1.
Org-mode
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Org-mode is an editing and organizing mode for notes, planning, and authoring in the free software text editor Emacs. The name is used to encompass plain text files that include simple marks to indicate levels of a hierarchy, Bastien Guerry is the current maintainer, in cooperation with an active development community. Since its success in Emacs, some systems have also begun providing functions to work with org files. The Org system is based on text files with a simple markup. The Linux Information Project explains that Plain text is supported by nearly every application program on every operating system, the system includes a lightweight markup language for plain text files, allowing lines or sections of plain text to be hierarchically divided, tagged, linked, and so on. This section gives some sample uses for the display and editing of plain text. To-do lists often have subtasks, and so lend themselves to a hierarchical system, Org-mode facilitates this by allowing items to be subdivided into simple steps, and given tags and properties such as priorities and deadlines. An agenda for the items to be done this week or day can then be generated from date tags. Org files as interconnected pages of a wiki, using the markup for links. Tracking bugs in a project, by storing. org files in a revision control system such as Git. Org-mode has some features to export to other formats, and other systems have features to handle org-mode formats. From org-mode, add-on packages export to other markup format such as MediaWiki, outside of org-mode editors, org markup is supported by the GitHub code repository, the JIRA issue tracker, Pandoc, and others. Some of the systems that handle org files include, Emacs Mobile apps, the Vim text editor, via plugins, VimOrganizer - An Emacs Org-mode clone for Vim. vim-orgmode - Text outlining and task management for Vim based on Emacs Org-mode. VOoM - Outliner including an Org markup mode, vxfold. vim - Fold cycling similar to Emacs Org-mode. Sublime Text editor, with Org syntax and features using its orgmode plugin, the Org Mode 7 Reference Manual, Organize your life with GNU Emacs. With contributions by David OToole, Bastien Guerry, Philip Rooke, Dan Davison, Eric Schulte, Schulte, Eric, Davison, Dan, Dye, Thomas, Dominik, Carsten. A Multi-Language Computing Environment for Literate Programming and Reproducible Research, american Institute of Physics, and IEEE Computer Society
2.
Public Interest Registry
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The Public Interest Registry is a Reston, Virginia-based not-for-profit created by the Internet Society in 2002 to manage the. ORG top-level domain. It took over operation of. ORG in January 2003 and launched the. NGO, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers circulated a request for proposals in May 2002 for a new organization to manage the. ORG domain. The Internet Society put forth one of eleven proposals ICANN received, ISOC won an endorsement within ICANN and was recommended to the selection committee in a preliminary report. At a public ICANN meeting in Bucharest in 2002, ISOC CEO Lynn St. Amour, the proposal included the creation of a separate entity, called the Public Interest Registry, to oversee the. ORG domain. Its board of directors is appointed by ISOC, Afilias was selected as the back-end technical provider for. ORG under contract with the Public Interest Registry. The largest domain transfer in history occurred on January 1,2003, an Internet Society Vice President, David Maher, became the chairman. The following month, Ed Viltz became the organization’s first CEO, on June 23,2010, The Public Interest Registry implemented the Domain Name System Security Extensions protocol for. ORG. DNSSEC is intended to prevent cache poisoning attacks by making sure internet users arrive at the URL they intended, the implementation began in test environments in mid-2009. The protocol was implemented by PIRs technical partner Afilias during the tenure of former CEO, Alexa Raad, Raad resigned from the Public Interest Registry in late 2010. The non-profit had an interim CEO, until it recruited former Afilias executive Brian Cute as its chief executive officer on January 14,2011. Craigslist. org and Wikipedia. org are among the more popular. ORG users, since 2009, the Public Interest Registry has published a bi-annual report called “The Dashboard” on the number of registered. ORG domains. There were more than 8 million registered. ORGs in 2009,8.8 million in 2010, the Public Interest Registry registered the ten millionth. ORG domain in June,2012. In June 2015 there were 10.5 million. ORG domains registered, the Public Interest Registry promotes and publicizes the. ORG domain. In 2010, the Public Interest Registry launched “WhyIChose. org” as part of campaign to promote the. ORG domain extension and it conducted a survey of consumers in 2011 on how domain names are perceived by internet users. The survey found that 81 percent of Americans still rely on a website before Twitter or Facebook. It also suggested. ORG sites were seen as more trustworthy, respondents were more likely to turn to. ORG websites in a crisis, more likely to post content on. ORG sites and to trust information on a. ORG domain. It also found that younger age groups were almost twice as likely to register a. ORG as Americans age 55-64, the first. ORG domain name to be registered was mitre. org. In June 2011, ICANN expanded the internet’s naming system to allow applications for new top-level domain names, the Public Interest Registry declared publicly an interest in the. NGO domain in August 2011 and applied for it in May 2012
3.
