1.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
2.
Brian Boru
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Brian Boru was an Irish king who ended the domination of the High Kingship of Ireland by the Uí Néill. He was the founder of the OBrien dynasty, with a population of under 500,000 people, Ireland had over 150 kings, with greater or lesser domains. The Uí Néill king Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, abandoned by his northern kinsmen of the Cenél nEógain and Cenél Conaill, acknowledged Brian as High King at Athlone in 1002. Brians hard-won authority was challenged in 1013 when his ally Máel Sechnaill was attacked by the Cenél nEógain king Flaithbertach Ua Néill. This was followed by attacks on Máel Sechnaill by the Dubliners under their king Sihtric Silkbeard. Brian campaigned against these enemies in 1013, in 1014, Brians armies confronted the armies of Leinster and Dublin, with Norsemen fighting on both sides, at Clontarf near Dublin on Good Friday. The resulting Battle of Clontarf was an affair, with Brian, his son Murchad. The list of the dead in the Annals of Ulster includes Irish kings, Norse Gaels, Scotsmen. The immediate beneficiary of the slaughter was Máel Sechnaill, who resumed his interrupted reign, the Norse-Gaels and Scandinavians also produced works mentioning Brian, including Njals Saga, the Orkneyinga Saga, and the now-lost Brians Saga. Many Irish annals state that Brian was in his 88th year when he fell in the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, if true, this would mean that he was born as early as 926 or 927. Other birth dates given in retrospect are 923 or 942 and he was one of the 12 sons of Cennétig mac Lorcáin, king of Dál gCais and king of Tuadmumu, modern County Clare, then a sub-kingdom in the north of Munster. Cennétig was described as rígdamna Caisil, meaning that he was either heir or candidate to the kingship of Cashel or Munster, Brians mother was Bé Binn inion Urchadh, daughter of Urchadh mac Murchadh, king of Maigh Seóla in west Connacht. That they belonged to the Uí Briúin Seóla may explain why he received the name Brian, Brian was born at Kincora, Killaloe, a town in the region of Tuadmumu. Brians posthumous cognomen Bóruma may have referred to Béal Bóruma, a north of Killaloe. Another explanation, though possibly a late interpretation, is that the nickname represented Old Irish bóruma of the cattle tribute, when their father died, the kingship of Tuadmumu passed to Brians older brother, Mathgamain, and, when Mathgamain was killed in 976, Brian replaced him. Subsequently, he became the king of the kingdom of Munster. In earlier times their ancestors had controlled some lands in todays County Limerick as well, but these had been overrun by the Uí Fidgenti from the 9th century, the River Shannon served as an easy route by which raids could be made against the provinces of Connacht and Meath. Both Brians father, Cennétig mac Lorcáin and his older brother Mathgamain conducted river-borne raids and this was probably the root of his appreciation for naval forces in his later career
3.
Monarchy of Ireland
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A monarchical system of government existed in Ireland from ancient times until, for what became the Republic of Ireland, the mid-twentieth century. Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom, remains under a system of government. The Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland ended with the Norman invasion of Ireland and this lasted until the Parliament of Ireland conferred the crown of Ireland upon King Henry VIII of England during the English Reformation. The monarch of England held the crowns of England and Ireland in a personal union, the Union of the Crowns in 1603 expanded the personal union to include Scotland. The personal union between England and Scotland became a union with the enactments of the Acts of Union 1707. After that date, most of Ireland left the United Kingdom to become the independent Irish Free State, the remaining part, Northern Ireland, elected to remain in the United Kingdom. Both the Free State and the United Kingdom, which changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927, had the person as monarch. In 1937, the year after George Vs death, the Free State adopted a new constitution changed the states name to Ireland. In April 1949, Ireland was declared a republic, with the description of the Republic of Ireland, since April 1949, the only part of the island of Ireland that retains a monarchical system is Northern Ireland. Gaelic Ireland consisted of as few as five and as many as nine Primary kingdoms which were subdivided into many minor smaller kingdoms. The primary kingdoms were Connacht, Ailech, Airgíalla, Ulster, Mide, Leinster, Osraige, Munster, until the end of Gaelic Ireland they continued to fluctuate, expand and contract in size, as well as dissolving entirely or being amalgamated into new entities. The role of High King of Ireland was primarily titular and rarely absolute, Gaelic Ireland was not ruled as a unitary state. The names of Connacht, Ulster, Leinster and Munster are still in use, the following is a list of the main Irish kingdoms and their kings. Kings of Ailech – divided into Tír Eóghain and Tír Conaill in twelfth century Kings of Connacht – all the land west of the Shannon except Thomond, Kings of Leinster – Its last de facto king died in 1632. Kings of Mide – Irelands central kingdom, annexed by Connacht in the 11th century, Kings of Osraige – the independent western portion of Leinster, was also the eastern portion of Munster between the sixth and ninth centuries. Kings of Munster – an over kingdom of late prehistoric origins Kings of Ulster – properly, leading kings appear in public roles at church-state proclamations. and at royal conferences with their peers. Yet change only gained ground after the stranglehold of Uí Néill power-structures was broken in the eleventh century. The renaming of a kingship, engendered a new self-perception which shaped the future definition of a kingdom and of its subjects. Nevertheless, the achievements of Mael Sechlainn and his successors were purely personal and he was arguably the first undisputed full king of Ireland
4.
