1.
Human
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Modern humans are the only extant members of Hominina tribe, a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes. Several of these hominins used fire, occupied much of Eurasia and they began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. In several waves of migration, anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa, the spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profound impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression and the exchange of ideas. Humans create complex structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families. Social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals. These human societies subsequently expanded in size, establishing various forms of government, religion, today the global human population is estimated by the United Nations to be near 7.5 billion. In common usage, the word generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo—anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. In scientific terms, the meanings of hominid and hominin have changed during the recent decades with advances in the discovery, there is also a distinction between anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens, the earliest fossil members of the species. The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the words use as a noun dates to the 16th century. The native English term man can refer to the species generally, the species binomial Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin homō man, the species-name sapiens means wise or sapient. Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, the genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids branch of the primates. The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees and gorillas, with the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, current estimates of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. The gibbons and orangutans were the first groups to split from the leading to the humans. The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch, during this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. There is little evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee. Each of these species has been argued to be an ancestor of later hominins
2.
Pilum
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The pilum was a javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally about 2 metres long overall, consisting of an iron shank about 7 millimetres in diameter and 60 centimetres long with pyramidal head. The shank was joined to the shaft by either a socket or a flat tang. The purpose was so the enemy could not throw the pilum back at the Roman army. The total weight of a pilum was between 2 and 5 kilograms, with the versions produced during the earlier Republican era being slightly heavier than those produced in the later Empire era, the iron shank was the key to the function of the pilum. The weapon had a hard pyramidal tip but the shank was made of softer iron and this softness would cause the shank to bend after impact, thus rendering the weapon useless to the enemy who might throw it back. Even if the shank did not bend, the pyramidal tip still made it difficult to pull out, although the bending of the pilums shank is commonly seen to be an integral part of the weapons design and as an intentional feature, there is little evidence to suggest this. The combination of the weight and the aforementioned pyramidal tip. That the pilum needed to pierce layers of armour necessitated a lengthy shank, the momentum of the pilum caused the shank to bend upon impact, and, although unintended, proved to be a useful characteristic of the weapon. Most other javelins of the time were unable to penetrate a shield, the length of the shank and its depth of penetration also made it hard to pull out of a shield even if it failed to bend. If the bearer of the shield was charging and a Pilum penetrated the shield, on some pila there was a spike on the end of the shaft which made it easier to dig into the ground. Pila were divided into two models, heavy and light, pictorial evidence suggests that some versions of the weapon were weighted by a lead ball to increase penetrative power but archeological specimens of this design variant are not so far known. Recent experiments have shown pila to have a range of approximately 33 metres, the origin of the pilums design is a matter of contention. Considering that there are two versions of the pilum, it may be possible that the Roman pilum had as ancestors two different weapons, perhaps from different cultural groups respectively. The two weapon designs may have coalesced into the form of the typical Roman pilum, as is known today, legionaries of the Late Republic and Early Empire often carried two pila, with one sometimes being lighter than the other. The effect of the throw was to disrupt the enemy formation by attrition. Pila could also be used in combat, one documented instance of this occurred at the Siege of Alesia. Additionally, pila could be employed as a thrusting implement and a barrier against cavalry charges, some pila had small hand-guards, to protect the wielder if he intended to use it as a melee weapon, but it does not appear that this was common. When once fixed in the shield it was impossible to them out
3.