Internet Society
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The Internet Society is an American, non-profit organization founded in 1992 to provide leadership in Internet-related standards, education, access, and policy. It states that its mission is to promote the development, evolution. The Internet Society has its headquarters in Reston, Virginia, United States and it has a membership base of more than 140 organizations and more than 80,000 individual members. Members also form chapters based on either common geographical location or special interests, there are over 110 chapters around the world. The Internet Society was formed officially in 1992 by Vint Cerf, Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn, Lyman Chapin released a document, Announcing ISOC, which explained the rationale for establishing the Internet Society. To educate the academic and scientific communities and the public concerning the technology, use, to promote scientific and educational applications of Internet technology for the benefit of educational institutions at all grade levels, industry, and the public at large. To provide a forum for exploration of new Internet applications and to collaboration among organizations in their operation. Many of the forces of the Internet, such as the Internet Engineering Task Force. There was a growing need for support and organization structure. However, the Internet Society itself grew out of the IETF, the then Internet Activities Board sought to create a non-profit institution that could provide financial support for the IETF Secretariat among other things. CNRI served as the first host for the Internet Societys operation, the Internet Society conducts a great range of activities under three main categories, namely standards, public policy, access, and education. The Internet Society also seeks to promote understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes, the Internet Society has a prominent function in Internet governance discussions, including significant involvement in the World Summit on the Information Society and Internet Governance Forum. The Internet Society is the parent company for the Public Interest Registry, ISOC has joint offices in Reston, Virginia, United States and Geneva, Switzerland. It has also established Regional Bureaus for Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, North America, the Internet Society is governed by a board of trustees. The current list of trustees and their committee memberships is found on the organizations website
4.
Domain Name System
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The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
5.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
6.
.gov
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The domain name gov is a sponsored top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. The name is derived from the government, indicating its restricted use by government entities in the United States. The gov domain is administered by the General Services Administration, an independent agency of the United States federal government, the U. S. is the only country that has a government-specific top-level domain in addition to its country-code top-level domain. This is a result of the origins of the Internet as a U. S. federal government-sponsored research network, other countries typically delegate a second-level domain for this purpose, for example. gc. ca is the second-level domain for the Government of Canada and all subdomains. Some U. S. federal agencies use com, instead of gov, the Department of Defense and its subsidiary organizations use the mil sTLD. Some U. S. governmental entities use other domains, such as com domains by the United States Postal Service, usps. com, the US military repeats this pattern for recruitment websites of other branches. All governments in the U. S. were allowed to apply for delegations in gov before May 2012, for example, domains have been registered for the city of Atlanta, for the county of Loudoun, Virginia, and for the U. S. state of Georgia. This was not always possible, under a policy, only federal agencies were allowed to use the domain. Inconsistencies exist in addressing of state and local government sites, with some using gov, some us, some using both. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania uses www. pa. gov, www. pennsylvania. gov and www. state. pa. us for the web site. Use of the domain gov is restricted to government entities, the URL for registration services is www. dotgov. gov. To register a gov domain, a letter of authorization must be submitted to the GSA, for federal agencies, the authorization must be submitted by cabinet-level chief information officer. For state governments, authorization from the governor or state CIO is required, for Native Sovereign Nations, the authorization must come from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The GSA provides guidelines for naming of second-level domains, such as used by state. For states, the name must include the full state name or postal abbreviation. For example, invalid. gov for Idaho would be a domain name. For local governments, the name must include the state name or abbreviation. However, many. gov domain names do not conform to the convention because they were already registered before the GSA enacted this policy
7.
