1.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
2.
Transnistria
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The region is considered by the UN to be part of Moldova. The PMR controls a narrow strip of territory to the east of the River Dniester, unrecognised by any United Nations member state, Transnistria is designated by the Republic of Moldova as the Transnistria autonomous territorial unit with special legal status, or Stînga Nistrului. As part of agreement, a three-party Joint Control Commission supervises the security arrangements in the demilitarised zone. Its authorities have adopted a constitution, flag, national anthem and it is the only country still using the hammer and sickle on its flag. After a 2005 agreement between Moldova and Ukraine, all Transnistrian companies that seek to export goods through the Ukrainian border must be registered with the Moldovan authorities and this agreement was implemented after the European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine took force in 2005. Most Transnistrians also have Moldovan citizenship, but many Transnistrians also have Russian and Ukrainian citizenship, the largest ethnic group is Moldovans, who historically had a higher share of the population, up to 49. 4% in 1926. Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia are post-Soviet frozen conflict zones and these four partially recognised states maintain friendly relations with each other and form the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations. The region is known in English as Trans-Dniestr or Transdniestria. Etymologically, these names are adaptations of the Romanian colloquial name of the region, the documents of the government of Moldova refer to the region as Stînga Nistrului meaning Left Bank of the Dniester. The name of the according to the Transnistrian authorities is Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. The short form of name is Pridnestrovie. Pridnestrovie is a transliteration of the Russian Приднестровье meaning by the Dniester, indo-European tribes had for millennia inhabited the area where Transnistria now is when it was a borderland between Dacia and Scythia. The Tyragetae inhabited the area around the River Dniester as well as the Scythians, early Germanic and Turkic tribes were present in the area during their attacks and invasions of the Roman Empire. From 56 AD, the area around the city of Tyras was occupied by the Romans for nearly four centuries. Tyras enjoyed great development during Roman times, there is a series of its coins with heads of emperors from Domitian to Alexander Severus, but in the second half of the fourth century the area was continuously attacked by barbarians and the Roman legionaries left Tyras. In the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribes of Tivertsi and Ulichs populated larger areas, including Transnistria, followed by Turkic nomads such as the Petchenegs and Cumans. Possibly an early part of Kievan Rus, after the Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241, prince of Moldavia George Ducas built a court at Țicanova on the east bank of the Dniester, and one at Nimirov on the Southern Bug, last mentioned in Moldavian hands in 1765. The localities Dubăsari, Rașcov, Vasilcău, as well as four other currently in Ukraine are mentioned in 17th–18th centuries as fairs for the Dniester-Bug region
3.
Mitre Corporation
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The Mitre Corporation is an American not-for-profit organization based in Bedford, Massachusetts, and McLean, Virginia. It manages Federally Funded Research and Development Centers supporting several U. S. government agencies, Mitre is organized as follows, Additionally, internal research and development explores new technologies and ways to apply existing tools and technologies. Among other efforts, Mitre maintains the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures system, since 1999, the Mitre Corporation functions as editor and primary CNA of the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures. Under the leadership of C. W. Halligan, Mitre was formed in 1958 to provide direction to the companies. Most of the employees were transferred to Mitre from the Lincoln Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In April 1959, a site was purchased in Bedford, Massachusetts, near Hanscom Air Force Base, to develop a new Mitre laboratory, after the SAGE project ended in the early 1960s, the FAA selected Mitre to develop a similar system to provide automated air traffic control. The result of the formed the National Airspace System, that is still in use today. To support the NAS project and continual operations with the U. S. Department of Defense at the Pentagon, Mitre opened a main office in McLean. Through the 1960s, Mitre developed and supported military Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence projects, including the Airborne Warning, Mitre also worked on a number of projects with ARPA, including precursors to the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. In 1982, the Mitre Corporation authored a proposal for the State Department called Cannabis Eradication in Foreign Western Nations, in this proposal, a plan was outlined to eradicate cannabis in participating nations within 121 days, for $19 million. The report discussed the use and safety considerations of paraquat, the plan would have been to aerially dispense paraquat over marijuana crops. One safety concern was the food crops grown alongside the marijuana crops being contaminated, a study conducted on rats by Imperial Chemical Industries was cited in the report, and claimed low health risks for paraquat. On July 10,1985, mitre. org was the first. org domain name registered, in 2005, a team from Mitre competed in the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, and qualified in 23rd place for the final race. 1958–1966, C. W. Halligan 1966–1969, Dr. John L. McLucas 1969–1986, Robert R. Everett 1986–1990, Charles A. Zraket 1990–1996, Barry M. Horowitz 1996–2000, Victor A. DeMarines 2000–2006, Martin C. A sampling includes In 2015, Forbes Magazine named Mitre one of Americas Best Employers, in 2013, Mitre was named a 2013 CSO40 Award winner by the International Data Groups CSO Magazine. The CSO40 Awards recognize 40 organizations for security projects and initiatives that demonstrate outstanding business value, in 2011 and 2012, InformationWeek named Mitre to its InformationWeek 500, an annual ranking of the nations most innovative users of business technology. In July 2008, Mitre was awarded the Air Force Association’s Theodore Von Karman award for the most outstanding contribution in the field of engineering, Mitre has been included on annual lists of several magazines, Glassdoor. Mitre employees have created more than 30 technologies available for licensing, generated more than 60 packages of downloadable software, official website Mitre at Market Visual
4.