Anchor
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An anchor is a device, normally made of metal, used to connect a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin ancora, which comes from the Greek ἄγκυρα. Anchors can either be temporary or permanent, permanent anchors are used in the creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved, a specialist service is normally needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one or more anchors, which may be of different designs. A sea anchor is a drogue, not in contact with the seabed, used to control a drifting vessel, anchors achieve holding power either by hooking into the seabed, or via sheer mass, or a combination of the two. Permanent moorings use large masses resting on the seabed, semi-permanent mooring anchors and large ships anchors derive a significant portion of their holding power from their mass, while also hooking or embedding in the bottom. Modern anchors for smaller vessels have metal flukes which hook on to rocks on the bottom or bury themselves in soft seabed, the vessel is attached to the anchor by the rode, which is made of chain, cable, rope, or a combination of these. A10,1 scope gives the greatest holding power, Anchoring with sufficient scope and/or heavy chain rode brings the direction of strain close to parallel with the seabed. If necessary, motoring slowly around the location of the anchor also helps dislodge it, anchors are sometimes fitted with a tripping line attached to the crown, by which they can be unhooked from rocks or coral. The term aweigh describes an anchor when it is hanging on the rope and is not resting on the bottom and this is linked to the term to weigh anchor, meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is described as aweigh when it has broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to be stowed. Aweigh should not be confused with under way, which describes a vessel which is not moored to a dock or anchored, the earliest anchors were probably rocks, and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the Bronze Age. Pre-European Maori waka used one or more hollowed stones, tied with flax ropes, many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring, the ancient Greeks used baskets of stones, large sacks filled with sand, and wooden logs filled with lead. According to Apollonius Rhodius and Stephen of Byzantium, anchors were formed of stone, such anchors held the vessel merely by their weight and by their friction along the bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them with teeth, or flukes, the Admiralty Pattern, A. P. or simply Admiralty, and also known as Fisherman, is the anchor shape most familiar to non-sailors. It consists of a shank with a ring or shackle for attaching the rode. At the other end of the shank there are two arms, carrying the flukes, while the stock is mounted to the other end, when the anchor lands on the bottom, it will generally fall over with the arms parallel to the seabed
4.
Bicycle pump
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A bicycle pump is a type of positive-displacement air pump specifically designed for inflating bicycle tires. It has a connection or adapter for use with one or both of the two most common types of valves used on bicycles, Schrader or Presta, a third type of valve called the Dunlop valve exists, but tubes with these valves can be filled using a Presta pump. Several basic types are available, Floor pumps Frame mounted Compact or mini Foot operated Double action In its most basic form, during the up-stroke, this piston draws air through a one-way valve into the pump from the outside. During the down-stroke, the piston displaces the air from the pump into the bicycle tire. Most floor pumps, also commonly called track pumps, have a built in pressure gauge to indicate tire pressure, electrically-operated pumps intended to inflate car tires can in principle be used to inflate a bicycle tire if the right type of connection is available. Some such pumps are designed to cut off before a suitable pressure, others may not cut off, but deliver a high rate of flow to fill the larger car tire, with a risk of overinflating and bursting a bicycle tire unless it is stopped with split-second timing. The first bicycle pump consisted of a cylinder that had a metal rod running down the middle of it. This would have forced the air out of the cylinder and then sucked in new air when the rod was pulled up again. Many modern pumps use a similar method, while some, such as the electric pumps. When the cylinder is compressed, air is pushed down the tube of the pump and then into the tire via the valve, which is forced open by the pressure of the air. When the handle is pulled up again, the valve shuts off automatically so that the air cannot escape from the tire, some pumps have a gauge that shows the pressure of air that is forced into the tire. Once the tire is at the pressure, the pump valve can be removed from the tire. There are two types of tire valves to which the bicycle tire pump attaches. These are the Presta valve and the Schrader valve, some pumps fit both types of valves, whereas others do not, but adapters are available that enable the pump to fit any type of valve. The AVACS feature is available on pump models and can also be bought as a separate valve attachment. There are three types of bicycle pumps Stand pump Hand pump Foot pump Also known as a floor or track pump. To operate, the user rests the base of the pump on the floor, resting feet at the base, an additional tube must connect the pump to the fill valve, which may create dead volume. There are two types, tubed and integral
5.
