1.
Shell script
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A shell script is a computer program designed to be run by the Unix shell, a command-line interpreter. The various dialects of shell scripts are considered to be scripting languages, typical operations performed by shell scripts include file manipulation, program execution, and printing text. A script which sets up the environment, runs the program, the typical Unix/Linux/Posix-compliant installation includes the Korn Shell in several possible versions such as ksh88, Korn Shell 93 and others. On the other hand, the various shells plus tools like awk, sed, grep, other shells available on a machine or available for download and/or purchase include ash, msh, ysh, zsh, the Tenex C Shell, a Perl-like shell and others. Related programmes such as based on Python, Ruby, C, Java, Perl, Pascal. Another somewhat common shell is osh, whose manual page states it is an enhanced, the user could then simply use l for the most commonly used short listing. Another example of a script that could be used as a shortcut would be to print a list of all the files and directories within a given directory. In this case, the script would start with its normal starting line of #. /bin/sh. Following this, the script executes the command clear which clears the terminal of all text before going to the next line, the following line provides the main function of the script. The ls -al command list the files and directories that are in the directory from which the script is being run, the ls command attributes could be changed to reflect the needs of the user. Note, If an implementation does not have the command, try using the clr command instead. /build to create the updated program, test it. Since the 1980s or so, however, scripts of this type have been replaced with utilities like make which are specialized for building programs, a modern shell script is not just on the same footing as system commands, but rather many system commands are actually shell scripts. Like standard system commands, shell scripts classically omit any kind of filename extension unless intended to be read into a shell through a special mechanism for this purpose. With these sorts of features available, it is possible to write reasonably sophisticated applications as shell scripts, the standard Unix tools sed and awk provide extra capabilities for shell programming, Perl can also be embedded in shell scripts as can other scripting languages like Tcl. Perl and Tcl come with graphics toolkits as well, the specifics of what separates scripting languages from high-level programming languages is a frequent source of debate. But generally speaking a language is one which requires an interpreter. While files with the. sh file extension are usually a script of some kind. Perhaps the biggest advantage of writing a script is that the commands
2.
Saint Helena
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It is part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Saint Helena measures about 16 by 8 kilometres and has a population of 4,534 and it was named after Saint Helena of Constantinople. The island, one of the most remote islands in the world, was uninhabited when discovered by the Portuguese in 1502 and it was an important stopover for ships sailing to Europe from Asia and South Africa for centuries. Napoleon was imprisoned there in exile by the British, as were Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, between 1791 and 1833, Saint Helena became the site of a series of experiments in conservation, reforestation and attempts to boost rainfall artificially. This environmental intervention was closely linked to the conceptualisation of the processes of environmental change, Saint Helena is Britains second-oldest remaining overseas territory after Bermuda. The Portuguese found the island uninhabited, with an abundance of trees and they imported livestock, fruit trees and vegetables, and built a chapel and one or two houses. Englishman Sir Francis Drake probably located the island on the leg of his circumnavigation of the world. In developing their Far East trade, the Dutch also began to frequent the island, the Dutch Republic formally made claim to Saint Helena in 1633, although there is no evidence that they ever occupied, colonized, or fortified it. By 1651, the Dutch had mainly abandoned the island in favour of their colony at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1657, Oliver Cromwell granted the English East India Company a charter to govern Saint Helena and, the following year, the first governor Captain John Dutton arrived in 1659, making Saint Helena one of Britains oldest colonies outside North America and the Caribbean. A fort and houses were built, after the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, the East India Company received a royal charter giving it the sole right to fortify and colonise the island. The fort was renamed James Fort and the town Jamestown, in honour of the Duke of York, between January and May 1673, the Dutch East India Company forcibly took the island, before English reinforcements restored English East India Company control. The company experienced difficulty attracting new immigrants, and sentiments of unrest, a census in 1723 recorded 1,110 people, including 610 slaves. The island enjoyed a period of prosperity from about 1770. Captain James Cook visited the island in 1775 on the leg of his second circumnavigation of the world. St. James Church was erected in Jamestown in 1774, the site of this telescope is near Saint Mathews Church in Hutts Gate in the Longwood district. The 680-metre high hill there is named for him and is called Halleys Mount, throughout this period, Saint Helena was an important port of call of the East India Company. East Indiamen would stop there on the leg of their voyages to British India
3.