Armagh
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Armagh is the county town of County Armagh in Northern Ireland, as well as a civil parish. It is the capital of Ireland – the seat of the Archbishops of Armagh. In ancient times, nearby Navan Fort was a ceremonial site. Today, Armagh is home to two cathedrals and the Armagh Observatory, and is known for its Georgian architecture, although classed as a medium-sized town, Armagh was given city status in 1994 and Lord Mayoralty status in 2012, both by Queen Elizabeth II. It had a population of 14,749 people in the 2011 Census, making it the city in Northern Ireland. Eamhain Mhacha, at the edge of Armagh, is believed to have been an ancient pagan ritual or ceremonial site. According to Irish mythology it was one of the royal sites of Gaelic Ireland. It appears to have largely abandoned after the 1st century. In the 3rd century, a ditch and bank was dug around the top of Cathedral Hill and its circular shape matches the modern street layout. Evidence suggests that it was a sanctuary and the successor to Navan. Like Navan, it too was named after the goddess Macha – Ard Mhacha means Machas height and this name was later anglicised as Ardmagh, which eventually became Armagh. After Christianity spread to Ireland, the sanctuary was converted into a Christian one. According to tradition, Saint Patrick founded his church there in the year 457. Saint Patrick was said to have decreed that only those educated in Armagh could spread the gospel. According to the Annals of the Four Masters, Ard Mhacha was founded by Saint Patrick, it having been granted to him by Daire, son of Finnchadh, son of Eoghan, twelve men were appointed by him for building the town. In 839 and 869, the monastery in Armagh was raided by Vikings, as with similar raids, their goal was to acquire valuables such as silver, which could often be found in churches and monasteries. The Book of Armagh came from the monastery and it is a 9th-century Irish manuscript now held by Trinity College Library in Dublin. It contains some of the oldest surviving specimens of Old Irish, Brian Boru is believed to be buried in the graveyard of the St. Patricks Church of Ireland cathedral
5.
Saint Patrick
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Saint Patrick was a fifth-century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Known as the Apostle of Ireland, he is the patron saint of Ireland, along with saints Brigit of Kildare. He is also venerated in the Anglican Communion, the Old Catholic Church and in the Eastern Orthodox Church as equal-to-the-apostles and Enlightener of Ireland. The dates of Patricks life cannot be fixed with certainty but there is agreement that he was active as a missionary in Ireland during the second half of the 5th century. He has been generally so regarded ever since, despite evidence of some earlier Christian presence in Ireland, after becoming a cleric, he returned to northern and western Ireland. In later life, he served as a bishop, but little is known about the places where he worked, by the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of Ireland. Saint Patricks Day is observed on 17 March, the date of his death. It is celebrated inside and outside Ireland as a religious and cultural holiday, in the dioceses of Ireland, it is both a solemnity and a holy day of obligation, it is also a celebration of Ireland itself. Two Latin works survive which are accepted as having been written by St. Patrick. These are the Declaration and the Letter to the soldiers of Coroticus, the Declaration is the more biographical of the two. In it, Patrick gives an account of his life. Most available details of his life are from subsequent hagiographies and annals, the only name that Patrick uses for himself in his own writings is Pātricius, which gives Old Irish Pátraic and Modern Irish Pádraig, English Patrick and Welsh Padrig. Hagiography records other names he is said to have borne, Magonus appears in the ninth century Historia Brittonum as Maun, descending from British *Magunos, meaning servant-lad. Succetus, which appears in Muirchú moccu Machthenis seventh century Life as Sochet, is identified by Mac Neill as a word of British origin meaning swineherd. The dates of Patricks life are uncertain, there are conflicting regarding the year of his death. His own writings provide no evidence for any dating more precise than the 5th century generally, the Letter to Coroticus implies that the Franks were still pagans at the time of writing, their conversion to Christianity is dated to the period 496–508. The Irish annals for the century date Patricks arrival in Ireland at 432. The date 432 was probably chosen to minimise the contribution of Palladius, who was known to have sent to Ireland in 431
6.
