4.
Domain Name System
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The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
5.
Natural monopoly
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Natural monopolies were discussed as a potential source of market failure by John Stuart Mill, who advocated government regulation to make them serve the public good. Two different types of cost are important in microeconomics, marginal cost, the marginal cost is the cost to the company of serving one more customer. In an industry where a monopoly does not exist, the vast majority of industries. Along with this, the average cost of its products decreases and increases, a natural monopoly has a very different cost structure. A natural monopoly has a fixed cost for a product that does not depend on output, but its marginal cost of producing one more good is roughly constant. All industries have costs associated with entering them, often, a large portion of these costs is required for investment. Larger industries, like utilities, require enormous initial investment and this barrier to entry reduces the number of possible entrants into the industry regardless of the earning of the corporations within. A firm with high fixed costs requires a number of customers in order to have a meaningful return on investment. This is where economies of scale become important, since each firm has large initial costs, as the firm gains market share and increases its output the fixed cost is divided among a larger number of customers. Therefore, in industries with large initial investment requirements, average total cost declines as output increases over a larger range of output levels. If that ideal size is large enough to supply the whole market, with this knowledge, no firms attempt to enter the industry and an oligopoly or monopoly develops. William Baumol provided the current formal definition of a monopoly where “n industry in which multi-firm production is more costly than production by a monopoly”. He linked the definition to the concept of subadditivity, specifically of the cost function. Baumol also noted that for a firm producing a product, scale economies were a sufficient. The original concept of monopoly is often attributed to John Stuart Mill. In Principles of Political Economy Mill criticised Smiths neglect of an area that could explain wage disparity, mills development of the idea is that what is true of labour is true of capital. All the natural monopolies which produce or aggravate the disparities in the remuneration of different kinds of labour, operate similarly between different employments of capital. A trade may also, from the nature of the case, be confined to so few hands and it is well known that even among so numerous a body as the London booksellers, this sort of combination long continued to exist
6.
Vertical integration
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In microeconomics and management, vertical integration is an arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or service, and it is contrasted with horizontal integration, wherein a company produces several items which are related to one another. Vertical integration has also described management styles that bring large portions of the chain not only under a common ownership. Vertical integration is one method of avoiding the hold-up problem, a monopoly produced through vertical integration is called a vertical monopoly. Nineteenth-century steel tycoon Andrew Carnegies example in the use of vertical integration led others to use the system to promote financial growth, Vertical integration can be an important strategy, but it is notoriously difficult to implement successfully and—when it turns out to be the wrong strategy—costly to fix. Vertical integration is the degree to which a firm owns its upstream suppliers, there are three varieties, backward vertical integration, forward vertical integration, and balanced vertical integration. A company exhibits backward vertical integration when it controls subsidiaries that produce some of the used in the production of its products. For example, a company may own a tire company, a glass company. Control of these three subsidiaries is intended to create a supply of inputs and ensure a consistent quality in their final product. A company tends toward forward vertical integration when it controls distribution centers and retailers where its products are sold, disintermediation is a form of vertical integration when purchasing departments take over the former role of wholesalers to source products. During a hunting trip, an American explorer and scientist, Clarence Birdseye, for example, fish caught a few days previously that were kept in ice remained in perfect condition. In 1924, Clarence Birdseye patented the “Birdseye Plate Froster” and set up the General Seafood Corporation, in 1929, Birdseye’s company and the patent were bought by Postum Company and the Goldman-Sachs trading Corporation. It later came to be known as General Foods and they kept the same Birdseye name, but it was split into two words for use as a trademark. Birdseye was paid $20 million for the patents and $2 million for the assets, Birdseye was one of the pioneers in the frozen food industry. Birdseye Company used vertical integration to manage their business, because of the fact that during these times, there was not a well developed infrastructure to produce and sell, Birdseye developed its own system by using vertical integration. As many members of the supply chain such as farmers and small retailers, couldnt afford high costs to buy equipment. The already-developed infrastructure did not allow Birdseye to quickly react to market changes, in order to increase profits and gain more market share, Alibaba, a Chinese-based company, full use of vertical integration makes it more than an e-commerce stage. Alibaba has built its leadership in the market by gradually acquiring complementary companies in a variety of industries including delivery, one of the earliest, largest and most famous examples of vertical integration was the Carnegie Steel company
7.
