1.
Melting point
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The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium, the melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the change from liquid to solid. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal, for example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins. However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures, for example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C, such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is close to 0 °C. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, the chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K, this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points, a Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient. Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point, differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window, the several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated and with the aid of the melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, the measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected, for refractory materials the extremely high melting point may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees, the spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature, in this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer, for temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed
2.
Nutmeg
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Nutmeg is one of the two spices – the other being mace – derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, a tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices, obtained from different parts of the plant. Several other commercial products are produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins. The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is native to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas, other species used to adulterate the spice include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and M. malabarica from India. In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus, Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes, Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants which are propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive, epicotyl grafting, approach grafting, and patch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low success rate, Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater. In Indonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in dishes, mainly in many spicy soups, such as some variant of soto, konro, oxtail soup, sup iga, bakso. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as beef stew, ribs with tomato, to European derived dishes such as bistik, rolade. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh could be made as manisan, either wet, in Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended or boiled to make iced nutmeg juice, in Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. It is also added in quantities as a medicine for infants. It may also be used in quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India, in Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In traditional European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in dishes and in processed meat products, they are also used in soups, sauces
3.
Coconut oil
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Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, the copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants. The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, the more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces an oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs. Proper harvesting of the coconut makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process, copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields. Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and they then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Virgin coconut oil can be produced from coconut milk, meat. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, the milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids, Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk. A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms yield around 170 kilograms of copra from which around 70 litres of oil can be extracted. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil is made from copra, dried coconut kernel. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut and this crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases. Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no taste or aroma
4.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
5.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list
6.
Boiling point
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The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the environmental pressure. A liquid in a vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different temperatures, for example, water boils at 100 °C at sea level, but at 93.4 °C at 2,000 metres altitude. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level,1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar, the heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation, evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquids edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, a saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase, the liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed, similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa, at higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, the boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached
7.
Diethyl ether
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Diethyl ether or simply ether, is an organic compound in the ether class with the formula 2O. It is a colorless, highly flammable liquid. It is commonly used as a solvent in laboratories and as a fluid for some engines. It was formerly used as an anesthetic, until non-flammable drugs were developed. It has been used as a drug to cause intoxication. The compound may have created by either Jābir ibn Hayyān in the 8th century or Ramon Llull in 1275. At about the time, Paracelsus discovered ethers analgesic properties in chickens. The name ether was given to the substance in 1729 by August Sigmund Frobenius and it is particularly important as a solvent in the production of cellulose plastics such as cellulose acetate. Ether starting fluid is sold and used in countries with cold climates, for the same reason it is also used as a component of the fuel mixture for carbureted compression ignition model engines. In this way diethyl ether is very similar to one of its precursors, diethyl ether is a common laboratory aprotic solvent. It has limited solubility in water and dissolves 1.5 g/100 ml water at 25 °C and this, coupled with its high volatility, makes it ideal for use as the non-polar solvent in liquid-liquid extraction. When used with a solution, the diethyl ether layer is on top due to the fact that it has a lower density than the water. It is also a solvent for the Grignard reaction in addition to other reactions involving organometallic reagents. Morton participated in a demonstration of ether anesthesia on October 16,1846 at the Ether Dome in Boston. British doctors were aware of the properties of ether as early as 1840 where it was widely prescribed in conjunction with opium. Because of its associations with Boston, the use of ether became known as the Yankee Dodge, diethyl ether depresses the myocardium and increases tracheobronchial secretions. Diethyl ether could also be mixed with other agents such as chloroform to make C. E. mixture, or chloroform. In the 2000s, ether is rarely used, the use of flammable ether was displaced by nonflammable fluorinated hydrocarbon anesthetics
8.
Density
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The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
9.
Myristic acid
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Myristic acid, also called tetradecanoic acid, is a common saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH312COOH. A myristate is a salt or ester of myristic acid, myristic acid is named after the nutmeg Myristica fragrans. Nutmeg butter has 75% trimyristin, the triglyceride of myristic acid, besides nutmeg, myristic acid is also found in palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butter fat and is a minor component of many other animal fats. It is also found in spermaceti, the fraction of oil from the sperm whale. It is also found in the rhizomes of the Iris, including Orris root, myristic acid is commonly added co-translationally to the penultimate, nitrogen-terminus, glycine in receptor-associated kinases to confer the membrane localisation of the enzyme. The myristic acid has a sufficiently high hydrophobicity to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the bilayer of the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell. In this way, myristic acid acts as an anchor in biomembranes. The ester isopropyl myristate is used in cosmetic and topical medicinal preparations where good absorption through the skin is desired, reduction of myristic acid yields myristyl aldehyde and myristyl alcohol
10.