.mil
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The domain name mil is the sponsored top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet for the United States Department of Defense and its subsidiary or affiliated organizations. The name is derived from military and it was one of the first top-level domains, created in January 1985. The United States is the country that has a top-level domain for its military. Other countries often use second-level domains for this purpose, e. g. mod. uk for the United Kingdoms Ministry of Defence, canada uses norad. mil with the United States as they jointly operate the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The official athletic program sites of the three academies that are members of NCAA Division I use com domains, as well as Coast Guard, which is a member of NCAA Division III. The Department of Defense itself uses gov for its home page, the United States Coast Guard, like other military services, uses the mil domain, although during statutory peacetime the service falls under the United States Department of Homeland Security. IANA. mil whois information Mil Domain Used by US Airforce Mil Domain Used by US Army Mil Domain Used by US Marines Mil Domain Used by US Navy Mil Domain Used by US Coast Guard List of Mil Domains
8.
.net
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The domain name net is a generic top-level domain used in the Domain Name System of the Internet. However, restrictions were never enforced and the domain is now a general purpose namespace, as of 2015, it is the fourth most popular top-level domain, after. com. tk and. de. Verisign, the operator of net after acquiring Network Solutions, held a contract that expired on 30 June 2005. ICANN, the responsible for domain management, sought proposals from organizations to operate the domain upon expiration of the contract. Verisign regained the contract bid, and secured its control over the net registry for another six years, on 30 June 2011, the contract with Verisign was automatically renewed for another six years. This is because of an approved by the ICANN board. Registrations are processed via accredited registrars and internationalized domain names are also accepted, list of net accredited registrars net WhoIS netDomain Name suffixes
9.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
10.
Mitre Corporation
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The Mitre Corporation is an American not-for-profit organization based in Bedford, Massachusetts, and McLean, Virginia. It manages Federally Funded Research and Development Centers supporting several U. S. government agencies, Mitre is organized as follows, Additionally, internal research and development explores new technologies and ways to apply existing tools and technologies. Among other efforts, Mitre maintains the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures system, since 1999, the Mitre Corporation functions as editor and primary CNA of the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures. Under the leadership of C. W. Halligan, Mitre was formed in 1958 to provide direction to the companies. Most of the employees were transferred to Mitre from the Lincoln Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In April 1959, a site was purchased in Bedford, Massachusetts, near Hanscom Air Force Base, to develop a new Mitre laboratory, after the SAGE project ended in the early 1960s, the FAA selected Mitre to develop a similar system to provide automated air traffic control. The result of the formed the National Airspace System, that is still in use today. To support the NAS project and continual operations with the U. S. Department of Defense at the Pentagon, Mitre opened a main office in McLean. Through the 1960s, Mitre developed and supported military Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence projects, including the Airborne Warning, Mitre also worked on a number of projects with ARPA, including precursors to the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. In 1982, the Mitre Corporation authored a proposal for the State Department called Cannabis Eradication in Foreign Western Nations, in this proposal, a plan was outlined to eradicate cannabis in participating nations within 121 days, for $19 million. The report discussed the use and safety considerations of paraquat, the plan would have been to aerially dispense paraquat over marijuana crops. One safety concern was the food crops grown alongside the marijuana crops being contaminated, a study conducted on rats by Imperial Chemical Industries was cited in the report, and claimed low health risks for paraquat. On July 10,1985, mitre. org was the first. org domain name registered, in 2005, a team from Mitre competed in the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, and qualified in 23rd place for the final race. 1958–1966, C. W. Halligan 1966–1969, Dr. John L. McLucas 1969–1986, Robert R. Everett 1986–1990, Charles A. Zraket 1990–1996, Barry M. Horowitz 1996–2000, Victor A. DeMarines 2000–2006, Martin C. A sampling includes In 2015, Forbes Magazine named Mitre one of Americas Best Employers, in 2013, Mitre was named a 2013 CSO40 Award winner by the International Data Groups CSO Magazine. The CSO40 Awards recognize 40 organizations for security projects and initiatives that demonstrate outstanding business value, in 2011 and 2012, InformationWeek named Mitre to its InformationWeek 500, an annual ranking of the nations most innovative users of business technology. In July 2008, Mitre was awarded the Air Force Association’s Theodore Von Karman award for the most outstanding contribution in the field of engineering, Mitre has been included on annual lists of several magazines, Glassdoor. Mitre employees have created more than 30 technologies available for licensing, generated more than 60 packages of downloadable software, official website Mitre at Market Visual
11.