Geek
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Although often considered as a pejorative, the term is also used self-referentially without malice or as a source of pride. Its meaning has evolved to refer to someone who is interested in a subject for its own sake and this word comes from English dialect geek or geck. Geck is a term in modern German and means fool or fop. The root also survives in the Dutch and Afrikaans adjective gek, as well as some German dialects, in 18th century Austria, Gecken were freaks on display in some circuses. In 19th century North America, the term referred to a performer in a geek show in a circus. The 1976 edition of the American Heritage Dictionary included only the definition regarding geek shows and this variation of the term was used to comic effect in an episode of popular 1970s TV show Sanford & Son. Professional wrestling manager Classy Freddie Blassie recorded a song in the 1970s called Pencil-Necked Geek, the definition of geek has changed considerably over time, and there is no longer a definitive meaning. The term nerd has a similar, practically synonymous meaning as geek, technologically oriented geeks, in particular, now exert a powerful influence over the global economy and society. At the time, Zuckerberg’s company had grown to one billion users. According to Mark Roeder the rise of the geek represents a new phase of human evolution, previously, such people may have been at a disadvantage, but now their unique cognitive traits enable some of them to resonate with the new technological zeitgeist and become very successful. The Economist magazine observed, on June 2,2012, Those square pegs may not have a time in school. They may be mocked by jocks and ignored at parties, but these days no serious organisation can prosper without them. Meanwhile, in the world, many NBA players wore geek glasses during post-game interviews. The term geek chic was appropriated by some self-identified geeks to refer to a new, Geek Culture, The Third Counter-Culture, an article discussing geek culture as a new kind of counter-culture. The Origins of Geek Culture, Perspectives on a Parallel Intellectual Milieu, are you a nerd or a geek. Geek Chic, USA Today, October 22,2003 How Geek Chic Works
8.
New Zealand Defence Force
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The Chief of Defence Force is Lieutenant-General Tim Keating, who previously served in the capacity of Vice Chief of Defence Force, having been appointed to his current position on 31 January 2014. Brownlee was appointed Minister of Defence as part of a Cabinet reshuffle following the 2014 New Zealand general election, replacing the now Minister of Health, Jonathan Coleman. New Zealands armed forces have three defence policy objectives, to defend New Zealand against low-level threats, to contribute to regional security, New Zealand considers its own national defence needs to be modest, due to its geographical isolation and benign relationships with neighbours. After the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 New Zealands security was dependent on British Imperial troops deployed from Australia, by 1841 the settlers, particularly those in the New Zealand Company settlement of Wellington, were calling for local militia to be formed. In 1843 a local militia had been formed in Wellington without official sanction and this prompted the Chief Police Magistrate Major Matthew Richmond to order its immediate disbandment. Richmond also dispatched 53 soldiers from the 96th Regiment from Auckland to Wellington and these calls for a militia continued to grow with the Wairau Affray. The calls eventually lead to a bill being introduced to the Legislative Assembly in 1844 and those present noted their disapproval of the bill, unanimously deferring it for six months. On 22 March 1845 the Flagstaff War broke out, which proved to be the catalyst for passing the Bill. In 1844 a Select Committee of the House of Commons had recommended that a militia, on 25 March 1845 the Militia Ordinance was passed into law. Twenty-six officers were appointed in Auckland, thereby forming the start of New Zealands own defence force, Major Richmond was appointed commander of the Wellington Battalion of the militia. The newspaper article of the notes that Wellington had a mounted Volunteer Corp. The Nelson Militia were formed about the end of May, in June 1845,75 members of the Auckland Militia under Lieutenant Figg became the first unit to support British Imperial troops in the Flagstaff War, serving as pioneers. Seven militia were wounded in action between 30 June and 1 July 1845, one, a man named Rily, later died of his wounds. The Auckland Militia was disbanded in August or early September 1845 because of budgetary constraints, disbandment of the Nelson and Wellington Militias followed much to the dismay of their supporters. Those at Nelson under Captain Greenwood decided, regardless of pay or not, trouble in the Hutt Valley, near Wellington, in early March 1846 prompted the new Lieutenant Governor George Grey to proclaim martial law and call out the Hutt Militia. Following on from this the paper noted that the No 1 Company of the Wellington Militia had been called out. The paper further noted that Grey intended to maintain two companies of Militia in Wellington, as problems continued in the area at least 160 Militia remained. These were supplemented by volunteers, and Maori warriors from the Te Aro pah
9.