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
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Its name was Saint Helena and Dependencies until 1 September 2009, when a new constitution came into force giving the three islands equal status within the territory. Despite this change, the territory is still commonly referred to as simply Saint Helena after its main island. Similarly, the demonym Saint Helenians and the name for the local nationality is commonly understood to include Ascension Islanders and Tristanians. Administratively, the territory is divided into the three parts as the territorys geography, namely Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Each is governed by a council, the island of St Helena is then further divided into eight districts. The Portuguese found Saint Helena uninhabited, with an abundance of trees and they imported livestock, fruit trees and vegetables, and built a chapel and one or two houses. Though they formed no permanent settlement, the island became important for the collection of food. Englishman Sir Francis Drake very probably located the island on the lap of his circumnavigation of the world. In 1657, the English East India Company was granted a charter to govern Saint Helena by Oliver Cromwell, and the following year the Company decided to fortify and colonise the island with planters. The first governor, Captain John Dutton, arrived in 1659, a fort was completed and a number of houses were built. After the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, the East India Company received a Royal Charter giving it the right to fortify. The fort was renamed James Fort and the town Jamestown, in honour of the Duke of York and heir apparent, later King James II of England. The Kingdom of England became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 and then the United Kingdom in 1801, the most important and first settled, the island of Saint Helena, had been governed by the East India Company since 1659. For similar reasons Tristan da Cunha was annexed as a dependency of the Cape Colony on 14 August 1816, for a short period just prior, Tristan da Cunha had been inhabited by a private American expedition who named the territory the Islands of Refreshment. The political union between these colonies began to shape on 12 September 1922, when by letters patent Ascension Island became a dependency of Saint Helena. Lightly populated Tristan da Cunha, even today more than an outpost with a population of less than three hundred, followed suit on 12 January 1938. The United Kingdom and the United States still jointly operate the airfield on Ascension, which serves as a space-based communications, signals intelligence. One of only four GPS satellite ground antennas is located there, between Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha is the Tropic of Capricorn
4.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
5.
Country code
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Country codes are short alphabetic or numeric geographical codes developed to represent countries and dependent areas, for use in data processing and communications. Several different systems have developed to do this. The term country code frequently refers to international dialing codes, the E.164 country calling codes and this standard defines for most of the countries and dependent areas in the world, a two-letter a three-letter, and a three-digit numeric code. For more applications see ISO 3166-1 alpha-2. S. government and in the CIA World Factbook, on September 2,2008, FIPS 10-4 was one of ten standards withdrawn by NIST as a Federal Information Processing Standard. GOST7.164 international telephone dialing codes, list of country calling codes with 1-3 digits and these prefixes are legally administered by the national entity to which prefix ranges are assigned. Diplomatic license plates in the United States, assigned by the U. S. State Department, north Atlantic Treaty Organisation used two-letter codes of its own, list of NATO country codes. They were largely borrowed from the FIPS 10-4 codes mentioned below, in 2003 the eighth edition of the Standardisation Agreement adopted the ISO3166 three-letter codes with one exception. The following can represent countries, The initial digits of International Standard Book Numbers are group identifiers for countries, areas, the first three digits of GS1 Company Prefixes used to identify products, for example, in barcodes, designate numbering agencies. A comparison with ISO, IFS and others with notes United Nations Region Codes
6.
British Overseas Territories
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The 14 British Overseas Territories are territories under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United Kingdom. They are the parts of the British Empire that have not been granted independence or have voted to remain British territories. These territories do not form part of the United Kingdom and, with the exception of Gibraltar, are not part of the European Union, though the Cyprus SBAs are subject to EU law and use the Euro. Most of the territories are internally self-governing, with the UK retaining responsibility for defence. The rest are either uninhabited or have a population of military or scientific personnel. They share the British monarch as head of state, the term British Overseas Territory was introduced by the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, replacing the term British Dependent Territory, introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981. Prior to 1 January 1983, the territories were referred to as British Crown Colonies. With the exceptions of the British Antarctic Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the British Indian Ocean Territory, the Territories retain permanent civilian populations. Permanent residency for the 7,000 or so living in the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri. Collectively, the Territories encompass a population of about 250,000 people, the vast majority of this,660,000 square miles, constitutes the British Antarctic Territory. The current minister responsible for the Territories excluding the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar and the Sovereign Base Areas is Baroness Anelay, Minister of State for the Commonwealth, the other three territories are the responsibility of Sir Alan Duncan MP, Minister of State for Europe and the Americas. The first, unofficial, colony was Newfoundland, where English fishermen routinely set up camps in the 16th century. It is now a province of Canada known as Newfoundland and Labrador and it retains strong cultural ties with Britain. English colonisation of North America began officially in 1607 with the settlement of Jamestown, st. Georges town, founded in Bermuda in that year, remains the oldest continuously inhabited British settlement in the New World. Bermuda and Bermudians have played important, sometimes pivotal, but generally underestimated or unacknowledged roles in the shaping of the English and British trans-Atlantic Empires. These include maritime commerce, settlement of the continent and of the West Indies, separate self-governing colonies federated to become Canada, Australia, South Africa, and Rhodesia. These and other large self-governing colonies had become known as Dominions by the 1920s, the Dominions achieved almost full independence with the Statute of Westminster. Through a process of following the Second World War, most of the British colonies in Africa, Asia
7.