.eus
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. eus is the top-level domain for the Basque language. In 2008, dotCYMRU, dotEUS, dotSCOT, and dotBZH formed ECLID, on 10 June 2013, ICANN approved the creation of the domain. However, use of the name was restricted until March–April 2014
5.
ICANN
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ICANN performs the actual technical maintenance work of the central Internet address pools and DNS root zone registries pursuant to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority function contract. The numbering facilities ICANN manages include the Internet Protocol address spaces for IPv4 and IPv6, ICANN also maintains registries of Internet Protocol identifiers. ICANN was created on September 18,1998, and incorporated on September 30,1998 and it is headquartered in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles. In 1997 Postel testified before Congress that this had come about as a task to this research work. The Information Sciences Institute was funded by the U. S. Department of Defense, as was SRI Internationals Network Information Center, which also performed some assigned name functions. As the Internet grew and expanded globally, the U. S. Department of Commerce initiated a process to establish a new organization to perform the IANA functions. The proposed rule making, or Green Paper, was published in the Federal Register on February 20,1998, NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23,1998, when the comment period closed. ICANN was formed in response to this policy, ICANN managed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority under contract to the United States Department of Commerce and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF. ICANN was incorporated in California on September 30,1998, with entrepreneur and it is a nonprofit public benefit corporation organized under the California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation Law for charitable and public purposes. ICANN was established in California due to the presence of Jon Postel, ICANN formerly operated from the same Marina del Rey building where Postel formerly worked, which is home to an office of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California. However, ICANNs headquarters is now located in the nearby Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles and they were also required to be financially independent from ICANN. On July 26,2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA function for a one to five years. The context of ICANNs relationship with the U. S. government was clarified on September 29,2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with the United States Department of Commerce and this document gave the DOC oversight over some of the ICANN operations. During July 2008, the DOC reiterated a statement that it has no plans to transition management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN. The letter also stresses the separate roles of the IANA and VeriSign, on September 30,2009, ICANN signed an agreement with the DOC that confirmed ICANNs commitment to a multistakeholder governance model, but did not remove it from DOC oversight and control. On March 10,2016, ICANN and the DOC signed a historic, culminating agreement to finally remove ICANN and IANA from the control, on October 1,2016, ICANN was freed from U. S. government oversight. During September and October 2003, ICANN played a role in the conflict over VeriSigns wild card DNS service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later endorsed by the Internet Architecture Board, after this action, VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27,2004, claiming that ICANN had exceeded its authority
6.
