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DARPA
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The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing
2.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
3.
Interstellar travel
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Interstellar travel is the term used for hypothetical piloted or unpiloted travel between stars or planetary systems. The speeds required for travel in a human lifetime far exceed what current methods of spacecraft propulsion can provide. Even with a perfectly efficient propulsion system, the kinetic energy corresponding to those speeds is enormous by todays standards of energy production. Moreover, collisions by the spacecraft with cosmic dust and gas can produce very dangerous effects both to passengers and the spacecraft itself. A number of strategies have been proposed to deal with problems, ranging from giant arks that would carry entire societies and ecosystems. For both piloted and unpiloted interstellar travel, considerable technological and economic challenges need to be met, even the most optimistic views about interstellar travel see it as only being feasible decades from now—the more common view is that it is a century or more away. However, in spite of the challenges, if interstellar travel should ever be realized, such a system could grow organically if space-based solar power became a significant component of Earths energy mix. Consumer demand for a system would automatically create the necessary multi-million metric ton/year logistical system. Distances between the planets in the Solar System are often measured in units, defined as the average distance between the Sun and Earth, some 1. 5×108 kilometers. Venus, the closest other planet to Earth is 0.28 AU away, Neptune, the farthest planet from the Sun, is 29.8 AU away. As of December 2016 Voyager 1, the farthest man-made object from Earth, is 137 AU away, the closest known star Proxima Centauri, however, is some 268,332 AU away, or over 9000 times farther away than Neptune. Because of this, distances between stars are expressed in light-years, defined as the distance that a ray of light travels in a year. Light in a vacuum travels around 300,000 kilometers per second, Proxima Centauri is 4.243 light-years away. On this scale, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 271 kilometers, the fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600th of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18, 000th the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 80,000 years, a significant factor contributing to the difficulty is the energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the energy is the kinetic energy K = 1⁄2 mv2 where m is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any other than the engines of the ship. The velocity for a round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several thousand times greater than those of present space vehicles
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Ames Research Center
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Ames Research Center, also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in Californias Silicon Valley. It was founded as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory and that agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration on October 1,1958. NASA Ames is named in honor of Joseph Sweetman Ames, a physicist, at last estimate NASA Ames has over US$3.0 billion in capital equipment,2,300 research personnel and a US$860 million annual budget. Ames was founded to conduct research on the aerodynamics of propeller-driven aircraft, however, its role has expanded to encompass spaceflight. Ames plays a role in many NASA missions, Ames also develops tools for a safer, more efficient national airspace. The centers current director is Eugene Tu, the site is mission center for several key current missions and a major contributor to the new exploration focus as a participant in the Orion crew exploration vehicle. Although Ames is a NASA Research Center, and not a center, it has nevertheless been closely involved in a number of astronomy. The Pioneer programs eight successful missions from 1965 to 1978 were managed by Charles Hall at Ames. By 1972, it supported the bold flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn with Pioneer 10 and those two missions were trail blazers for the planners of the more complex Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, launched five years later. In 1978, the end of the program brought about a return to the solar system, with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe. Lunar Prospector was the mission selected by NASA for full development. Based on Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer data, mission scientists have determined that there is indeed water ice in the craters of the Moon. The 11-pound GeneSat-1, carrying bacteria inside a laboratory, was launched on December 16,2006. The very small NASA satellite has proven that scientists can quickly design, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite mission to look for water on the moon was a secondary payload spacecraft. LCROSS began its trip to the moon on the rocket as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It launched in April 2009 on an Atlas V rocket from Kennedy Space Center, the Kepler mission is NASAs first mission capable of finding Earth-size and smaller planets. The Kepler mission will monitor the brightness of stars to find planets that pass in front of them during the planets orbits, during such passes or transits, the planets will slightly decrease the stars brightness. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy is a joint venture of the U. S, the aircraft is supplied by the U. S. and the infrared telescope by Germany
5.