Nail (fastener)
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In woodworking and construction, a nail is a pin-shaped object of metal which is used as a fastener, as a peg to hang something, or sometimes as a decoration. Generally nails have a point on one end and a flattened head on the other. Nails are made in a variety of forms for specialized purposes. The most common is a wire nail, other types of nails include pins, tacks, brads, and cleats. Nails are typically driven into the workpiece by a hammer, a nail gun. A nail holds materials together by friction in the axial direction, the point of the nail is also sometimes bent over or clinched after driving to prevent pulling out. The history of the nail is divided roughly into three periods, Hand-wrought nail Cut nail Wire nail To make a wrought-iron nail, iron ore is heated with carbon. To make a nail, a blacksmith heats the rod in a forge, next, the smith cuts off the taper, and inserts it into a nail heading tool with a square hole. The top of the taper is hammered downward to form a head, Nails date back at least to Ancient Egypt — bronze nails found in Egypt have been dated 3400 BC. The Romans made extensive use of nails, the Roman army, for example, left behind seven tons of nails when it evacuated the fortress of Inchtuthil in Perthshire in the United Kingdom in 86 or 87 CE. The term penny, as it refers to nails, probably originated in medieval England to describe the price of a hundred nails, Nails themselves were sufficiently valuable and standardized to be used as an informal medium of exchange. Until around 1800 artisans known as nailers or nailors made nails by hand – note the surname Naylor, at the time of the American Revolution, England was the largest manufacturer of nails in the world. Nails were expensive and difficult to obtain in the American colonies, families often had small nail-manufacturing setups in their homes, during bad weather and at night, the entire family might work at making nails for their own use and for barter. Thomas Jefferson wrote in a letter, In our private pursuits it is an advantage that every honest employment is deemed honorable. I am myself a nail maker, the production of wrought-iron nails continued well into the 19th century, but ultimately was reduced to nails for purposes for which the softer cut nails were unsuitable, including horseshoe nails. Originally, nails were handmade, and the process was slow, nails were relatively few. This naturally produced a desire to create machines to speed up and these nails were known as cut nails or square nails because of their roughly rectangular cross section. Cut nails were one of the important factors in the increase in balloon framing beginning in the 1830s, though still used for historical renovations, and for heavy-duty applications, such as attaching boards to masonry walls, cut nails are much less common today than wire nails
6.
Ice pick
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An ice pick is a tool used to break up, pick at, or chip at ice. It resembles a scratch awl, but is designed for picking at ice rather than wood, before the invention of modern refrigerators, ice picks were a ubiquitous household tool used for separating and shaping the blocks of ice used in ice boxes. The term ice pick also commonly refers to a tool known in the USA as an ice axe. Neurologist Walter Freeman used medical instruments called leucotomes, and later orbitoclasts and this operation was informally called ice pick lobotomy, the leucotome was hammered into the patients brain with a rubber mallet via the eyes tear duct. Like most other tools, ice picks have been used for more than their intended use, for example, mafia hitman Abe Kid Twist Reles used an ice pick as his weapon of choice. Fellow Murder, Inc. hitman Harry Pittsburgh Phil Strauss also employed an ice pick as a weapon, the plot of The Little Sister by Raymond Chandler revolves around the murder of a blackmailer by an ice pick. Jason Vorhees kills Alice Hardy with an ice pick in the scene of Friday the 13th Part 2. Ice picks are used as weapons in the 1992 erotic thriller Basic Instinct. In the film Goodfellas, Tommy murders Morrie by plunging an ice pick into the back of his neck, joe Pescis character Nicky in the film Casino mentions sticking ice picks into the testicles of a gangster he interrogated. In the movie Would You Rather, players are given the option to stab a fellow contestant with an ice pick
7.
