1.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
2.
Magnesium sulfate
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Magnesium sulfate is an inorganic salt containing magnesium, sulfur and oxygen, with the formula MgSO4. It is often encountered as the sulfate mineral epsomite, commonly called Epsom salt. The monohydrate, MgSO4·H2O is found as the mineral kieserite, the overall global annual usage in the mid-1970s of the monohydrate was 2.3 million tons, of which the majority was used in agriculture. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is used as a drying agent, the anhydrous form is hygroscopic and is therefore difficult to weigh accurately, the hydrate is often preferred when preparing solutions. Epsom salt has been used as a component of bath salts. Epsom salt can also be used as a beauty product, athletes use it to soothe sore muscles, while gardeners use it to improve crops. It has a variety of uses, for example, Epsom salt is also effective in the removal of splinters. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a health system. Magnesium sulfate is a common mineral pharmaceutical preparation of magnesium, commonly known as Epsom salt, Magnesium sulfate is highly water-soluble and solubility is inhibited with lipids typically used in lotions. Lotions often employ the use of emulsions or suspensions to include oil and water-soluble ingredients. Temperature and concentration gradients may also be contributing factors to absorption, Epsom salt is used as bath salts and for isolation tanks. Magnesium sulfate is the preparation of intravenous magnesium. Internal uses include, Oral magnesium sulfate is used as a saline laxative or osmotic purgative. Replacement therapy for hypomagnesemia Magnesium sulfate is a agent for torsades de pointes in cardiac arrest under the ECC guidelines. As a bronchodilator after beta-agonist and anticholinergic agents have tried, e. g. in severe exacerbations of asthma. It is commonly administered via the route for the management of severe asthma attacks. Magnesium sulfate is effective in decreasing the risk that pre-eclampsia progresses to eclampsia, IV magnesium sulfate is used to prevent and treat seizures of eclampsia. It reduces the blood pressure but doesnt alter the diastolic blood pressure
3.
Boiling point
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The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the environmental pressure. A liquid in a vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different temperatures, for example, water boils at 100 °C at sea level, but at 93.4 °C at 2,000 metres altitude. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level,1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar, the heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation, evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquids edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, a saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase, the liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed, similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa, at higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, the boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached
4.
Ethyl iodide
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Ethyl iodide is a colorless, flammable chemical compound. It has the chemical formula C2H5I and is prepared by heating ethanol with iodine, on contact with air, especially on the effect of light, it decomposes and turns yellow or reddish from dissolved iodine. It may also be prepared by reaction between acid and ethanol distilling off the ethyl iodide. Ethyl iodide should be stored in copper powder to avoid fast decomposition, because iodide is a good leaving group, ethyl iodide is an excellent ethylating agent. It is also used as the hydrogen radical promoter, during the process the temperature is controlled. 3 C2 H5 O H + P I3 →3 C2 H5 I + H3 P O3 The crude product is purified by distillation
5.
Acetaldehyde
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Acetaldehyde is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3CHO, sometimes abbreviated by chemists as MeCHO. It is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature, Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in coffee, bread, and ripe fruit, and is produced by plants. It is also produced by the oxidation of ethanol by the liver enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. Pathways of exposure include air, water, land, or groundwater, as well as drink, consumption of disulfiram inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of acetaldehyde, thereby causing it to build up in the body. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has listed acetaldehyde as a Group 1 carcinogen, Acetaldehyde is one of the most frequently found air toxins with cancer risk greater than one in a million. In 1835, Liebig named it aldehyde, the name was altered to acetaldehyde. In 2003, global production was about 1 million tonnes, before 1962, ethanol and acetylene were the major sources of acetaldehyde. Since then, ethylene is the dominant feedstock, smaller quantities can be prepared by the partial oxidation of ethanol in an exothermic reaction. This process typically is conducted over a silver catalyst at about 500–650 °C, cH3CH2OH + 1⁄2 O2 → CH3CHO + H2O This method is one of the oldest routes for the industrial of preparation of acetaldehyde. Prior to the Wacker process and the availability of cheap ethylene and this reaction is catalyzed by mercury salts, C2H2 + Hg2+ + H2O → CH3CHO + Hg The mechanism involves the intermediacy of vinyl alcohol, which tautomerizes to acetaldehyde. The reaction is conducted at 90–95 °C, and the acetaldehyde formed is separated from water and mercury, in the wet oxidation process, iron sulfate is used to reoxidize the mercury back to the mercury salt. The resulting Iron sulfate is oxidized in a reactor with nitric acid. The process was once attractive because of the value of the hydrogen coproduct, the hydroformylation of methanol with catalysts like cobalt, nickel, or iron salts also produces acetaldehyde, although this process is of no industrial importance. Similarly noncompetitive, acetaldehyde arises from synthesis gas with modest selectivity, at room temperature, acetaldehyde is more stable than vinyl alcohol by 42.7 kJ/mol, Overall the keto-enol tautomerization occurs slowly but is catalyzed by acids. Photo-induced keto-enol tautomerization is viable under atmospheric or stratospheric conditions and this photo-tautomerization is relevant to the earths atmosphere, because vinyl alcohol is thought to be a precursor to carboxylic acids in the atmosphere. Acetaldehyde is an electrophile in organic synthesis. In condensation reactions, acetaldehyde is prochiral and it is used primarily as a source of the CH3C+H synthon in aldol and related condensation reactions. Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with MeCHO to give hydroxyethyl derivatives, in one of the more spectacular condensation reactions, three equivalents of formaldehyde add to MeCHO to give pentaerythritol, C4
6.