Sigtrygg Silkbeard
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Sigtrygg II Silkbeard Olafsson was a Hiberno-Norse king of Dublin of the Uí Ímair dynasty. He was caught up in the abortive Leinster revolt of 999–1000, after which he was forced to submit to the King of Munster and his family also conducted a double marriage alliance with Boru, although he later realigned himself with the main leaders of the Leinster revolt of 1012–1014. He has a prominent role in the 12th-century Irish Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh, Sigtryggs long reign spanned 46 years, until his abdication in 1036. During that period, his armies saw action in four of the five Irish provinces of the time, in particular, he conducted a long series of raids into territories such as Meath, Wicklow, Ulster, and perhaps even the coast of Wales. He also came into conflict with rival Norse kings, especially in Cork and he went on pilgrimage to Rome in 1028 and is associated with the foundation of Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin. Although Dublin underwent several reversals of fortune during his reign, on the trade in the city flourished. Sigtrygg was of Norse and Irish ancestry and he was a son of Olaf Cuarán, King of York and of Dublin, and Gormflaith ingen Murchada. Gormflaith was the daughter of the King of Leinster, Murchad mac Finn, and she had previously been married to the King of Meath and High King of Ireland, Máel Sechnaill — the first of her three husbands. Sigtryggs paternal half-brother was Glúniairn, Iron-knee, who ruled as King of Dublin from 980–989, Sigtrygg may have succeeded his paternal half-brother Glúniairn as king of Dublin in 989, but it is just as likely his rival Ivar of Waterford came to power in the city then. The Irish annals record little information about Sigtrygg, his family or Dublin during these first five years of his reign. Benjamin Hudson claims this was because of the arrival of the future King of Norway, Olaf Tryggvason, Tryggvason had met Gytha while raiding along the coasts of the Irish Sea. The presence of a powerful Viking leader in Dublin was a deterrent to Irish raids, Hudson argues that Tryggvasons return to Norway in 994 coincided with the temporary expulsion of Sigtrygg from Dublin by his rival Ivar of Waterford. Ivar may have ruled there from 989 until forced out by Sigtrygg in 993. Either way, Sigtrygg was back within a year, in 995, he and his nephew, Muirchertach Ua Congalaich, attacked the church at Donaghpatrick in County Meath. In retaliation, Máel Sechnaill entered Dublin and took the ring of Thor, Sigtrygg then attacked Kells and Clonard in 997. In 998, Máel Sechnaill and the King of Munster, Brian Boru, Sigtrygg realised that Dublins wealth made him a target, and that his city needed powerful allies and walls. The Dublin countryside did not provide sufficient resources for competition against powerful Irish princes, Sigtrygg first allied with his maternal uncle, Máel Mórda mac Murchada, King of the Uí Fáeláin of north Leinster. In 999, they defeated their cousin the King of Leinster Donnchad mac Domhnaill, late in 999, the Leinstermen, historically hostile to domination by either the Uí Néill overkings or the king of Munster, allied themselves with the Norse of Dublin and revolted against Brian Boru
7.
Echmarcach mac Ragnaill
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Echmarcach mac Ragnaill was a dominant figure in the eleventh-century Irish Sea region. At his height, he reigned as king over Dublin, the Isles, the precise identity of Echmarcachs father, Ragnall, is uncertain. One possibility is that man was one of two eleventh-century rulers of Waterford. Another possibility is that Echmarcachs father was an early ruler of the Isles. If any of these identifications are correct, Echmarcach may have been a member of the Uí Ímair kindred, Echmarcach first appears on record in about 1031, when he was one of three kings in northern Britain who submitted to Knútr Sveinnsson, ruler of the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire. Echmarcach is recorded to have ruled over Dublin in 1036–1038 and 1046–1052, after losing Dublin for the final time, he appears to have been seated in the Isles on Mann. In 1061, about a decade after his defeat in Dublin, Echmarcach appears to have been expelled from the Isles. Echmarcach appears to have forged an alliance with the powerful Uí Briain, a leading member of this kindred, Donnchad mac Briain, King of Munster, was married to Cacht ingen Ragnaill, a woman who could have been closely related to Echmarcach. Certainly, Echmarcachs daughter, Mór, married one of Donnchads Uí Briain close kinsmen, Echmarcachs violent career brought him into bitter conflict with a particular branch of the Uí Ímair who had held Dublin periodically from the early eleventh century. This branch was supported by the rising Uí Cheinnselaig, an Irish kindred responsible for Echmarcachs final expulsion from Dublin, possibly aged about sixty-five at this point in his life, it was here that Echmarcach died, in either 1064 or 1065. In the decades following his demise, the Uí Briain used Echmarcachs descendants as a means to dominate and control Dublin, one of his grandsons eventually ruled as king. Echmarcach was the son of a man named Ragnall, whilst Echmarcach bore a Gaelic name, the name of his father is ultimately derived from Old Norse, a fact that serves to exemplify the hybrid nature of the eleventh-century Irish Sea region. The identity of Echmarcachs father is uncertain, one possibility is that Ragnall was a member of the dynasty that ruled the Norse-Gaelic enclave of Waterford in tenth- and eleventh centuries. If so, Echmarcach may have been the son of one of two Waterfordian rulers, Ragnall mac Ímair, King of Waterford, or this mans apparent son, Ragnall ua Ímair, King of Waterford. As a descendant of either of the families, Echmarcach would appear to have been a member of the Uí Ímair. The event itself is noted by Knútsdrápa, a contemporary drápa composed by Sigvatr Þórðarson, although Sigvatrs composition fails to identify the three kings by name, it does reveal that Knútr met them in Fife. The ninth–twelfth-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also notes the meeting, the D version of the chronicle records that Knútr went to Rome in 1031, and soon after travelled to Scotland where he received the submission of an unnamed Scottish king. The latter name appears to be a form of the Gaelic Echmarcach
8.