Internationalized domain name
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These writing systems are encoded by computers in multi-byte Unicode. Internationalized domain names are stored in the Domain Name System as ASCII strings using Punycode transcription, internationalized domain names can only be used with applications that are specifically designed for such use, they require no changes in the infrastructure of the Internet. IDN was originally proposed in December 1996 by Martin Dürst and implemented in 1998 by Tan Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong under the guidance of Tan Tin Wee. After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications was adopted as a standard, in IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. In March 2008, the IETF formed a new IDN working group to update the current IDNA protocol, in May 2010 the first IDN ccTLD were installed in the DNS root zone. Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications is a defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. These names either are Latin letters with diacritics or are written in languages or scripts which do not use the Latin alphabet, Arabic, Hangul, Hiragana and Kanji for instance. Although the Domain Name System supports non-ASCII characters, applications such as e-mail, IDNA specifies how this conversion between names written in non-ASCII characters and their ASCII-based representation is performed. An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the internationalized and ASCII representations of a domain name and it uses the ASCII form for DNS lookups but can present the internationalized form to users who presumably prefer to read and write domain names in non-ASCII scripts such as Arabic or Hiragana. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the ASCII equivalent. ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in 2004 and 2005. IDN Guidelines were first created in June 2003, and have been updated to respond to phishing concerns in November 2005, mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 were among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support, Internet Explorer 7.0 and Windows Vistas URL APIs provide native support for IDN. The conversions between ASCII and non-ASCII forms of a name are accomplished by algorithms called ToASCII and ToUnicode. These algorithms are not applied to the name as a whole. For example, if the name is www. example. com, then the labels are www, example. ToASCII or ToUnicode are applied to each of three separately. The details of these two algorithms are complex, and are specified in RFC3490, the following gives an overview of their function
8.
ISO 3166-1
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The official name of the standard is Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1, Country codes. ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 – three-letter country codes which allow a visual association between the codes and the country names than the alpha-2 codes. The alphabetic country codes were first included in ISO3166 in 1974, as a widely used international standard, ISO 3166-1 is implemented in other standards and used by international organizations to allow facilitation of the exchange of goods and information. However, it is not the standard for country codes. Other country codes used by international organizations are partly or totally incompatible with ISO 3166-1. Currently 249 countries, territories, or areas of geographical interest are assigned codes in ISO 3166-1. Once a country name or territory name appears in either of two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default. The ISO 3166/MA may reserve code elements for other entities that do not qualify for inclusion based on the above criteria, ISO 3166-1 is published officially in both English and French. For this reason, common components of names like Republic, Kingdom, United. As a consequence, for example, the United Kingdom is officially assigned the alpha-2 code GB rather than UK, based on its official name United Kingdom of Great Britain, some codes are chosen based on the native names of the countries. For example, Germany is assigned the alpha-2 code DE, based on its native name Deutschland, the following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding list of the countries which are assigned official codes. It is listed in order by the English short country name used by the ISO 3166/MA. Note, Each countrys alpha-2 code is linked to information about the assignment of its code elements. Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes. Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a user application of the standard. Codes are usually reserved for countries, overseas territories, international organizations. A country is assigned new ISO 3166-1 codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. In general, new codes are assigned if a country changes a significant part of its name
9.
DeviantArt
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The website was launched on August 7,2000, by Angelo Sotira, Scott Jarkoff, Matthew Stephens, and others. Additional features include journals, polls, groups and portfolios, DeviantArt, Inc. is headquartered in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles, California, United States. Fella, a small, devilesque robotic character, is the official mascot, the domain deviantart. com had at least 36 million visitors annually by 2008. By 2010, DeviantArt users were submitting over 1.4 million favorites and 1.5 million comments daily, as of July 2011, it was the 13th largest social network with 3.8 million weekly visits. As of January 2017, the site had over 26 million members and 251 million submissions, on February 23,2017 the company announced it was being acquired by Wix. com in a $36 million deal. DeviantArt started as a connected with people who took computer applications and modified them to their own tastes. As the site grew, members in general known as deviants. DeviantArt was originally launched on August 7,2000, by Scott Jarkoff, Matt Stephens, Angelo Sotira and others, as part of a larger network of music-related websites called the Dmusic Network. DeviantArt was loosely inspired by projects like Winamp facelift, customize. org, deskmod. com, screenphuck. com, Sotira entrusted all public aspects of the project to Scott Jarkoff as an engineer and visionary to launch the early program. Angelo Sotira currently serves as the executive officer of DeviantArt. DeviantArt ran for 7 years without any additional investment besides the initial US$15,000 from its founders at the moment of its founding and it has used several different monetization strategies before having its own cash flow. On November 14,2006, DeviantArt gave its users the option to submit their works under Creative Commons licenses giving the artists the right to choose how their works can be used. A Creative Commons license is one of several public copyright licenses that allow the distribution of copyrighted works, on September 30,2007, a film category was added to DeviantArt, allowing artists to upload videos. An artist and other viewers can add annotations to sections of the film, in 2007, DeviantArt received $3.5 million in Series A funding from undisclosed investors, and in 2013, it received $10 million in Series B funding. On February 23,2017, DeviantArt was acquired by Wix. com, the site plans to integrate DeviantArt and Wix functionality, including the ability to utilize DA resources on websites built with Wix, and integrating some of Wixs design tools into the site. On December 4,2014, the site unveiled a new logo, some members of the community have been the victims of copyright infringement from vendors using artwork illegally on products and prints, as reported in 2007. Due to the nature of DeviantArt as an art community with worldwide reach, companies use DeviantArt to promote themselves, coolClimate is a research network connected with the University of California, and they held a contest in 2012 to address the impact of climate change. Worldwide submissions were received, and the winner was featured in The Huffington Post, various car companies have held contests
10.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
11.