Pete Worden
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Simon Peter Pete Worden, was Director of NASAs Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California, until his retirement on March 31,2015. Prior to joining NASA, he held positions in the United States Air Force and was research professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona. He is an expert on space issues – both civil and military. Worden has authored or co-authored more than 150 scientific papers in astrophysics, space sciences and he served as a scientific co-investigator for two NASA space science missions, and received the NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal for the 1994 Clementine mission. He was named the 2009 Federal Laboratory Consortium Laboratory Director of the Year, Worden announced his planned resignation from NASA in February 2015, indicating he would be pursuing some long-held dreams in the private sector. On July 20,2015 at the Royal Society in London, Yuri Milner, at the press conference Pete Worden was introduced as the Chairman for the Breakthrough Prize Foundation. In this new role, Worden is tasked to run the Breakthrough Initiatives, additionally he worked on topics related to space exploration and solar-type activity in nearby stars. In addition to his position with the University of Arizona, Worden served as a consultant to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency on space-related issues. During the 2004 Congressional Session he worked as a Congressional Fellow with the Office of Senator Sam Brownback, Worden retired from the United States Air Force in 2004 after 29 years of active service. His final position there was Director of Development and Transformation, Space and Missile Systems Center, Air Force Space Command, Los Angeles Air Force Base, Worden was commissioned in 1971 after receiving a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Michigan. He entered the Air Force in 1975 after graduating from the University of Arizona with a doctorate in astronomy, throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Worden served in every phase of development, international negotiations and implementation of the Strategic Defense Initiative. He twice served in the Executive Office of the President, as the staff officer for initiatives in the George Bush administrations National Space Council, Worden spearheaded efforts to revitalize U. S. civil space exploration and earth monitoring programs. Worden commanded the 50th Space Wing that is responsible for more than 60 Department of Defense satellites, Worden was a key early innovator and proponent in the area of small satellites. While at BMDO and its predecessor SDIO he played roles in development of the DC-X. Clementine was a small, low-cost, and rapidly developed satellite ostensibly developed to test sensor. Clementine mapped the Moon and travelled on towards the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos, more recently, since becoming NASA Ames Research Center director, he has actively developed Ames capability for rapid prototyping of small spacecraft. He has also engineered innovative agreements between NASA Ames and a variety of private sector and public sector partners, recognizing the critical importance of revitalizing NASA, he has consistently and actively recruited and empowered younger workers, as well as workers from other agencies and other countries. Worden is actively involved in the International Space University, where he is a welcome guest teacher at the ISU Space Studies Program and his continued support led to the selection of NASA Ames as the host for the 2009 ISU SSP program in the months July and August 2009
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Paul Eremenko
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Paul Eremenko is an American Innovator and Technology executive. He is currently CTO of Airbus Group SE and former CEO of Airbus Group Silicon Valley innovation center and he is a former Google executive and head of Google’s Project Ara, an effort to create an open, modular smartphone platform. Eremenko was named one of the Top-10 Tech Leaders of 2015 in FORTUNE Magazine, Eremenko has also come out as a strong proponent of artificial intelligence and autonomy research, brushing away the growing chorus of concerns by many prominent technology and business leaders. Eremenko has cited his desire to build a starship as the motivation underpinning his career, Eremenko earned a bachelors degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics from MIT, a Master’s in Aeronautics from Caltech, and a law degree from Georgetown University. He trained as a pilot at Aretz Airport near Purdue University, on May 29,2015, Eremenko was named the founding CEO of Airbus Group Silicon Valley technology and business innovation center. In this capacity, he was responsible for establishing Airbuss Silicon Valley presence, on June 7,2016, Eremenko was promoted to CTO of Airbus Group SE. At Google, Eremenko created and headed Project Ara, which seeks to democratize the mobile phone hardware ecosystem, the project is also developing a production 3D printer to enable aesthetic customization of the modules that form the device. The ATAP division at Google aims to replicate the model of the DARPA in the private sector. Eremenko served as the Deputy Director and Acting Director of the Tactical Technology Office at DARPA, the responsible for the agency’s drones, robotics, X-planes. Eremenko was also responsible for a military vehicle effort called XC2V which was said to revolutionize auto manufacturing. Whether the Rise of the Machines-type scenario is a real concern and my response would be, We should be so lucky. In fact, if we could get little slivers of that kind of adaptive and cognitive capability into systems, the 100 Year Starship, which Eremenko headed at DARPA, was named by U. S. Senator Tom Coburn as one of the 100 most wasteful government spending projects, Coburn specifically cited a 100 Year Starship workshop that included one session, entitled “Did Jesus die for Klingons too. ”That debated the implications for Christian philosophy should life be found on other planets. Eremenko was one of the creators and early proponents of a systems engineering strategy for creating more flexible and adaptable products known as value-driven design, Eremenko is the son of the Ukrainian-American mathematician Alexandre Eremenko. Eremenko is one of the most senior aerospace industry executives who is openly gay
7.