Hydrazone
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Hydrazones are a class of organic compounds with the structure R 1R 2C=NNH2. They are related to ketones and aldehydes by the replacement of the oxygen with the NNH2 functional group and they are formed usually by the action of hydrazine on ketones or aldehydes. The formation of aromatic hydrazone derivatives is used to measure the concentration of low molecular weight aldehydes and ketones, for example, dinitrophenylhydrazine coated onto a silica sorbent is the basis of an adsorption cartridge. The hydrazones are then eluted and analyzed by HPLC using a UV detector, the compound carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone is used to uncouple ATP synthesis and reduction of oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation in molecular biology. Phenylhydrazine reacts with glucose to form an osazone, hydrazone-based coupling methods are used in medical biotechnology to couple drugs to targeted antibodies, e. g. antibodies against a certain type of cancer cell. The hydrazone-based bond is stable at neutral pH, but is destroyed in the acidic environment of lysosomes of the cell. The drug is released in the cell, where it exerts its function. In aqueous solution, aliphatic hydrazones are 102- to 103-fold more sensitive to hydrolysis than analogous oximes, hydrazones are reactants in hydrazone iodination, the Shapiro reaction and the Bamford-Stevens reaction to vinyl compounds. A hydrazone is an intermediate in the Wolff–Kishner reduction, hydrazones can also be synthesized by the Japp–Klingemann reaction via β-keto-acids or β-keto-esters and aryl diazonium salts. The mechanochemical process was used recently as a one to synthesize pharmaceutically attractive phenol hydrazones. In N, N′-dialkylhydrazones the C=N bond can be hydrolysed, oxidised and reduced, the carbon atom if the C=N bond can react with organometallic nucleophiles. The alpha-hydrogen atom is more acidic by 10 orders of magnitude compared to the ketone, deprotonation with for instance LDA gives an azaenolate which can be alkylated by alkyl halides, a reaction pioneered by E. J. Corey and Dieter Enders in 1978, in asymmetric synthesis SAMP and RAMP are two chiral hydrazines that act as chiral auxiliary with a chiral hydrazone intermediate. Hydrazones Azo compound Imine Nitrosamine Hydrogenation of carbon–nitrogen double bonds
7.
Density
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The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
8.
Sodium bisulfate
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Sodium bisulfate, also known as sodium hydrogen sulfate, is the sodium salt of the bisulfate anion, with the molecular formula NaHSO4. Sodium bisulfate is a salt formed by partial neutralization of sulfuric acid by an equivalent of sodium base. It is a dry product that can be safely shipped and stored. Solutions of sodium bisulfate are acidic, with a 1M solution having a pH of around 1, one production method involves mixing stoichiometric quantities of sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid which react to form sodium bisulfate and water. NaOH + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + H2O A second production method involves reacting sodium chloride and sulfuric acid at elevated temperatures to produce sodium bisulfate, naCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl The liquid sodium bisulfate is sprayed and cooled so that it forms a solid bead. The hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water to produce hydrochloric acid as a useful coproduct of the reaction, there are only two producers in the USA, one being Jones-Hamilton Co. who uses the sulfuric acid/sodium chloride process, which produces the anhydrous form. The other supplier, Jost Chemical, uses the sodium hydroxide/sulfuric acid method, sodium bisulfate is used primarily to lower pH. For technical-grade applications, it is used in finishing, cleaning products. Sodium bisulfate is also AAFCO approved as a feed additive. It is used as a urine acidifier to reduce urinary stones in cats and it is highly toxic to at least some echinoderms, but fairly harmless to most other life forms, sodium bisulfate is used in controlling outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish. In jewelry making, sodium bisulfate is the primary ingredient used in many pickling solutions to remove the oxidation layer from surfaces, sodium bisulfate was the primary active ingredient in crystal toilet bowl cleaners Vanish and Sani-Flush, both now discontinued. Sodium bisulfate is the ingredient in some granular poultry litter treatments used to control ammonia. Sodium bisulfate is used as an additive to leaven cake mixes as well as being used in meat and poultry processing. Sodium bisulfate is considered generally recognized as safe by the FDA, the food-grade product also meets the requirements set out in the Food Chemicals Codex. It is denoted by E number E514ii in the EU and is approved for use in Australia, New Zealand, Canada. Where it is listed as additive 514, Food grade sodium bisulfate is used in a variety of food products, including beverages, dressings, sauces, and fillings. It has many synonyms including bisulfate of soda, sodium sulfate, mono sodium hydrogen sulfate, sodium hydrogen sulfate, sodium hydrosulfate
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