Command-line interface
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A program which handles the interface is called a command language interpreter or shell. The interface is implemented with a command line shell, which is a program that accepts commands as text input. Command-line interfaces to computer operating systems are widely used by casual computer users. Alternatives to the line include, but are not limited to text user interface menus, keyboard shortcuts. Examples of this include the Windows versions 1,2,3,3.1, and 3.11, DosShell, and Mouse Systems PowerPanel. Command-line interfaces are preferred by more advanced computer users, as they often provide a more concise. Programs with command-line interfaces are generally easier to automate via scripting, a program that implements such a text interface is often called a command-line interpreter, command processor or shell. Under most operating systems, it is possible to replace the shell program with alternatives, examples include 4DOS for DOS, 4OS2 for OS/2. For example, the default Windows GUI is a program named EXPLORER. EXE. These programs are shells, but not CLIs, application programs may also have command line interfaces. When a program is launched from an OS command line shell, interactive command line sessions, After launch, a program may provide an operator with an independent means to enter commands in the form of text. OS inter-process communication, Most operating systems support means of inter-process communication, Command lines from client processes may be redirected to a CLI program by one of these methods. Some applications support only a CLI, presenting a CLI prompt to the user, Some examples of CLI-only applications are, DEBUG Diskpart Ed Edlin Fdisk Ping Some computer programs support both a CLI and a GUI. In some cases, a GUI is simply a wrapper around a separate CLI executable file, in other cases, a program may provide a CLI as an optional alternative to its GUI. CLIs and GUIs often support different functionality, for example, all features of MATLAB, a numerical analysis computer program, are available via the CLI, whereas the MATLAB GUI exposes only a subset of features. The early Sierra games, like the first three Kings Quest games, used commands from a command line to move the character around in the graphic window. Early computer systems often used teleprinter machines as the means of interaction with a human operator, the computer became one end of the human-to-human teleprinter model. So instead of a human communicating with another human over a teleprinter, in time, the actual mechanical teleprinter was replaced by a glass tty, and then by a smart terminal
12.
Homebrew (package management software)
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Homebrew is a free and open-source software package management system that simplifies the installation of software on Apples macOS operating system. Originally written by Max Howell, the manager has gained popularity in the Ruby on Rails community. Homebrew has been recommended for its ease of use as well as its integration into the command line, Homebrew has made extensive use of GitHub in order to expand the support of several packages through user contributions. In 2010, Homebrew was the repository on GitHub. In 2012, Homebrew had the largest number of new contributors on GitHub, in 2013, Homebrew had both the largest number of contributors and issues closed of any project on GitHub. Homebrew was written by Max Howell in 2009, in March 2013, Homebrew successfully completed a Kickstarter campaign to raise funds for servers to test and build formulae and managed to raise £14,859. On December 13,2013, the Homebrew repository migrated from Howells GitHub account to its own project account, in February 2015, due to downtime at SourceForge which resulted in binaries being unavailable, Homebrew moved their hosting to bintray. As of July 2016, Homebrew is maintained by a team of 12 developers, Homebrew is written in the Ruby programming language and targets the version of Ruby that comes installed with the macOS operating system. It is by default installed into /usr/local and consists of a git repository, binary packages called bottles provide pre-built formulae with default options. In 2016, Homebrew migrated the git repository to /usr/local/Homebrew and changed the ownership of the sub-directories instead, such as /usr/local/bin, /usr/local/include, Homebrew collects user behaviour data and reports it to Google Analytics. It is possible to opt out, list of software package management systems Official website Homebrew on GitHub The Changelog #223, Homebrew and Package Management with Mike McQuaid
13.