Verisign
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Verisign, Inc. com. net, and. name generic top-level domains and the. cc and. tv country-code top-level domains, and the back-end systems for the. jobs. gov, and. edu top-level domains. Verisign also offers a range of security services, including managed DNS, distributed denial-of-service attack mitigation and cyber-threat reporting. In 2010, Verisign sold its business unit – which included SSL certificate, PKI, Verisign Trust Seal. The deal capped a multi-year effort by Verisign to narrow its focus to its core infrastructure, Verisign was founded in 1995 as a spin-off of the RSA Security certification services business. The new company received licenses to key cryptographic patents held by RSA, the new company served as a certificate authority and its initial mission was providing trust for the Internet and Electronic Commerce through our Digital Authentication services and products. Those core registry functions formed the basis for Verisign’s naming division, in 2002, Verisign was charged with violation of the Securities Exchange Act. Verisign divested the Network Solutions retail business in 2003, retaining the name registry function as its core Internet addressing business. For the year ended December 31,2010, Verisign reported revenue of $681 million, verisigns share price tumbled in early 2014, hastened by the U. S. governments announcement that it would relinquish oversight of the Internets domain-naming system to a non-government entity. Ultimately the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers chose to continue VeriSigns role as the root zone maintainer, on August 9,2010 Symantec completed its approximately $1. Verisigns core business is its naming services division, the division operates the authoritative domain name registries for two of the Internets most important top-level domains. com and. net. It is also the contracted registry operator for the. name and. gov top-level domains as well as the country code top-level domains. cc, in addition, Verisign is the primary technical subcontractor for the. edu, and. Registry operators are the wholesalers of Internet domain names, while domain name registrars act as the “retailers”, Verisign also operates two of the Internet’s thirteen root servers which are identified by the letters A-M. The root servers form the top of the hierarchical Domain Name System that supports all Internet communication, changes to the root zone were originally distributed via the A root server, but now they are distributed to all thirteen servers via a separate distribution system which Verisign maintains. Verisign is the one of the 12 root server operators to operate more than one of the thirteen root nameservers. In 2016 the Department of Commerce ended its role in managing the Internets DNS, while this initially negatively impacted VeriSigns stock, ICANN eventually chose to contract with VeriSign to continue its role as the root zone maintainer. As a result of new policies, Network Solutions divided itself into two divisions. The divisions were even geographically split with the NSI Registry moving from the headquarters in Herndon, Virginia, to nearby Dulles. In 2000, VeriSign purchased Network Solutions taking over its role in the Internet DNS, the NSI Registry division eventually became VeriSigns naming services division while the remainder of Network Solutions was later sold by VeriSign in 2003 to Pivotal Equity Group
12.