Pretty Good Privacy
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Pretty Good Privacy encryption program provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for data communication. PGP is used for signing, encrypting, and decrypting texts, e-mails, files, directories, phil Zimmermann developed PGP in 1991. PGP and similar software follow the OpenPGP standard for encrypting and decrypting data, PGP encryption uses a serial combination of hashing, data compression, symmetric-key cryptography, and finally public-key cryptography, each step uses one of several supported algorithms. Each public key is bound to a user name and/or an e-mail address, current versions of PGP encryption include both options through an automated key management server. As PGP evolves, versions that support features and algorithms are able to create encrypted messages that older PGP systems cannot decrypt. Therefore, it is essential that partners in PGP communication understand each others capabilities or at least agree on PGP settings, PGP can be used to send messages confidentially. For this, PGP combines symmetric-key encryption and public-key encryption, the message is encrypted using a symmetric encryption algorithm, which requires a symmetric key. Each symmetric key is used once and is also called a session key. The message and its key are sent to the receiver. The session key must be sent to the receiver so they know how to decrypt the message, only the private key belonging to the receiver can decrypt the session key. PGP supports message authentication and integrity checking, the latter is used to detect whether a message has been altered since it was completed and the former to determine whether it was actually sent by the person or entity claimed to be the sender. Because the content is encrypted, any changes in the message will result in failure of the decryption with the appropriate key, the sender uses PGP to create a digital signature for the message with either the RSA or DSA algorithms. To do so, PGP computes a hash from the plaintext, both when encrypting messages and when verifying signatures, it is critical that the public key used to send messages to someone or some entity actually does belong to the intended recipient. Simply downloading a public key from somewhere is not an assurance of that association. However, merely making a certificate which is impossible to modify without being detected is insufficient, users must also ensure by some means that the public key in a certificate actually does belong to the person or entity claiming it. From its first release, PGP products have included an internal certificate vetting scheme to assist with this, a given public key may be digitally signed by a third party user to attest to the association between someone and the key. There are several levels of confidence which can be included in such signatures, although many programs read and write this information, few include this level of certification when calculating whether to trust a key. Users have been willing to accept certificates and check their validity manually or to accept them
10.
.nu
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. nu is the Internet country code top-level domain assigned to the island state of Niue. It was one of the first ccTLDs to be marketed to the Internet at large as an alternative to the gTLDs. com. net, and. org. Playing on the similarity between nu and new, it was promoted as a new TLD in which there was an abundance of good domain names available. As of September 2,2013. SE has assumed responsibility for administration, the. nu domain is particularly popular in Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium, as nu is the word for now in Swedish, Danish and Dutch - an example of a domain hack. Nu is also an archaic adverb meaning now in Norwegian, but nå is the frequently used word. In March 2000. NU Domain Ltd became the first TLD to offer registration of Internationalized domain names, a few days later the site also had its domain name revoked by domain registrar Nunames. The domain revocation was recorded in screenshots taken at the time, Domain names can be as short as one character. In June,2008. NU Domain began permitting registration of domain names. A2005 UDRP case regarding nudomain. com made the assertion under Factual background that The Complainants own, the case does, however, point out that these companies own a registered trademark to. nudomain in several countries. In March 2007, McAfee SiteAdvisor issued a report explaining the functionality of SiteAdvisor, as part of that report. nu domain websites were stated to be among the highest-risk TLDs for browser exploits. However, in most other respects. nu sites were ranked overall as a low to moderate risk, shortly thereafter. NU Domain issued a press release stating that SiteAdvisor had ranked. nu sites among the lowest for risk. In 2008 McAfee reported that. net and. com had become the riskiest TLDs, IANA WHOIS record for. nu IUSN Foundation IUSNs WiFi Nation Internet Niue Niue is dead. The Register Official website of the government of Niue
11.
ISO 3166-1 alpha-2
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They are the most widely used of the country codes published by ISO, and are used most prominently for the Internets country code top-level domains. They were first included as part of the ISO3166 standard in its first edition in 1974, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are used in different environments and are also part of other standards. In some cases they are not perfectly implemented, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are used in the following standards, Starting in 1985, ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes have been used in the Domain Name System as country code top-level domains. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority currently assigns the ccTLDs mostly following the alpha-2 codes, but with a few exceptions. For example, the United Kingdom, whose code is GB, uses. uk instead of. gb as its ccTLD. The European Commission generally uses ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes with two exceptions, EL is used to represent Greece, and UK is used to represent the United Kingdom. This notwithstanding, the Official Journal of the European Communities specified that GR and GB be used to represent Greece, for VAT administration purposes, the European Commission uses EL and GB for Greece and the United Kingdom respectively. IETF language tags are also derived from ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes. The full list of ISO 3166-1 codes assigned to countries and territories are usable as region subtags, also, the exceptionally reserved alpha-2 codes defined in ISO 3166-1 are also usable as region subtags for language tags. Some other region grouping subtags are derived from other standards, under the newer stability policies, old assigned codes that have been withdrawn from ISO 3166-1 should no longer be reassigned to another country or territory. The following is a colour-coded decoding table of all ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes, click on the cell to see the definition of each code. The following alpha-2 codes can be user-assigned, AA, QM to QZ, XA to XZ, for example, UN/LOCODE assigns XZ to represent installations in international waters. The Unicode Common Locale Data Repository assigns QO to represent Outlying Oceania, before the adoption of the macroregion code EU by ISO, CLDR also used QU to represent the European Union. The code XK is being used by the European Commission, the IMF, the code XA is being used by Switzerland, as a country code for the Canary Islands, although IC is already reserved for that purpose. The code XN is being used by the World Intellectual Property Organization as an indicator for the Nordic Patent Institute, the codes XE, XS and XW are used by WhatsApp to represent the flags of England, Scotland and Wales as Emoji. Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a user application of the standard. The reserved alpha-2 codes can be divided into the four categories, exceptional reservations, transitional reservations, indeterminate reservations. These codes may be used only during a period of at least five years while new code elements that may have replaced them are taken into use
12.