Cathedral
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A cathedral is a Christian church which contains the seat of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. The counterpart term for such a church in German is Dom from Latin domus ecclesiae or domus episcopalis, also Italian Duomo, Dutch Domkerk, when the church at which an archbishop or metropolitan presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikos naos is used. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts, consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations. In the Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly applies only to a church houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbacy serves the same function, the Catholic Church also uses the following terms. A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of a diocese is under construction, renovation and this designation applies only as long as the temporary use continues. A co-cathedral is a cathedral in a diocese that has two sees. A proto-cathedral is the cathedral of a transferred see. The cathedral church of a bishop is called the metropolitan cathedral. The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, nevertheless, most cathedrals are particularly impressive edifices. The building is now under renovation and restoration for solemn dedication under the title Christ Cathedral in 2018, in the ancient world the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishops role as teacher. A raised throne within a hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate. The history of cathedrals starts in the year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity, in the third century, the phrase ascending the platform, ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a bank, surviving when excavated. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all, in 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter. Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which remains are still visible is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. The three halls create a courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery
9.
Tornado
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A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 feet across, the most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour, are more than two miles in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles. Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout, waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water and these spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica, however, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes, the Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, an F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes, Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is a form of the Spanish word tronada. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning to thunder and it most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar, however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also referred to as a twister, and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term cyclone is used as a synonym for tornado in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the term twister is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister. A tornado is a rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a definition of the word, for example. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud and this results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of cloud and condensation funnel
10.
Ardee
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Ardee is a town and townland in County Louth, Ireland. It is located at the intersection of the N2, N52, Ardee is on the banks of the River Dee and is equidistant between the countys two biggest towns - approximately 20 km from Dundalk and Drogheda, while it is also close to Slane and Carrickmacross. Ferdia fell after four days of battle, and is buried on the banks of the river alongside the Riverside Walk. The pair are now depicted by a statue on Bridge Street in the town. Ardee is situated in the part of the ancient territory known as the Plain of Muirheimhne. The town lies along the 15th century Pale frontier between Dundalk and Kells, to the west of the town is the Great Bog of Ardee, one of the most easterly raised bogs in Ireland. Away from Ardee’s place in folklore, Ardee Castle in the town is the largest fortified medieval tower house in Ireland. Built circa 15th century, the castle was used as a prison during the 17th and 18th centuries, Ardee is a prime example of a medieval ‘walled town’, many of which can be found across Ireland. With its distinctive, central Main Street and long narrow properties extending away from the street on either side. This identity is enhanced further by surviving medieval buildings – as mentioned above – and some of the features that survive within the town, notably the intact medieval street pattern. Ardee is home to more historic buildings and structures – including Kildemock’s Jumping Church, Hatch’s Castle, Chantry College, St Joseph’s Hospital, Convent of Mercy. Legend has it that the Jumping Church at Kildemock had a non-Christian buried inside the Church walls, Ardee railway station, serving the town, was previously linked to the main Belfast-Dublin railway line at Dromin Junction station, along a five mile long branch line. Ardee railway station opened on 1 August,1896 and passenger services ended on 3 June,1934, the line continued as a freight service until finally closed on 3 November,1976, serving the local fertilizer factory, sugar beet and livestock transport. The trackbed was lifted in the late 1980s, and much of the route is now a designated walkway. Ardees transport network now consists of the N2, which runs directly through the town, and the M1 motorway, Ardee has grown much in the last 15 years, mainly as a result of easy access to new roads including the M1 motorway which links Dublin to Belfast. The development of the resulted in a dramatic rise in house prices in the area. This development caused a growth in industrial businesses being established in, Ardee Castle in the town has been recently been refurbished and was used to house the district courthouse, before it was moved and it is now housed in the new Civic Offices Complex at the Fair Green. The ancient townhouse is currently not open to the public but moves are being made by Louth County Council to open it on a permanent basis, in 2015, it was announced that €1.2 million would be earmarked for development on the ancient townhouse