Verisign
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Verisign, Inc. com. net, and. name generic top-level domains and the. cc and. tv country-code top-level domains, and the back-end systems for the. jobs. gov, and. edu top-level domains. Verisign also offers a range of security services, including managed DNS, distributed denial-of-service attack mitigation and cyber-threat reporting. In 2010, Verisign sold its business unit – which included SSL certificate, PKI, Verisign Trust Seal. The deal capped a multi-year effort by Verisign to narrow its focus to its core infrastructure, Verisign was founded in 1995 as a spin-off of the RSA Security certification services business. The new company received licenses to key cryptographic patents held by RSA, the new company served as a certificate authority and its initial mission was providing trust for the Internet and Electronic Commerce through our Digital Authentication services and products. Those core registry functions formed the basis for Verisign’s naming division, in 2002, Verisign was charged with violation of the Securities Exchange Act. Verisign divested the Network Solutions retail business in 2003, retaining the name registry function as its core Internet addressing business. For the year ended December 31,2010, Verisign reported revenue of $681 million, verisigns share price tumbled in early 2014, hastened by the U. S. governments announcement that it would relinquish oversight of the Internets domain-naming system to a non-government entity. Ultimately the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers chose to continue VeriSigns role as the root zone maintainer, on August 9,2010 Symantec completed its approximately $1. Verisigns core business is its naming services division, the division operates the authoritative domain name registries for two of the Internets most important top-level domains. com and. net. It is also the contracted registry operator for the. name and. gov top-level domains as well as the country code top-level domains. cc, in addition, Verisign is the primary technical subcontractor for the. edu, and. Registry operators are the wholesalers of Internet domain names, while domain name registrars act as the “retailers”, Verisign also operates two of the Internet’s thirteen root servers which are identified by the letters A-M. The root servers form the top of the hierarchical Domain Name System that supports all Internet communication, changes to the root zone were originally distributed via the A root server, but now they are distributed to all thirteen servers via a separate distribution system which Verisign maintains. Verisign is the one of the 12 root server operators to operate more than one of the thirteen root nameservers. In 2016 the Department of Commerce ended its role in managing the Internets DNS, while this initially negatively impacted VeriSigns stock, ICANN eventually chose to contract with VeriSign to continue its role as the root zone maintainer. As a result of new policies, Network Solutions divided itself into two divisions. The divisions were even geographically split with the NSI Registry moving from the headquarters in Herndon, Virginia, to nearby Dulles. In 2000, VeriSign purchased Network Solutions taking over its role in the Internet DNS, the NSI Registry division eventually became VeriSigns naming services division while the remainder of Network Solutions was later sold by VeriSign in 2003 to Pivotal Equity Group
7.
.club
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. club, often stylized as. CLUB and sometimes dot-club, is a top-level domain. It was proposed in ICANNs new generic top-level domain program, and became available to the public on May 7,2014. Club Domains. In June 2013. Club Domains, LLC acquired the. club gTLD through an auction after raising $7 million from 27 individual investors. Colin Campbell, the chief executive officer, declined to reveal the final auction price. Club was the first new gTLD acquired via private auction, unsuccessful applicants competing for the gTLD were Donuts and the Merchant Law Group LLP. According to The Domains, Those now using a web address ending in. club include brands, celebrities, sports figures, innovative entrepreneurs and startups, associations, and clubs around the globe. Tens of thousands of clubs, business and individuals are using a. club address for their web presence, from Rotary Clubs, to school clubs. Prominent individuals using the extension include rapper 50 Cent, professional basketball player Tyler Johnson, and Indian cricket star Virat Kohli
8.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
9.