ICANN
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ICANN performs the actual technical maintenance work of the central Internet address pools and DNS root zone registries pursuant to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority function contract. The numbering facilities ICANN manages include the Internet Protocol address spaces for IPv4 and IPv6, ICANN also maintains registries of Internet Protocol identifiers. ICANN was created on September 18,1998, and incorporated on September 30,1998 and it is headquartered in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles. In 1997 Postel testified before Congress that this had come about as a task to this research work. The Information Sciences Institute was funded by the U. S. Department of Defense, as was SRI Internationals Network Information Center, which also performed some assigned name functions. As the Internet grew and expanded globally, the U. S. Department of Commerce initiated a process to establish a new organization to perform the IANA functions. The proposed rule making, or Green Paper, was published in the Federal Register on February 20,1998, NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23,1998, when the comment period closed. ICANN was formed in response to this policy, ICANN managed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority under contract to the United States Department of Commerce and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF. ICANN was incorporated in California on September 30,1998, with entrepreneur and it is a nonprofit public benefit corporation organized under the California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation Law for charitable and public purposes. ICANN was established in California due to the presence of Jon Postel, ICANN formerly operated from the same Marina del Rey building where Postel formerly worked, which is home to an office of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California. However, ICANNs headquarters is now located in the nearby Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles and they were also required to be financially independent from ICANN. On July 26,2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA function for a one to five years. The context of ICANNs relationship with the U. S. government was clarified on September 29,2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with the United States Department of Commerce and this document gave the DOC oversight over some of the ICANN operations. During July 2008, the DOC reiterated a statement that it has no plans to transition management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN. The letter also stresses the separate roles of the IANA and VeriSign, on September 30,2009, ICANN signed an agreement with the DOC that confirmed ICANNs commitment to a multistakeholder governance model, but did not remove it from DOC oversight and control. On March 10,2016, ICANN and the DOC signed a historic, culminating agreement to finally remove ICANN and IANA from the control, on October 1,2016, ICANN was freed from U. S. government oversight. During September and October 2003, ICANN played a role in the conflict over VeriSigns wild card DNS service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later endorsed by the Internet Architecture Board, after this action, VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27,2004, claiming that ICANN had exceeded its authority
13.
Open-source software
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
14.
Transnistria
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The region is considered by the UN to be part of Moldova. The PMR controls a narrow strip of territory to the east of the River Dniester, unrecognised by any United Nations member state, Transnistria is designated by the Republic of Moldova as the Transnistria autonomous territorial unit with special legal status, or Stînga Nistrului. As part of agreement, a three-party Joint Control Commission supervises the security arrangements in the demilitarised zone. Its authorities have adopted a constitution, flag, national anthem and it is the only country still using the hammer and sickle on its flag. After a 2005 agreement between Moldova and Ukraine, all Transnistrian companies that seek to export goods through the Ukrainian border must be registered with the Moldovan authorities and this agreement was implemented after the European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine took force in 2005. Most Transnistrians also have Moldovan citizenship, but many Transnistrians also have Russian and Ukrainian citizenship, the largest ethnic group is Moldovans, who historically had a higher share of the population, up to 49. 4% in 1926. Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia are post-Soviet frozen conflict zones and these four partially recognised states maintain friendly relations with each other and form the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations. The region is known in English as Trans-Dniestr or Transdniestria. Etymologically, these names are adaptations of the Romanian colloquial name of the region, the documents of the government of Moldova refer to the region as Stînga Nistrului meaning Left Bank of the Dniester. The name of the according to the Transnistrian authorities is Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. The short form of name is Pridnestrovie. Pridnestrovie is a transliteration of the Russian Приднестровье meaning by the Dniester, indo-European tribes had for millennia inhabited the area where Transnistria now is when it was a borderland between Dacia and Scythia. The Tyragetae inhabited the area around the River Dniester as well as the Scythians, early Germanic and Turkic tribes were present in the area during their attacks and invasions of the Roman Empire. From 56 AD, the area around the city of Tyras was occupied by the Romans for nearly four centuries. Tyras enjoyed great development during Roman times, there is a series of its coins with heads of emperors from Domitian to Alexander Severus, but in the second half of the fourth century the area was continuously attacked by barbarians and the Roman legionaries left Tyras. In the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribes of Tivertsi and Ulichs populated larger areas, including Transnistria, followed by Turkic nomads such as the Petchenegs and Cumans. Possibly an early part of Kievan Rus, after the Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241, prince of Moldavia George Ducas built a court at Țicanova on the east bank of the Dniester, and one at Nimirov on the Southern Bug, last mentioned in Moldavian hands in 1765. The localities Dubăsari, Rașcov, Vasilcău, as well as four other currently in Ukraine are mentioned in 17th–18th centuries as fairs for the Dniester-Bug region
15.
