1.
Turmeric
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Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native to southern Asia, requiring temperatures between 20 and 30 °C and an amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the following season, although long-used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat various diseases, there is little high-quality clinical evidence for use of turmeric or its main constituent, curcumin, as a therapy. Turmeric has been used in Asia for thousands of years and is a part of Siddha medicine. It was first used as a dye, and then later for its medicinal properties, the origin of the name is uncertain, possibly deriving from Middle English/early modern English as turmeryte or tarmaret. Speculation exists that it may be of Latin origin, terra merita, the name of the genus, Curcuma, is from an Arabic name of both saffron and turmeric. Turmeric is a herbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m tall. Highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes are found, the leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade, from the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm long, the simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm long and rarely up to 230 cm. They have a width of 38 to 45 cm and are oblong to elliptic, in China, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the stem is a 12 to 20 cm long inflorescence stem containing many flowers. The bracts are green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm. At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur, these are white to green and sometimes, tinged reddish-purple, the hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three 0.8 to 1.2 cm long sepals are fused, white, have fluffy hairs, the three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 cm long. The three corolla lobes have a length of 1.0 to 1.5 cm, and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends, while the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base, all other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum, the labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2.0 cm
2.
Etlingera elatior
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Etlingera elatior is a species of herbaceous perennial plant. Botanical synonyms include Nicolaia elatior, Phaeomeria magnifica, Nicolaia speciosa, Phaeomeria speciosa, Alpinia elatior, the showy pink flowers are used in decorative arrangements, while the flower buds, bunga kecombrang, are an important ingredient in the Nonya dish laksa. In North Sumatra, the buds are used for a stewed fish is called Arsik ikan mas. In Bali, people are used the part of the bottom part trunk for cooking chilli sauce called Sambal Bongkot. In Thailand, it is eaten in a kind of Thai salad preparation, from the leaves of E. elatior, three caffeoylquinic acids, including chlorogenic acid, and three flavonoids, quercitrin, isoquercitrin and catechin, have been isolated. Content of CGA was significantly higher than flowers of Lonicera japonica, a protocol for producing a standardized herbal extract of CGA from leaves of E. elatior has been developed, compared to commercial CGA extracts from honeysuckle flowers. Leaves of E. elatior have the highest antioxidant, antibacterial, antioxidant properties of leaves were significantly stronger than flowers and rhizomes. Leaves of highland populations had higher AOP values than lowland counterparts, thermal drying of leaves led to drastic declines in AOP, while freeze-dried leaves showed significantly higher AOP values. Ethanolic extracts of inflorescences have antimicrobial activity and are cytotoxic to HeLa cells, antioxidant activity of diarylheptanoids isolated from rhizomes is greater than α-tocopherol. E. elatior has an antioxidant effect against lead-induced hepatotoxicity in rats, Alpinia galanga Curcuma longa Etlingera fulgens Etlingera maingayi Kaempferia galanga
3.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
4.
Antioxidant
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An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid terminate these chain reactions, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases, industrial antioxidants have diverse uses, such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration. Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, moreover, if they are actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidant are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, polyphenols, which often have antioxidant properties in vitro, are not necessarily antioxidants in vivo due to extensive metabolism. In many polyphenols, the group acts as electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism upon uptake in the body, for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase. Many polyphenols may have non-antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell-to-cell signaling, receptor sensitivity, tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key role in neuronal death in stroke and head injury. It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke, but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage, similarly, the designed antioxidant NXY-059 exhibited efficacy in animal models, but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial. As of November 2014, other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants, common pharmaceuticals with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation. During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10, however, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery, other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans. Nonpolar antioxidants such as major component of oil of cloves—have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, more seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial study of cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene
5.