Isopropyl alcohol
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Isopropyl alcohol, also called isopropanol or dimethyl carbinol, is a compound with the chemical formula C3H8O or C3H7OH or CH3CHOHCH3. It is a colorless, flammable chemical compound with a strong odor, as a propyl group linked to a hydroxyl group, it is the simplest example of a secondary alcohol, where the alcohol carbon atom is attached to two other carbon atoms, sometimes shown as 2CHOH. It is an isomer of 1-propanol. It has a variety of industrial and household uses. Isopropyl alcohol is miscible in water, ethanol, ether, and it will dissolve ethyl cellulose, polyvinyl butyral, many oils, alkaloids, gums and natural resins. Unlike ethanol or methanol, isopropyl alcohol is not miscible with salt solutions, the process is colloquially called salting out, and causes concentrated isopropyl alcohol to separate into a distinct layer. Isopropyl alcohol forms an azeotrope with water, which gives a point of 80.37 °C. Water-isopropyl alcohol mixtures have depressed melting points and it has a slightly bitter taste, and is not safe to drink. Isopropyl alcohol becomes increasingly viscous with decreasing temperature will freeze at −89 °C, Isopropyl alcohol has a maximum absorbance at 205 nm in an ultraviolet-visible spectrum. Isopropyl alcohol can be oxidized to acetone, which is the corresponding ketone, Isopropyl alcohol may be converted to 2-bromopropane using phosphorus tribromide, or dehydrated to propene by heating with sulfuric acid. Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with metals such as potassium to form alkoxides that can be called isopropoxides. The reaction with aluminium is used to prepare the catalyst aluminium isopropoxide, in 1994,1.5 million tonnes of isopropyl alcohol was produced in the United States, Europe, and Japan. This compound is produced by combining water and propene in a hydration reaction. It is also produced by hydrogenating acetone, there are two routes for the hydration process, indirect hydration using the sulfuric acid process, and direct hydration. The former process, which can use low-quality propene, predominates in the USA while the latter process and these processes give predominantly isopropyl alcohol rather than 1-propanol because the addition of water or sulfuric acid to propene follows Markovnikovs rule. The indirect process reacts propene with sulfuric acid to form a mixture of sulfate esters, subsequent hydrolysis of these esters by steam produces isopropyl alcohol, which is distilled. Diisopropyl ether is a significant by-product of this process, it is recycled back to the process, direct hydration reacts propene and water, either in gas phase or in liquid phase, at high pressures in the presence of solid or supported acidic catalysts. Higher-purity propylene tends to be required for this type of process, both processes require that the isopropyl alcohol be separated from water and other by-products by distillation
11.
Palm kernel oil
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Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the two edible oils derived from palm fruits, palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit. Palm kernel oil, palm oil, and coconut oil are three of the few highly saturated vegetable fats, these give the name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid that they contain. Palm kernel oil, which is semi-solid at room temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and it is commonly used in commercial cooking because of its relatively low cost, and because it remains stable at high cooking temperatures and can be stored longer than other vegetable oils. Oil from the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis has long recognized in West African countries. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, sekhar was appointed founder and chairman. Porims scientists work in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition, porim was renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000. Palm kernel oil, similarly to coconut oil, is high in saturated fats and is more saturated than palm oil, Palm kernel oil is high in lauric acid which has been shown to raise blood cholesterol levels, both as LDL-C and HDL-C. Palm kernel oil does not contain cholesterol or trans fatty acids, Palm kernel oil is commonly used in commercial cooking because it is lower in cost than other oils and remains stable at high cooking temperatures. The oil can also be stored longer than other vegetable oils, the split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging from C4 to C18, depending on the type of oil/fat. Resembling coconut oil, palm oil is packed with myristic and lauric fatty acids and therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing powders. Lauric acid is important in making, a good soap must contain at least 15 per cent laurate for quick lathering. Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm
12.
Moisturizer
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Moisturizers or emollients are complex mixtures of chemical agents specially designed to make the external layers of the skin softer and more pliable. They increase the skins hydration by reducing evaporation, naturally occurring skin lipids and sterols, as well as artificial or natural oils, humectants, emollients, lubricants, etc. may be part of the composition of commercial skin moisturizers. They usually are available as products for cosmetic and therapeutic uses. Moisturizers prevent and treat dry skin, protect sensitive skin, improve skin tone and texture, moisturizers can be used to prevent the skin from becoming too dry or oily, such as with light, non-greasy water-based moisturizers. Such moisturizers often contain lightweight oils, such as alcohol, or silicone-derived ingredients. For treating skin dryness, the most appropriate moisturizers are heavier, oil-based moisturizers that contain ingredients such as antioxidants, for very dry, cracked skin, petrolatum-based products are preferable, as they are longer-lasting than creams and are more effective in preventing water evaporation. For oily skin, moisturizers can still be useful after activities causing skin dryness, such as skin care products. For oily skin, water-based moisturizers that are specifically non-comedogenic are preferable, appropriate moisturizers to keep aging skin soft and well hydrated are oil-based ones that contain petrolatum as the base, along with antioxidants or alpha hydroxy acids against wrinkles. In eczema it is generally best to match thicker ointments to the driest, flakiest skin, light emollients such as aqueous cream may not have any effect on severely dry skin. Some common emollients for the relief of eczema include Oilatum, Balneum, Medi Oil, Diprobase, bath oils, sebexol, Epaderm ointment, Exederm and Eucerin lotion or cream may also be helpful with itching. Lotions or creams may be applied directly to the skin after bathing to lock in moisture, moisturizing gloves can be worn while sleeping. Generally, twice-daily applications of emollients work best, while creams are easy to apply, they are quickly absorbed into the skin, and therefore need frequent reapplication. Ointments, with water content, stay on the skin for longer and need fewer applications. Recently, ceramides, which are the major constituent of the stratum corneum, have been used in the treatment of eczema. They are often one of the ingredients of modern moisturizers and these lipids were also successfully produced synthetically in the laboratory. Emollients are best applied immediately after bathing when the skin is well hydrated, three methods are used to moisturize skin, Occlusives, These work by forming a thin film on the surface of the skin to prevent loss of moisture. Humectants, These attract water vapor from the air to moisturize the skin, restoration of deficient materials, These are more complex and try to restore natural moisturizing factors on the skin, such as amino-lipids. Four popular moisturizers were tested, providing the same result and it is not yet known if the same applies to humans
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