.au
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. au is the Internet country code top-level domain for Australia. It was first created on 5 March 1986, Domain name policy is managed by. au Domain Administration, with the registry operated by AusRegistry. The domain name was allocated by Jon Postel, operator of IANA to Kevin Robert Elz of Melbourne University in 1986. After an approximately five-year process in the 1990s, the Internet industry created a body called. au Domain Administration to operate the domain. It obtained assent from ICANN in 2001, and commenced operating a new regime for domain registration on 1 July 2002. Since this new regime, any registration has to be ordered via a registrar, oversight of. au is by. au Domain Administration. It is an organisation whose membership is derived from Internet organisations, industry members. The organisation operates with the endorsement of the Australian Government and with the authority of ICANN. Policy for. au is devised by policy development panels and these panels are convened by auDA and combine public input with industry representation to derive policy. The day-to-day operation of the. au registry technical facility is tendered out by auDA, the current operator is AusRegistry who has performed this role since the initial tender in 2002. AusRegistry does not sell domain registration services direct to the consumer, rather consumers who wish to register a domain must do so via a domain name registrar, after the industrys liberalisation in 2002, there is an active competitive market in registrars with a variety of prices and services. In 2008 auDA changed its policy and allowed changes in ownership of. au domains. AuDA introduced the ISS in October 2013 as a mandatory requirement, discount Domain Name services, Cheaper Domains and Information Brokers, part of the Total Internet Group, are the first three auDA accredited registrars to achieve ISS compliance. The naming rules for. au require registrations under second-level categories that describe a type of entity. com. au and this follows a similar allocation policy to that formerly used in other countries such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Registrations are currently permitted below a second-level domain, such as yourname. com. au, in April 2016, auDA announced it would introduce registrations directly at the second level, such as yourname. au. Direct registrations are due to be implemented in 2017, registering a domain in the. au namespace requires registrants to have either an exact match or a “close and substantial connection” to their desired domain name. Registration of a. au domain is completed through a reseller, known as a registrar and these domains are managed by the. au Community Domains Trust on behalf of auDA. CGDNs use the state or territorys common abbreviation as the level of the domain
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.jp
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. jp is the Internet country code top-level domain for Japan. It is administered by the Japan Registry Service, at the establishment of the. jp domain the domain was administered by the JPNIC, as part of their role as an overseeing technical body for the Internet in Japan. However, due to the importance and size of the. jp registry. Registrations are processed via accredited registrars and domain names with Japanese characters may be registered at the second level, while any party with a Japanese mailing address can get a second-level domain there are several restricted-use second-level domains, listed below. As of 2016, no such domain has been registered, domain Name System Country code top-level domain IANA. jp whois information JPRS website JPNIC website. jp accredited registrars
17.
.ar
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. ar is the Internet country code top-level domain for Argentina. It is administered by NIC Argentina, registering a. AR domain directly is not allowed, only the 8 second-level domains below are open to everyone, although a local presence in Argentina is required. As of January 2017 there are currently 9 second-level domains, the. gob. ar domain was also approved for government entities. NIC Argentina Resolution N° 904/2008 about tur. ar domains IANA. ar whois information
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.tr
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. tr is the Internet country code top-level domain for Turkey. As of March 2017, around 15. 53% of all the. tr domains were served via secured HTTPS protocol, with the Let s Encrypt Authority X3 being the most popular SSL certificate. Microsoft-IIS is the most popular web server, serving 35. 31% of the. tr domains, initially, nic. tr, the official registrys domain, was the only second-level domain under this TLD and other second-level domains were prohibited. However, recently tsk. tr is registered as a second-level domain, METU Computer Center Registry website IANA. tr whois information
19.