Curcumin
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Curcumin is a bright yellow chemical produced by some plants. It is the principal curcuminoid of turmeric, a member of the ginger family and it is sold as an herbal supplement, cosmetics ingredient, food flavoring, and food coloring. As a food additive, its E number is E100 and it was isolated in 1815 when Vogel and Pelletier reported the isolation of a yellow coloring-matter from the rhizomes of turmeric and named it curcumin. Although curcumin has been used historically in Ayurvedic medicine, its potential for medicinal properties remains unproven and is doubted as a therapy when used orally, chemically, curcumin is a diarylheptanoid, belonging to the group of curcuminoids, which are natural phenols responsible for turmerics yellow color. It is a tautomeric compound existing in enolic form in organic solvents, the most common applications are as a dietary supplement, in cosmetics, as a food coloring, and as flavoring for foods such as turmeric-flavored beverages. Annual sales of curcumin have increased since 2012, largely due to an increase in its popularity as a dietary supplement and it is increasingly popular in skin care products that are marketed as containing natural ingredients or dyes, especially in Asia. The largest market is in North America, where sales exceeded US$20 million in 2014, curcumin incorporates several functional groups whose structure was first identified in 1910. The aromatic ring systems, which are phenols, are connected by two α, β-unsaturated carbonyl groups, the diketones form stable enols and are readily deprotonated to form enolates, the α, β-unsaturated carbonyl group is a good Michael acceptor and undergoes nucleophilic addition. Curcumin is used as an indicator for boron and it reacts with boric acid to form a red-color compound, rosocyanine. The biosynthetic route of curcumin is uncertain, in 1973, Roughly and Whiting proposed two mechanisms for curcumin biosynthesis. The first mechanism involves a chain reaction by cinnamic acid and 5 malonyl-CoA molecules that eventually arylized into a curcuminoid. The second mechanism involves two cinnamate units coupled together by malonyl-CoA, both use cinnamic acid as their starting point, which is derived from the amino acid phenylalanine. Plant biosyntheses starting with cinnamic acid is rare compared to the more common p-coumaric acid, only a few identified compounds, such as anigorufone and pinosylvin, build from cinnamic acid. In vitro, curcumin exhibits numerous interference properties which may lead to misinterpretation of results, although curcumin has been assessed in numerous laboratory and clinical studies, it has no medical uses established by well-designed clinical research. Cancer studies using curcumin conducted by Bharat Aggarwal, formerly a researcher at the MD Anderson Cancer Center, were deemed fraudulent, curcumin, which shows positive results in most drug discovery assays, may be a false lead that medicinal chemists refer to as pan-assay interference compounds. In vitro, curcumin has been shown to inhibit certain enzymes, transcriptional co-activator proteins. Two preliminary clinical studies in cancer patients consuming high doses of curcumin showed no toxicity, curcumin appears to reduce circulating C-reactive protein in human subjects, although no dose-response relationship was established. Turmeric and curcumin, from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Turmeric, from the University of Maryland Medical Center
6.
Alpha-Tocopherol
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α-Tocopherol is a type of tocopherol or vitamin E. α-Tocopherol is a form of vitamin E that is absorbed and accumulated in humans. The measurement of vitamin E activity in units was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of spontaneous abortions in pregnant rats relative to alpha-tocopherol. There are three stereocenters in alpha-tocopherol, so it is a chiral molecule, the eight stereoisomers of alpha-tocopherol differ in the arrangement of groups around these stereocenters. In the image of RRR-alpha-tocopherol, all three stereocenters are in the R form, however, if the middle of the three stereocenters were changed, this would become the structure of RSR-alpha-tocopherol. RSR-alpha-tocopherol and RRR-alpha-tocopherol are diastereomers of each other and these stereoisomers can also be named in an alternative older nomenclature, where the stereocenters are either in the d or l form. 1 IU of tocopherol is defined as ⅔ milligrams of RRR-alpha-tocopherol,1 IU is also defined as 1 milligram of an equal mix of the eight stereoisomers, which is a racemic mixture called all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate. This mix of stereoisomers is often called dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, even though it is more precisely dl, dl, dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate).45 milligrams α-tocopherol
7.