.af
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. af is the Internet country code top-level domain for Afghanistan. It is administered by AFGNIC, a service of the UNDP, registration is made directly at the second level, or on the third level beneath various categorized subdomains at the second level. Third-level domains have restrictions based on which second-level domain they are registered under, registration on second level is unrestricted, but more expensive. All fees are higher for international registrants, the domain was delegated to an Abdul Razeeq in 1997, this only a year after Taliban fighters had captured Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. NetNames of London initially maintained the following an agreement with the IANA. IANA. af whois information AFGNIC official site AfghanServer. af registrant
13.
.ag
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. ag is the Internet country code top-level domain for Antigua and Barbuda. Registrations can be made at the second level directly beneath. ag, there are no restrictions on who can register. Aktiengesellschaft, abbreviated AG, is a German term that refers to a corporation that is limited by shares, i. e. owned by shareholders, the term is used in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. It also has a use for other domain hacks for English words that end in -ag. The Heritage Foundation uses. ag for URL shortening, a German court ruled in July 2004 in second instance that a. ag domain may only be registered by an Aktiengesellschaft and more precisely by an AG that has the same name as the domain. That means that a company with shareholders in Germany with the name X AG, list of. AG Registrars IANA. ag whois information
14.
.ar
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. ar is the Internet country code top-level domain for Argentina. It is administered by NIC Argentina, registering a. AR domain directly is not allowed, only the 8 second-level domains below are open to everyone, although a local presence in Argentina is required. As of January 2017 there are currently 9 second-level domains, the. gob. ar domain was also approved for government entities. NIC Argentina Resolution N° 904/2008 about tur. ar domains IANA. ar whois information
15.
.au
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. au is the Internet country code top-level domain for Australia. It was first created on 5 March 1986, Domain name policy is managed by. au Domain Administration, with the registry operated by AusRegistry. The domain name was allocated by Jon Postel, operator of IANA to Kevin Robert Elz of Melbourne University in 1986. After an approximately five-year process in the 1990s, the Internet industry created a body called. au Domain Administration to operate the domain. It obtained assent from ICANN in 2001, and commenced operating a new regime for domain registration on 1 July 2002. Since this new regime, any registration has to be ordered via a registrar, oversight of. au is by. au Domain Administration. It is an organisation whose membership is derived from Internet organisations, industry members. The organisation operates with the endorsement of the Australian Government and with the authority of ICANN. Policy for. au is devised by policy development panels and these panels are convened by auDA and combine public input with industry representation to derive policy. The day-to-day operation of the. au registry technical facility is tendered out by auDA, the current operator is AusRegistry who has performed this role since the initial tender in 2002. AusRegistry does not sell domain registration services direct to the consumer, rather consumers who wish to register a domain must do so via a domain name registrar, after the industrys liberalisation in 2002, there is an active competitive market in registrars with a variety of prices and services. In 2008 auDA changed its policy and allowed changes in ownership of. au domains. AuDA introduced the ISS in October 2013 as a mandatory requirement, discount Domain Name services, Cheaper Domains and Information Brokers, part of the Total Internet Group, are the first three auDA accredited registrars to achieve ISS compliance. The naming rules for. au require registrations under second-level categories that describe a type of entity. com. au and this follows a similar allocation policy to that formerly used in other countries such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Registrations are currently permitted below a second-level domain, such as yourname. com. au, in April 2016, auDA announced it would introduce registrations directly at the second level, such as yourname. au. Direct registrations are due to be implemented in 2017, registering a domain in the. au namespace requires registrants to have either an exact match or a “close and substantial connection” to their desired domain name. Registration of a. au domain is completed through a reseller, known as a registrar and these domains are managed by the. au Community Domains Trust on behalf of auDA. CGDNs use the state or territorys common abbreviation as the level of the domain
16.
.ax
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. ax is the Internet country code top-level domain of the Åland Islands, introduced in 2006. Previously, most Åland websites were under the. aland. fi subdomain, on February 17,2006, the Finnish parliament approved a modification of the laws regulating Finnish domain names to include the. ax top-level domain. On March 17,2006, Finnish president Tarja Halonen signed the bill into law, the government of Åland began accepting registrations immediately following the changing of the law. On June 9,2006, ICANN approved delegating the. ax top-level domain to the government of Åland, the. ax domain was added to the root zone on June 21,2006, and became active on August 15,2006. The code ax itself comes from the ISO3166 standard, and was assigned to Åland in 2004
New Zealand