Sky One
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Sky 1 is the British flagship channel operated and owned by Sky plc. It is the entertainment channel operated in the United Kingdom. Sky 1 launched across Europe on 26 April 1982 by founder Connor Baskey as Satellite Television and is the oldest non-terrestrial TV channel in the United Kingdom. In the UK, the channel is available via satellite on Sky, digital cable on Virgin Media, IPTV on TalkTalk TV. In Ireland, the channel is available via Sky Ireland, Virgin Media Ireland, on 27 June 1983, the shareholders of Satellite Television agreed a £5 million offer to give News International 65% of the company. Murdoch extended the broadcast hours and the number of countries the station broadcast to including the United Kingdom, on 16 January 1984 the channel was renamed Sky Channel. On 8 June 1988, Murdoch announced his plans to expand Skys service to four channels, the show had a mix of entertainment, gossip, fashion, etc. The Channel continued with the childrens programmes, soaps, and US action series. On 31 July 1989, the channel was renamed Sky One and closed in most European countries, broadcasting to only the United Kingdom, in 1990 Sky One begin to acquire more recent programming, an early success being Moonlighting, which the BBC had previously screened but not repeated. Sky One also picked new programming such as The Simpsons,21 Jump Street and the last series of Falcon Crest, the channel also commissioned a number of home grown programmes while also expanding its Australian television series to include E Street, Chances and Paradise Beach. In contrast to the Sky2 that was relaunched, this channel featured even more first-run programmes. In 2000, a feed of Sky One for Ireland was launched. For most of this Irish feeds existence, the difference between it and the United Kingdom feed has been differing commercials and programme promotions. In June 2003, the channel started broadcasting in 16,9 widescreen, however, all TV commercials were broadcast in 4,3 until November 2005, because they were played off the same servers for all Sky channels, many of which were not broadcast in widescreen. On 21 September 2004, Sky One Mix was subsequently renamed Sky Mix, on 31 October 2005, Sky Mix was renamed as Sky Two with the launch of a second sister channel Sky Three. An on-screen message instead appears redirecting viewers to Sky 1, to coincide with launch of Sky HD, Sky 1 HD began broadcasting on 22 May 2006. Programmes that are not available in HD are upscaled, a new Sky 1 HD logo was introduced along with the rebrand on 31 August 2008. On 1 October 2010, Sky 1 HD launched on Virgin Media channel 122, with Sky 2 moving to channel 123 and Sky 3 moving to channel 180 on 22 September 2010, to make way for the new channel
8.
Channel 4
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Channel 4 is a British public-service television broadcaster that began transmission on 2 November 1982. With the conversion of the Wenvoe transmitter group in Wales to digital on 31 March 2010, before Channel 4 and S4C, Britain had three terrestrial television services, BBC1, BBC2, and ITV. The Broadcasting Act 1980 began the process of adding a fourth, after some months of test broadcasts, it began scheduled transmissions on 2 November 1982. Indeed, television sets throughout the 1970s and early 1980s had a spare channel called ITV/IBA2. It was most likely politics which had the biggest impact in leading to a delay of almost three decades before the commercial channel became a reality. The campaign was taken so seriously by Gwynfor Evans, former president of Plaid Cymru, the result was that Channel 4 as seen by the rest of the United Kingdom would be replaced in Wales by Sianel Pedwar Cymru. Operated by a specially created authority, S4C would air programmes in Welsh made by HTV, since then, carriage on digital cable, satellite and digital terrestrial has introduced Channel 4 to Welsh homes where it is now universally available. The first programme to air on the channel was the game show Countdown. The first person to be seen on Channel 4 was Richard Whiteley with Ted Moult being the second, the first woman on the channel, contrary to popular belief, was not Carol Vorderman and was a lexicographer only ever identified as Mary. Whiteley opened the show with the words, On its first day, Channel 4 also broadcast controversial soap opera Brookside, which ran until 2003. On its launch, Channel 4 committed itself to providing an alternative to the existing channels, Channel 4 co-commissioned Robert Ashleys ground-breaking television opera Perfect Lives, which it premiered over several episodes in 1984. The channel often did not receive mass audiences for much of period, however. Channel 4 for many years had a poorer quality signal compared to other channels, Channel 4 also began the funding of independent films, such as the Merchant-Ivory docudrama The Courtesans of Bombay, during this time. In 1992, Channel 4 also faced its first libel case by Jani Allan, a South African journalist, who objected to her representation in the documentary The Leader, His Driver and the Drivers Wife. After control of the station passed from the Channel Four Television Company to the Channel Four Television Corporation in 1993, instead of aiming for the fringes of society, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time and it gave such shows as Friends and ER their UK premières. In the early 2000s, Channel 4 began broadcasting reality formats such as Big Brother and obtained the rights to broadcast mass appeal sporting events like cricket and this new direction increased ratings and revenues. In addition, the corporation launched a number of new channels through its new 4Ventures offshoot, including Film4, At the Races, E4