Schleswig-Holstein
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Schleswig-Holstein is the northernmost of the 16 states of Germany, comprising most of the historical duchy of Holstein and the southern part of the former Duchy of Schleswig. Its capital city is Kiel, other cities are Lübeck. Also known in more dated English as Sleswick-Holsatia, the Danish name is Slesvig-Holsten, the Low German name is Sleswig-Holsteen, historically, the name can also refer to a larger region, containing both present-day Schleswig-Holstein and the former South Jutland County in Denmark. The term Holstein derives from Old Saxon Holseta Land, originally, it referred to the central of the three Saxon tribes north of the River Elbe, Tedmarsgoi, Holstein and Sturmarii. The area of the tribe of the Holsts was between the Stör River and Hamburg, and after Christianization, their church was in Schenefeld. Saxon Holstein became a part of the Holy Roman Empire after Charlemagnes Saxon campaigns in the eighth century. Since 811, the frontier of Holstein was marked by the River Eider. The term Schleswig comes from the city of Schleswig, around 1100, the Duke of Saxony gave Holstein, as it was his own country, to Count Adolf I of Schauenburg. Schleswig and Holstein have at different times belonged in part or completely to either Denmark or Germany, the exception is that Schleswig had never been part of Germany until the Second Schleswig War in 1864. For many centuries, the King of Denmark was both a Danish Duke of Schleswig and a German Duke of Holstein, essentially, Schleswig was either integrated into Denmark or was a Danish fief, and Holstein was a German fief and once a sovereign state long ago. Both were for centuries ruled by the kings of Denmark. In the church, following the reformation, German was used in the part of Schleswig. This would later prove decisive for shaping national sentiments in the population, the administration of both duchies was conducted in German, despite the fact that they were governed from Copenhagen. The German national awakening that followed the Napoleonic Wars gave rise to a popular movement in Holstein. This development was paralleled by an equally strong Danish national awakening in Denmark and this movement called for the complete reintegration of Schleswig into the Kingdom of Denmark and demanded an end to discrimination against Danes in Schleswig. The ensuing conflict is called the Schleswig-Holstein Question. e. Not only in the Kingdom of Denmark, but also to Danes living in Schleswig, furthermore, they demanded protection for the Danish language in Schleswig. A liberal constitution for Holstein was not seriously considered in Copenhagen and these demands were rejected by the Danish government in 1848, and the Germans of Holstein and southern Schleswig rebelled
14.
Osu!
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Osu. is a freeware rhythm game developed by Dean peppy Herbert, originally for Microsoft Windows. It is written in C# on the. NET Framework, the game has also been ported to macOS, iOS, Android, and Windows Phone. Its gameplay is based on titles including Osu. Ouendan, Elite Beat Agents, Taiko no Tatsujin, beatmania IIDX, O2Jam, in each beatmap, a song will play and different Beats hit elements will appear on the play field. Players must use a device to manipulate these elements in time with the playing songs rhythm in order to earn points. The use of a tablet in combination with a keyboard is common in osu. among experienced players. There are five default difficulties which are defined through the game as Easy, Normal, Hard, Insane, beyond this, Marathon difficulty is reserved for beatmaps which are longer than 5 minutes long. TAG difficulties are another variation to the standard difficulties, intended to be played by multiple people taking turns at set intervals in the beatmap. Content creators may choose to name their difficulties to anything outside of the naming conventions. Also sometimes referred to as notes, hit circles are an object on nearly every beatmap. When a hit circle appears, a ring, called the circle, will appear around it. In order to score points from a hit circle, players must place their cursor over the circle, sliders appear as two hit circles with a solid path, called a slider track, between them. As with hit circles, a circle appears at the beginning of a slider track. Sometimes a slider end will have an arrow, called the reverse arrow, a spinner is a large circle that takes up most of the play field when it appears. A ring like the circle of hit circles and sliders will also appear. Players must hold down the hit button and spin their cursor around the center of the spinner. As players continue to spin, the gauge at either side of the screen begins to fill, and once it has been filled. Continued spins after this and until the ring reaches the center will award bonus points
15.