.so
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. so is the internet country code top-level domain for Somalia. After a long absence, the. so domain was officially relaunched on November 1,2010, by. SO Registry and it was launched through various accredited registrars around the world. Due to the war in Somalia, operations of this domain were previously officially delegated to Monolith Innovation Group, a company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Monolith Innovations, as a name server, was popular in the mid-1990s. Second-level domain registrations at the time were relatively expensive, at the time, the potential benefits seemed more than apparent. According to ml. orgs founder, Aveek Datta, in 1998, whether or not this becomes a reality is another question, money talks and big bucks are being waved about in the registry battles. However, the ml. org service ceased operations at the end of 1998 due to technical and organisational problems which included major server failures and its second-level domains remain registered to Aveek Datta, president of the former Monolith Innovations Group, but appear not to be in active use. Throughout the domains history, a placeholder site at the nic. so address claimed that no. SO domains are available. However, the DNS servers for the name were badly configured. On February 3,2009, ICANN approved redelegation of the. so domain to the Ministry of Post, the new registry operator relaunched the. so domain on November 1,2010. Requests to become a registrar can already be submitted using the recently launched website of. SO Registry, there also exists. gov. so for government entities. SONIC maintains a list of accredited registrars. Communications in Somalia IANA. so whois information SO Registry website
20.
.ru
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. ru is the Latin alphabet Internet country code top-level domain for the Russian Federation introduced on April 7,1994. The Russian alphabet internationalized country code is. рф, the control of. ru is assigned to the Coordination Center for TLD RU, the current official registry. The company RELCOM also proposes third-level registrations beneath various second-level domains such as. msk. ru, the creation of. ru in April,1994 was preceded by a historical agreement in 1993 known as “The order of RU top-level domain administration”. According to the agreement, administrative and technical support responsibilities for the national domain RU were to be handed over to the Russian Institute for Public Networks, in 2002 the administrative functions was handed over to the Coordination Center for TLD RU. The national domain in Russia is developing rapidly according to self-regulatory principles, in 1998, RIPN and RU top-level domain Coordination group established a domain registering association. Subsequently, in 2000, a new system of domain registration in RU top-level domain was introduced. It was a system of second-level domain name registration in RU top-level domain through accredited Registrars. The accredited registrars provide domain registration and support services based on the first come. RIPN became one of four co-founders of the Coordination Center for TLD RU, all organizational and administrative functions were handed over to the Coordination Center for TLD RU. To preserve the continuity, one of the Coordination centers committees was established on the basis of RU top-level domain Coordination group. Whereas, the RIPN secures national domain RU technical base functioning, the new distributed registration system was tested in 2001 and implemented in 2005
21.
.in
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. in is the Internet country code top-level domain for India. The domain is operated by INRegistry under the authority of NIXI, INRegistry was appointed by the government of India. As of 2005, liberalised policies for the. in domain allow unlimited second-level registrations under. in, as of March 2010, the number had increased to over 610,000 domain names, with 60% of registrations coming from India, and the rest from overseas. By October 2011, the number had surpassed 1 million domain names, as of March 2016 the number has more than doubled to over 2 million domain names. The domain. nic. in is reserved for Indias National Informatics Centre, India plans to introduce internationalised domain names, that is domain names in 22 local languages used in India. These internationalised domain names will be used together with fifteen new top domains for India and these top domains are. भारत, became available with the following zones. இந்தியா, available as of 2015. The rest are yet not available. ভারত. ਭਾਰਤ. ભારત. భారత్. بھارت In 2016 an application for eight further domains were accepted and they are not yet available. ಭಾರತ. ভাৰত بارت. ഭാരതം. ଭାରତ. भारतम्. भारोत ڀارت
22.