Phenols
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In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C 6H 5OH, phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule. Synonyms are arenols or aryl alcohols, phenolic compounds are synthesized industrially, they also are produced by plants and microorganisms, with variation between and within species. Although similar to alcohols, phenols have unique properties and are not classified as alcohols and they have higher acidities due to the aromatic rings tight coupling with the oxygen and a relatively loose bond between the oxygen and hydrogen. The acidity of the group in phenols is commonly intermediate between that of aliphatic alcohols and carboxylic acids. Phenols can have two or more hydroxy groups bonded to the ring in the same molecule. The simplest examples are the three benzenediols, each having two groups on a benzene ring. Organisms that synthesize phenolic compounds do so in response to pressures such as pathogen and insect attack, UV radiation. As they are present in food consumed in human diets and in used in traditional medicine of several cultures, their role in human health. Some phenols are germicidal and are used in formulating disinfectants, others possess estrogenic or endocrine disrupting activity. They can also be classified on the basis of their number of phenol groups and they can therefore be called simple phenols or monophenols, with only one phenolic group, or di-, tri- and oligophenols, with two, three or several phenolic groups respectively. The phenolic unit can be found dimerized or further polymerized, creating a new class of polyphenol, two natural phenols from two different categories, for instance a flavonoid and a lignan, can combine to form a hybrid class like the flavonolignans. Nomenclature of polymers, Plants in the genus Humulus and Cannabis produce terpenophenolic metabolites, phenolic lipids are long aliphatic chains bonded to a phenolic moiety. The majority of compounds are solubles molecules but the smaller molecules can be volatiles. Many natural phenols present chirality within their molecule, an example of such molecules is catechin. Cavicularin is an unusual macrocycle because it was the first compound isolated from nature displaying optical activity due to the presence of planar chirality, natural phenols chemically interact with many other substances. Stacking, a property of molecules with aromaticity, is seen occurring between phenolic molecules. When studied in mass spectrometry, phenols easily form adduct ions with halogens and they can also interact with the food matrices or with different forms of silica
8.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
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The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES
9.
Curcuminoid
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These compounds are natural phenols and produce a pronounced yellow color. Many curcumin characters are unsuitable for use as drugs by themselves and they have poor solubility in water at acidic and physiological pH, and also hydrolyze rapidly in alkaline solutions. Therefore, curcumin derivatives are synthesized to increase their solubility and hence bioavailability, curcuminoids are soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide, acetone and ethanol, but are poorly soluble in lipids. It is possible to increase curcuminoid solubility in aqueous phase with surfactants or co-surfactants, curcumin derivatives have been synthesized that could possibly be more potent than curcumin itself. Most common derivatives have different substituents on the phenyl groups, there is an increasing demand of late for demethoxycurcumin and other curcuminoids because of their recently discovered biological activity. Curcuminoids form a stable complex with solutions which contain cyclodextrin towards hydrolytic degradations. The stability differs between size and characterization of the cyclodextrins that are used, dissolution of demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin and curcumin are greatest in the hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin cavity. The curcuminoids which have a substituent connected to the groups show more affinity for the HPγCD compound. Degradation rate is depended on pH of the solution and how much protection the cyclodextrins provide the curcuminoids, the derivatives are usually more stable than curcumin against hydrolysis in cyclodextrin solution. No covalent bonds are present between the cyclodextrins and the curcuminoids so they are released from the complex by simple solvent effects. A drug design with curcuminoids in complex with micelles could be one solution of the insolubility of the curcuminoids, the curcuminoids would be in complex with the core of the micelles similar to the complex inside the cyclodextrins. The micelles are dissolved in a suitable solvent where the headgroups of the micelles interact with the solvent, curcuminoids as loaded solid lipid nanoparticles have been developed with great success by using microemulsion technique. The sensitivity of curcuminoids to light and oxygen is reduced by formulation of curcuminoids in SLN. Solid lipid nanoparticles preparate has been developed for cosmetics where the curcuminoids are used in cream base, nevertheless, there have been improvements in formulation of some stable model cream preparations with SLN curcuminoids. It is suggested that most of the curcuminoids are incorporated at the SLN surface where they are diffused into the cream matrix until a state is reached. At this state the curcuminoids go from the cream to the dissolution medium, when SLN are prepared by microemulsion at a temperature with the range of 70–75 °C an oil-in-water microemulsion is spontaneously formed. The SLN are obtained immediately when they are dispersed in the warm microemulsion into cold water, the cold water facilitates a rapid crystallization of the lipids and therefore prevents aggregation of the lipids. After freeze drying the yellow curcuminoids containing SLN were obtained and could easily be redispersed in water, the SLN have uniform distribution and according to electron micrograph scan they had a spherical shape and smooth surface
10.