Fork
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A fork, in cutlery or kitchenware, is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines on one end. The usually metal utensil is used to food to the mouth or to hold ingredients in place while they are being cut by a knife. Food can be lifted either by spearing it on the tines or by holding it on top of the tines, the early history of the fork is obscure. As a kitchen and dining utensil it is believed to have originated in the Roman Empire. The personal table fork most likely originated in the Eastern Roman Empire and its use spread to what is now the Middle East during the first millennium AD and then spread into southern Europe during the second millennium. It did not become common in northern Europe until the 18th century and was not common in North America until the 19th century, the fork is a primarily Western utensil, whereas in east Asia chopsticks have been more prevalent. Today, forks are available throughout east Asia. The word fork comes from the Latin furca, meaning pitchfork, some of the earliest known uses of forks with food occurred in Ancient Egypt, where large forks were used as cooking utensils. Bone forks had been found in the site of the Bronze Age Qijia culture as well as later Chinese dynasties tombs. The Ancient Greeks used the fork as a serving utensil, the Greek name for fork is still used in some European languages, for instance in the Venetian, Greek, and Albanian languages. In the Roman Empire, bronze and silver forks were used, the use varied according to local customs, social class and the nature of food, but forks of the earlier periods were mostly used as cooking and serving utensils. The personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman Empire, records show that by the 9th century a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles. By the 10th century, the fork was in common use throughout the Middle East. By the 11th century, the fork had become increasingly prevalent in the Italian peninsula. At first, pasta was consumed using a wooden spike. In Italy, it became commonplace by the 14th century and was almost universally used by the merchant and upper classes by 1600. It was proper for a guest to arrive with his own fork and spoon enclosed in a box called a cadena, in Portugal, forks were first used at the time of Infanta Beatrice, Duchess of Viseu, King Manuel I of Portugals mother around 1450. However, forks were not commonly used in Southern Europe until the 16th century when they part of Italian etiquette
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BitTorrent
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BitTorrent is a communications protocol of peer-to-peer file sharing which is used to distribute data and electronic files over the Internet. BitTorrent is one of the most common protocols for transferring large files, peer-to-peer networks have been estimated to collectively account for approximately 43% to 70% of all Internet traffic as of February 2009. In November 2004, BitTorrent was responsible for 25% of all Internet traffic, as of February 2013, BitTorrent was responsible for 3. 35% of all worldwide bandwidth, more than half of the 6% of total bandwidth dedicated to file sharing. To send or receive files, a person uses a BitTorrent client on their Internet-connected computer, a BitTorrent client is a computer program that implements the BitTorrent protocol. Popular clients include μTorrent, Xunlei, Transmission, qBittorrent, Vuze, Deluge, BitComet, BitTorrent trackers provide a list of files available for transfer, and allow the client to find peer users known as seeds who may transfer the files. Programmer Bram Cohen, a former University at Buffalo student, designed the protocol in April 2001 and released the first available version on 2 July 2001, BitTorrent clients are available for a variety of computing platforms and operating systems including an official client released by BitTorrent, Inc. As of 2013, BitTorrent has 15–27 million concurrent users at any time, as of January 2012, BitTorrent is utilized by 150 million active users. Based on this figure, the number of monthly BitTorrent users may be estimated to more than a quarter of a billion. The BitTorrent protocol can be used to reduce the server and network impact of distributing large files, rather than downloading a file from a single source server, the BitTorrent protocol allows users to join a swarm of hosts to upload to/download from each other simultaneously. The protocol is an alternative to the single source, multiple mirror sources technique for distributing data. Using the BitTorrent protocol, several basic computers, such as home computers, a user who wants to upload a file first creates a small torrent descriptor file that they distribute by conventional means. They then make the file itself available through a BitTorrent node acting as a seed and those with the torrent descriptor file can give it to their own BitTorrent nodes, which—acting as peers or leechers—download it by connecting to the seed and/or other peers. The file being distributed is divided into segments called pieces, as each peer receives a new piece of the file it becomes a source for other peers, relieving the original seed from having to send that piece to every computer or user wishing a copy. Each piece is protected by a cryptographic hash contained in the torrent descriptor and this ensures that any modification of the piece can be reliably detected, and thus prevents both accidental and malicious modifications of any of the pieces received at other nodes. If a node starts with a copy of the torrent descriptor. Pieces are of the size throughout a single download. Once a peer has downloaded a file completely, it becomes an additional seed and this eventual transition from peers to seeders determines the overall health of the file. The distributed nature of BitTorrent can lead to a spreading of a file throughout many peer computer nodes
17.