Internationalized domain name
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These writing systems are encoded by computers in multi-byte Unicode. Internationalized domain names are stored in the Domain Name System as ASCII strings using Punycode transcription, internationalized domain names can only be used with applications that are specifically designed for such use, they require no changes in the infrastructure of the Internet. IDN was originally proposed in December 1996 by Martin Dürst and implemented in 1998 by Tan Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong under the guidance of Tan Tin Wee. After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications was adopted as a standard, in IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. In March 2008, the IETF formed a new IDN working group to update the current IDNA protocol, in May 2010 the first IDN ccTLD were installed in the DNS root zone. Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications is a defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. These names either are Latin letters with diacritics or are written in languages or scripts which do not use the Latin alphabet, Arabic, Hangul, Hiragana and Kanji for instance. Although the Domain Name System supports non-ASCII characters, applications such as e-mail, IDNA specifies how this conversion between names written in non-ASCII characters and their ASCII-based representation is performed. An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the internationalized and ASCII representations of a domain name and it uses the ASCII form for DNS lookups but can present the internationalized form to users who presumably prefer to read and write domain names in non-ASCII scripts such as Arabic or Hiragana. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the ASCII equivalent. ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in 2004 and 2005. IDN Guidelines were first created in June 2003, and have been updated to respond to phishing concerns in November 2005, mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 were among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support, Internet Explorer 7.0 and Windows Vistas URL APIs provide native support for IDN. The conversions between ASCII and non-ASCII forms of a name are accomplished by algorithms called ToASCII and ToUnicode. These algorithms are not applied to the name as a whole. For example, if the name is www. example. com, then the labels are www, example. ToASCII or ToUnicode are applied to each of three separately. The details of these two algorithms are complex, and are specified in RFC3490, the following gives an overview of their function
23.
.church
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. church is a generic top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It comes from the name church and is used by churches, congregations, ministries of religion. The church domain was entered into the DNS root on May 15,2014, holly Fileds, LLC c/o Donuts is the registry acting as the official technical administrator of the. church TLD. It is required by ICANN to sell names via registrars such as Godaddy, Network Solutions and this gTLD was approved by ICANN on 06 Feb 2014. List of Internet top-level domains Generic top-level domain ICANN Registry Listing Donuts registry
24.
.club
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. club, often stylized as. CLUB and sometimes dot-club, is a top-level domain. It was proposed in ICANNs new generic top-level domain program, and became available to the public on May 7,2014. Club Domains. In June 2013. Club Domains, LLC acquired the. club gTLD through an auction after raising $7 million from 27 individual investors. Colin Campbell, the chief executive officer, declined to reveal the final auction price. Club was the first new gTLD acquired via private auction, unsuccessful applicants competing for the gTLD were Donuts and the Merchant Law Group LLP. According to The Domains, Those now using a web address ending in. club include brands, celebrities, sports figures, innovative entrepreneurs and startups, associations, and clubs around the globe. Tens of thousands of clubs, business and individuals are using a. club address for their web presence, from Rotary Clubs, to school clubs. Prominent individuals using the extension include rapper 50 Cent, professional basketball player Tyler Johnson, and Indian cricket star Virat Kohli
25.
.college
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. college is a generic-top-level domain used in the domain name system of the Internet. It was delegated to the Root Zone of the DNS on 10 April 2014, the. college back-end registry operations are provided by CentralNic. college is owned and operated by XYZ. COM LLC, located in Las Vegas and Santa Monica. The. college trademark-exclusive Sunrise phase began on March 17,2015, the. college Landrush phase, which was exclusively for educational institutions, opened on April 20,2015 and ran until September 22nd,2015. College launched into global General Availability on September 29,2015
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