Rosocyanine
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Rosocyanine and Rubrocurcumin are two red colored materials, which are formed by the reaction between curcumin and borates. The color reaction between borates and curcumin is used within the spectrophotometrical determination and quantification of boron present in food or materials, curcumin is a yellow coloring natural pigment found in the root stocks of some Curcuma species, especially Curcuma longa, in concentrations up to 3%. In the so-called curcumin method for boron quantification it serves as partner for boric acid. The reaction is sensitive and so the smallest quantities of boron can be detected. The maximum absorbance at 540 nm for rosocyanine is used in this colorimetric method, the formation of rosocyanine depends on the reaction conditions. The reaction is carried out preferentially in acidic solutions containing hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, the color reaction also takes place under different conditions, however, in alkaline solution, gradual decomposition is observed. The reaction might be disturbed at higher pH values, interfering with other compounds, rosocyanine is formed as 2,1 complex from curcumin and boric acid in acidic solutions. The boron complexes formed with rosocyanine are dioxaborines, curcumin possesses a 1, 3-diketone structure and can therefore be considered as a chelating agent. Unlike the simpler 1, 3-diketone–containing compound acetylacetone, the skeleton of curcumin is in resonance with the 1, 3-dicarbonyl section. Investigations of the structure have shown that the charge is distributed throughout the molecule. In rosocyanine, the two curcumin moieties are not coplanar but rather perpendicular relative to one another, as a result of the geometry of tetracoordinate boron. In order to exclude the presence of materials during the boron quantification using the curcumin method. In this process,2, 2-dimethyl-1, 3-hexanediol or 2-ethyl-1, 3-hexanediol are added, in addition to curcumin, the complex formed between boron and the 1, 3-hexanediol derivative is removed from the aqueous solution by extraction in an organic solvent. Acidification of the organic phase yields rubrocyanine, which can be detected by colorimetric methods, the reaction of curcumin with borates in presence of oxalic acid produces the coloring compound rubrocurcumin. Rosocyanine is a green solid with a glossy, metallic shine that forms red colored solutions. It is almost insoluble in water and some solvents, very slightly soluble in ethanol, and somewhat soluble in pyridine, sulfuric acid. An alcoholic solution of rosocyanine temporarily turns deeply blue on treatment with alkali, in rubrocurcumin one molecule curcumin is replaced with oxalic acid. Rubrocurcumin produces a red colored solution
11.
Chemical formula
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These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH
12.
Diarylheptanoid
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The diarylheptanoids are a relatively small class of plant secondary metabolites. Diarylheptanoids consist of two aromatic rings joined by a seven carbons chain and having various substituents and they can be classified into linear and cyclic diarylheptanoids. The best known member is curcumin, which is isolated from turmeric and is known as food coloring E100, some other Curcuma species, such as Curcuma comosa also produce diarylheptanoids. They have been reported from plant in 10 different families, e. g. Betulaceae and Zingiberaceae, a diarylheptanoid is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of phenylphenalenones in Anigozanthos preissii or Wachendorfia thyrsiflora. Cyclic diarylheptanoids formed from myricanone can be isolated from the bark of Myrica rubra, two cyclic diarylheptanoids, named ostryopsitrienol and ostryopsitriol, can be isolated from the stems of endemic Chinese medicinal plant Ostryopsis nobilis. Acerogenin M can be found in Acer nikoense, jugcathayenoside and -galeon can be found in the root bark of Juglans cathayensis. The antioxidant activity of diarylheptanoids isolated from rhizomes of Etlingera elatior is greater than that of α-tocopherol, stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid and gingerol biosynthesis pathway at genome. jp Diarylheptanoids
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