Popcorn Time
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Popcorn Time is a multi-platform, free software BitTorrent client that includes an integrated media player. The applications provide an alternative to subscription-based video streaming services. Popcorn Time uses sequential downloading to stream video listed by several torrent websites, following its inception, Popcorn Time quickly received positive media attention, with some comparing the app to Netflix for being easy to use. After this increase in popularity, the program was taken down by its original developers on March 14,2014. Since then, the program has been forked several times with other development teams such as the Butter Project to maintain the program. The original Popcorn Time team endorsed the popcorntime. io fork, the Popcorn Time interface presents thumbnails and film titles in a manner similar to Netflix. This list of media can be searched and browsed by genres or categories, when a user clicks on one of the titles, the film is downloaded via the BitTorrent protocol. As with other BitTorrent clients, as soon as Popcorn Time starts to download a film and it continues to make the downloaded content available to others until the movie is deleted, which is normally done automatically once the application is closed. Popcorn Time was developed in a couple of weeks by a group from Buenos Aires and that movie would be old enough to vote here. Made available for Linux, Mac OS X, Windows and Android, Popcorn Times source code was downloadable from their website, contributors localized the program into 44 languages. Instead, they had claimed that the providers had been authorising acts of infringement by content-hosting websites and it was therefore appropriate to order the ISPs to block the websites as provided for by section 97A of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988. On May 20,2015, the government of Israel blocked all access to the downloads of Popcorn Time, following a lawsuit from its biggest cable. Less than a later, the government reversed the ban. On August 17,2015, the Danish website popcorntime. dk was shut down by Danish police, the case has caused controversy given that the website is not affiliated with the Popcorn Time developer teams but only distributed information about the service. As with other BitTorrent clients, the IP addresses of users of the app or its forks can easily be determined by third parties. In early 2015 many German Popcorn Time users received demands for damages of €815, the high amount was justified by the fact that the application not only downloads but also distributes movies, a fact that not all users were aware of. This article was cited in a complaint in Cobbler Nevada, LLC v. Anonymous Users of Popcorn Time. The complaint alleged that users illegally downloaded copies of the Adam Sandler movie The Cobbler, on March 8,2016, Norways police unit for economic crimes, Økokrim, seized the Popcorn-Time. no domain name
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.wales
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. wales is one of two geographic top level domains for Wales which were put forth by Nominet UK in 2012. Final approval for top level domains for Wales was granted by ICANN in June 2014. A phased launch of the new domains was scheduled, with trademark holders being eligible to apply initially, general availability was expected by the spring of 2015. Early adopters of the include the Welsh government and male voice choir Only Men Aloud. Nominet, Cymru - Wales Our Home Online
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.cymru
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. cymru is one of two geographic top level domains for Wales. The TLD was proposed by the British internet registry company Nominet, the proposal initially ran into conflict with. cym, proposed by the Wales-based, not-for-profit dotCYM organisation, which advocates for the Welsh language and culture. In June 2014, final go-ahead for the domains was granted by ICANN, initially, the new domains were available to trademark holders, with full availability originally planned for the spring of 2015. Wikipedia articles on other top-level domains based on language and culture. scot. bzh. cat. eus. gal. quebec Nominet, Cymru - Wales Our Home Online The European Cultural and Linguistic Domains Network
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.london
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. london is a top-level domain for London, England. It was approved by ICANN as a city-level TLD on 7 June 2013, on 29 April 2014, the domain name went on sale for the first time. Metro Bank and Fortnum and Mason have secured addresses, with some pages already live, London and Partners, which promotes the city, said that. london would carry a premium because of its exclusivity
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.gg
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. gg is the country code top-level domain for the crown dependency of Guernsey, including the islands of Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm, Jethou and Lihou. The domain is administered by Island Networks, who administer the. je domain for neighbouring territory Jersey. Many eSports websites use. gg for domain names, where gg is a commonly used initialism for good game, in 2003, a Google Search website was made available for Guernsey, which used the. gg domain
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.je
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. je is the country code top-level domain for the crown dependency of Jersey. The domain is administered by Island Networks, who administer the. gg domain for neighbouring territory Guernsey. In 2003, a Google Search website was available for Jersey. Alderney hosts the name registry for both bailiwicks of the Channel Islands. The country-code top-level domains of. je and. gg first appeared on the Internet in August 1996 after Jon Postel agreed with Nigel Roberts to add four codes to the IANA list of TLDs. The codes for the Channel Islands and for the Isle of Man were entered on to the official United Nations ISO-3166 list in 2006, since 2000, names have been registered principally directly under the country code
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.im
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. im is the Internet country code top-level domain for the Isle of Man. It is administered by the Government of the Isle of Man and managed on a basis by Domicilium. On July 1,2006. im registration was available to anyone in the world, including one. The abundance of available short names has also made the domain popular for personal use, currently, domain registrations cost £40.00 per year for domains of three letters or more, although they can be purchased much more cheaply through resellers
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.io