.au
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. au is the Internet country code top-level domain for Australia. It was first created on 5 March 1986, Domain name policy is managed by. au Domain Administration, with the registry operated by AusRegistry. The domain name was allocated by Jon Postel, operator of IANA to Kevin Robert Elz of Melbourne University in 1986. After an approximately five-year process in the 1990s, the Internet industry created a body called. au Domain Administration to operate the domain. It obtained assent from ICANN in 2001, and commenced operating a new regime for domain registration on 1 July 2002. Since this new regime, any registration has to be ordered via a registrar, oversight of. au is by. au Domain Administration. It is an organisation whose membership is derived from Internet organisations, industry members. The organisation operates with the endorsement of the Australian Government and with the authority of ICANN. Policy for. au is devised by policy development panels and these panels are convened by auDA and combine public input with industry representation to derive policy. The day-to-day operation of the. au registry technical facility is tendered out by auDA, the current operator is AusRegistry who has performed this role since the initial tender in 2002. AusRegistry does not sell domain registration services direct to the consumer, rather consumers who wish to register a domain must do so via a domain name registrar, after the industrys liberalisation in 2002, there is an active competitive market in registrars with a variety of prices and services. In 2008 auDA changed its policy and allowed changes in ownership of. au domains. AuDA introduced the ISS in October 2013 as a mandatory requirement, discount Domain Name services, Cheaper Domains and Information Brokers, part of the Total Internet Group, are the first three auDA accredited registrars to achieve ISS compliance. The naming rules for. au require registrations under second-level categories that describe a type of entity. com. au and this follows a similar allocation policy to that formerly used in other countries such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Registrations are currently permitted below a second-level domain, such as yourname. com. au, in April 2016, auDA announced it would introduce registrations directly at the second level, such as yourname. au. Direct registrations are due to be implemented in 2017, registering a domain in the. au namespace requires registrants to have either an exact match or a “close and substantial connection” to their desired domain name. Registration of a. au domain is completed through a reseller, known as a registrar and these domains are managed by the. au Community Domains Trust on behalf of auDA. CGDNs use the state or territorys common abbreviation as the level of the domain
10.
.so
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. so is the internet country code top-level domain for Somalia. After a long absence, the. so domain was officially relaunched on November 1,2010, by. SO Registry and it was launched through various accredited registrars around the world. Due to the war in Somalia, operations of this domain were previously officially delegated to Monolith Innovation Group, a company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Monolith Innovations, as a name server, was popular in the mid-1990s. Second-level domain registrations at the time were relatively expensive, at the time, the potential benefits seemed more than apparent. According to ml. orgs founder, Aveek Datta, in 1998, whether or not this becomes a reality is another question, money talks and big bucks are being waved about in the registry battles. However, the ml. org service ceased operations at the end of 1998 due to technical and organisational problems which included major server failures and its second-level domains remain registered to Aveek Datta, president of the former Monolith Innovations Group, but appear not to be in active use. Throughout the domains history, a placeholder site at the nic. so address claimed that no. SO domains are available. However, the DNS servers for the name were badly configured. On February 3,2009, ICANN approved redelegation of the. so domain to the Ministry of Post, the new registry operator relaunched the. so domain on November 1,2010. Requests to become a registrar can already be submitted using the recently launched website of. SO Registry, there also exists. gov. so for government entities. SONIC maintains a list of accredited registrars. Communications in Somalia IANA. so whois information SO Registry website
11.
Internationalized domain name
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These writing systems are encoded by computers in multi-byte Unicode. Internationalized domain names are stored in the Domain Name System as ASCII strings using Punycode transcription, internationalized domain names can only be used with applications that are specifically designed for such use, they require no changes in the infrastructure of the Internet. IDN was originally proposed in December 1996 by Martin Dürst and implemented in 1998 by Tan Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong under the guidance of Tan Tin Wee. After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications was adopted as a standard, in IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. In March 2008, the IETF formed a new IDN working group to update the current IDNA protocol, in May 2010 the first IDN ccTLD were installed in the DNS root zone. Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications is a defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. These names either are Latin letters with diacritics or are written in languages or scripts which do not use the Latin alphabet, Arabic, Hangul, Hiragana and Kanji for instance. Although the Domain Name System supports non-ASCII characters, applications such as e-mail, IDNA specifies how this conversion between names written in non-ASCII characters and their ASCII-based representation is performed. An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the internationalized and ASCII representations of a domain name and it uses the ASCII form for DNS lookups but can present the internationalized form to users who presumably prefer to read and write domain names in non-ASCII scripts such as Arabic or Hiragana. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the ASCII equivalent. ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in 2004 and 2005. IDN Guidelines were first created in June 2003, and have been updated to respond to phishing concerns in November 2005, mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 were among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support, Internet Explorer 7.0 and Windows Vistas URL APIs provide native support for IDN. The conversions between ASCII and non-ASCII forms of a name are accomplished by algorithms called ToASCII and ToUnicode. These algorithms are not applied to the name as a whole. For example, if the name is www. example. com, then the labels are www, example. ToASCII or ToUnicode are applied to each of three separately. The details of these two algorithms are complex, and are specified in RFC3490, the following gives an overview of their function
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