Mae Jemison
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Mae Carol Jemison is an American engineer, physician and NASA astronaut. She became the first African-American woman to travel in space when she went into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour on September 12,1992. After medical school and a general practice, Jemison served in the Peace Corps from 1985 until 1987. She resigned from NASA in 1993 to found a company researching the application of technology to daily life and she has appeared on television several times, including as an actress in an episode of Star Trek, The Next Generation. She is a dancer and holds nine honorary doctorates in science, engineering, letters, and she is the current principal of the 100 Year Starship organization. Mae Carol Jemison was born in Decatur, Alabama, on October 17,1956 and her father was a maintenance supervisor for a charity organization, and her mother worked most of her career as an elementary school teacher of English and math at the Beethoven School in Chicago. The family moved to Chicago, Illinois, when Jemison was three years old, to advantage of the better educational and employment opportunities there. Jemison says that as a girl growing up in Chicago she always assumed she would get into space. I thought, by now, wed be going into space like you were going to work and she said it was easier to apply to be a shuttle astronaut, rather than waiting around in a cornfield, waiting for ET to pick me up or something. In her childhood, Jemison learned to make connections to science by studying nature, once when a splinter infected her thumb as a little girl, Jemisons mother turned it into a learning experience. She ended up doing a project about pus. Jemisons parents were supportive of her interest in science, while her teachers were not. In kindergarten, my teacher asked me what I wanted to be when I grew up and she said, Dont you mean a nurse. Now, theres nothing wrong with being a nurse, but thats not what I wanted to be, in an interview with Makers, she further explains how her sheer interest in science was not accepted. Growing up. I was just like every other kid, I loved space, stars and dinosaurs. I always knew I wanted to explore, at the time of the Apollo airing, everybody was thrilled about space, but I remember being irritated that there were no women astronauts. People tried to explain that to me, and I did not buy it, Jemison says she was inspired by Martin Luther King Jr. to her Kings dream was not an elusive fantasy but a call to action. Too often people paint him like Santa -- smiley and inoffensive, but when I think of Martin Luther King, I think of attitude, audacity, and bravery
8.
Orlando, Florida
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Orlando is a city in the U. S. state of Florida and the county seat of Orange County. Located in Central Florida, it is the center of the Orlando metropolitan area, which had a population of 4,000,002, according to U. S. As of 2015, Orlando had an estimated population of 270,934, making it the 73rd-largest city in the United States, the fourth-largest city in Florida. The City of Orlando is nicknamed The City Beautiful, and its symbol is the fountain at Lake Eola, Orlando is also known as The Theme Park Capital of the World and in 2014 its tourist attractions and events drew more than 62 million visitors. The Orlando International Airport is the thirteenth-busiest airport in the United States, with the exception of Walt Disney World, most major attractions are located along International Drive. The city is one of the busiest American cities for conferences and conventions. Orlando is home to the University of Central Florida, which is the largest university campus in the United States in terms of enrollment as of 2015, in 2010, Orlando was listed as a Gamma− level of world-city in the World Cities Study Groups inventory. Orlando ranks as the fourth-most popular American city based on where people want to live according to a 2009 Pew Research Center study. Fort Gatlin, as the Orlando area was known, was established at what is now just south of the city limits by the 4th U. S. Artillery under the command of Ltc, alexander C. W. Fanning on November 9,1838 during the construction of a series of fortified encampments across Florida during the Second Seminole War. The fort and surrounding area were named for Dr. John S. Gatlin, king Phillip and Coacoochee frequented this area and the tree was alleged to be the place where the previous 1835 ambush that had killed over 100 soldiers had been planned. When the U. S. military abandoned the fort in 1839 the surrounding community was built up by settlers, prior to being known by its current name, Orlando was once known as Jernigan. Aarron Jernigan became Orange Countys first State Representative in 1845 but his pleas for military protection went unanswered. Fort Gatlin was briefly reoccupied by the military for a few weeks during October and November 1849, a historical marker indicates that by 1850 the Jernigan homestead served as the nucleus of a village named Jernigan. One of the countys first records, a grand jurys report, mentions a stockade where it states homesteaders were driven from their homes, Aaron Jernigan led a local volunteer militia during 1852. Jernigan appears on an 1855 map of Florida and by 1856 the area had become the county seat of Orange County and it is known for certain that the area was renamed Orlando in 1857. The move is believed to be sparked, in part, by Aaron Jernigans fall from grace after he was relieved of his command by military officials in 1856. His behavior was so notorious that Secretary of War Jefferson Davis wrote, in 1859, Jernigan and his sons were accused of committing a murder at the towns post office
9.
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
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The Journal of the British Interplanetary Society is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1934. It is published monthly by the British Interplanetary Society, the journal was established in 1934 when the British Interplanetary Society was founded. The inaugural editorial stated, The ultimate aim of the society, the first issue was only a six-page pamphlet, but has the distinction of being the worlds oldest surviving astronautical publication. Notable papers published in the include, The B. I. S Space-Ship, H. E. Ross, JBIS,5, pp. 4–9,1939 The Challenge of the Spaceship. Clarke, JBIS,6, pp. 66–78,1946 Atomic rocket papers by Les Shepherd, Val Cleaver and others, 1948-1949. Special Supplement JBIS, pp. S1-192,1978 Some of the people that have been editor-in-chief of the journal are, groves Anthony R. Martin Mark Hempsell Chris Toomer Kelvin Long Spaceflight Official website British Interplanetary Society