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The Internet country code top-level domain. io is assigned to the British Indian Ocean Territory. The. io domain is administered by the Internet Computer Bureau, googles ad targeting treats. io as a generic top-level domain because users and webmasters frequently see more generic than country-targeted. The. io domain extension has existed since 1997, the first. io domain was registered in 1998, when Levi Strauss & Co. registered the domain levi. io. Labels for. io domains may only contain characters and hyphens. Domain names cannot begin with, or end with, a hyphen symbol, the right to administer domain names is given to approved organisations by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. The Internet Computer Bureau administers. io domains and this domain name registry is a British company, and operates for this purpose under the name NIC. IO. The company also holds the rights to sell. sh-domain and. ac-domains, individuals and organisations are allowed to register. io-domains. Applicants for registration of. io domains do not need to be registered or established in the British Indian Ocean Territory, third-level domains, such as xyz. com. io, can only be registered by an inhabitant of the area. Any second-level domains used by NIC. IO and top-level domains can not be used as a third-level domain, for example, the domain com. com. io, org. com. io and biz. com. io are all restricted. Domain names in. io may not be used for any purpose that is sexual or pornographic or that is against the laws of any Nation. Breaching this requirement NIC. IO reserves the right to immediately deactivate the offending registration, dot-io domains may be registered for a minimum of one year, and a maximum of 5 years. Domain names in. io are priced higher than those in other TLDs, registering available. io-domains starts from around £30/US$32.88 per year. The. io-domain has considerable usage unrelated to the British Indian Ocean Territory, nowadays, a lot of TLDs are used without any relation to the original country, such as. ly. io. me. IO is also used in IT as an abbreviation for input/output. We took it because it refers to ‘input-output’, and our customers understand it like so. The. io gTLD has become an alternative for startup companies. io domains are often used for open source projects, APIs. Rub. io is a shortened URL that was used for the 2016 U. S. presidential campaign of Marco Rubio, likewise, hrc. io is a shortened URL used for Hillary Clintons 2016 U. S. presidential campaign. Some popular browser-based games such as agar. io, slither. io, itch. io is a video game distribution service
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.ky
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. ky is the Internet country code top-level domain for the Cayman Islands. Registration is limited until September 2,2015 to residents and registered companies in the Cayman Islands, after September 2,2015 the. ky extension is available to anyone Worldwide on a first-come first-served basis. The Cayman Islands also has the three letter code, CYM, and has won a bid to be awarded the. cym domain name in a future expansion of the top level domain space. In January 2015 the Cayman Islands ICTA announced a partnership with Uniregistry for the operation of the. ky name extension, Uniregistry became the first ICANN accredited registrar to retail. ky names on March 2,2015
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.gi
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This limited use began prior to the creation of the. cat TLD because of Catalan reluctance to use domains under the Spanish country code TLD. es. Subsequent rules changes prevent new 2nd level registrations directly under. gi for entities not connected with Gibraltar, Gibraltar NIC IANA. gi whois information ajuntament. gi, City of Girona
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.pn
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. pn is the Internet country code top-level domain for the Pitcairn Islands. The top-level domain was the subject of a dispute in 2000, the dispute was resolved by ICANN ruling that the domain be re-delegated to the Pitcairn Island Council. An official. pn domain costs $100/year from the registry, there are relatively few sites using these domains, but examples include ESPN, C-SPAN, and Groupon, which each use the domain for URL shortening services. The. in. pn. co. pn. eu. pn. org. pn. net. pn. me. pn IANA. pn whois information. pn domain registration website
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ISO 3166-1 alpha-2
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They are the most widely used of the country codes published by ISO, and are used most prominently for the Internets country code top-level domains. They were first included as part of the ISO3166 standard in its first edition in 1974, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are used in different environments and are also part of other standards. In some cases they are not perfectly implemented, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are used in the following standards, Starting in 1985, ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes have been used in the Domain Name System as country code top-level domains. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority currently assigns the ccTLDs mostly following the alpha-2 codes, but with a few exceptions. For example, the United Kingdom, whose code is GB, uses. uk instead of. gb as its ccTLD. The European Commission generally uses ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes with two exceptions, EL is used to represent Greece, and UK is used to represent the United Kingdom. This notwithstanding, the Official Journal of the European Communities specified that GR and GB be used to represent Greece, for VAT administration purposes, the European Commission uses EL and GB for Greece and the United Kingdom respectively. IETF language tags are also derived from ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes. The full list of ISO 3166-1 codes assigned to countries and territories are usable as region subtags, also, the exceptionally reserved alpha-2 codes defined in ISO 3166-1 are also usable as region subtags for language tags. Some other region grouping subtags are derived from other standards, under the newer stability policies, old assigned codes that have been withdrawn from ISO 3166-1 should no longer be reassigned to another country or territory. The following is a colour-coded decoding table of all ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes, click on the cell to see the definition of each code. The following alpha-2 codes can be user-assigned, AA, QM to QZ, XA to XZ, for example, UN/LOCODE assigns XZ to represent installations in international waters. The Unicode Common Locale Data Repository assigns QO to represent Outlying Oceania, before the adoption of the macroregion code EU by ISO, CLDR also used QU to represent the European Union. The code XK is being used by the European Commission, the IMF, the code XA is being used by Switzerland, as a country code for the Canary Islands, although IC is already reserved for that purpose. The code XN is being used by the World Intellectual Property Organization as an indicator for the Nordic Patent Institute, the codes XE, XS and XW are used by WhatsApp to represent the flags of England, Scotland and Wales as Emoji. Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a user application of the standard. The reserved alpha-2 codes can be divided into the four categories, exceptional reservations, transitional reservations, indeterminate reservations. These codes may be used only during a period of at least five years while new code elements that may have replaced them are taken into use
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha