1.
14th century
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As a means of recording the passage of time, the 14th century was the century lasting from January 1,1301, to December 31,1400. Political and natural disasters ravaged Europe, as well as the four khanates of the Mongol Empire and this period is considered the height of chivalry and marks the beginning of strong separate identities for both England and France. The transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, beginning of the Ottoman Empire, early expansion into the Balkans. Early 14th century, Attributed to Kao Ninga Monk Sewing is made and it is now kept at The Cleveland Museum of Art. 1309, King Jayanegara succeeds Kertarajasa Jayawardhana as ruler of Majapahit, the Avignon papacy transfers the seat of the Popes from Italy to France The Great Famine of 1315-1317 kills millions of people in Europe. 1318, an Italian Franciscan monk, Mattiussi visited Sumatra, Java, in his record he described Majapahit kingdom. 1323, Malietoafaiga ordered cannibalism to be abolished in Tutuila, now known as American Samoa,1325, Forced out of previous locations, the Mexica found the city of Tenochtitlan 1328, Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi succeeds Jayanegara as ruler of Majapahit. Beginning of the Renaissance in Italy The death of the Ilkhan Abu Said in 1335, the Vijayanagara Empire is founded in South India by Harihara in 1336 The Hundred Years War begins when Edward III of England lays claim to the French throne. The French recruit troops and ships in Genoa, Monaco, Black Death kills around a third of the population of Europe. 1347, Adityawarman moved the capital of Dharmasraya and established the kingdom of Malayupura in Pagarruyung,1350, Hayam Wuruk, styled Sri Rajasanagara, succeeds Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi as ruler of Majapahit, his reign is considered the empires Golden Age. Under its military commander Gajah Mada, Majapahit stretches over much of modern-day Indonesia,1357, In the Battle of Bubat, the Sundanese royal family were massacred by the Majapahit army under the order of Gajah Mada. The death toll including Sundanese King Lingga Buana and the princess Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi that committed suicide,1365, The Old Javanese text Nagarakertagama is written. The end of Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty The Lollardy movement rises in England 1377, palembangs prince, Parameswara flees, eventually finding his way to Malacca and establishing it as a major international port. The Great Schism of the West begins in 1378, eventually leading to 3 simultaneous popes, singapore emerges for the first time as a fortified city and trading centre of some importance. Reunification of Poland under Władysław I of Poland Ciompi Revolt in Florence Peasants Revolt in England Islam reaches Terengganu, the Hausa found several city-states in the south of modern Niger. The Mali Empire expands westward and conquers Tekrur, the Scots win the Scottish Wars of Independence. 1392, Taejo of Joseon established Joseon Dynasty The Kalmar Union is established in 1397, uniting Norway, Sweden, iwan vault, Jamé Mosque of Isfahan, Isfahan, Persia, is built. Work begins on the Great Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe, built of un-cemented, dressed stone, the citys population is now between 10,000 and 40,000
2.
15th century
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The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian years 1400 to 1500. In Europe, the 15th century is seen as the bridge between the Late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance, and the Early modern period. Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding the European miracle of the following centuries, in religious history, the Roman Papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades, until the Council of Constance. The division of the Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the Hussite movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the following century. The event forced Western Europeans to find a new route, adding further momentum to what was the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Explorations by the Spanish and Portuguese led to European sightings of the Americas and these expeditions ushered in the era of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires. The fall of Constantinople led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy and these two events played key roles in the development of the Renaissance. The Spanish Reconquista leads to the fall of the Emirate of Granada by the end of the century, ending over seven centuries of Muslim rule. The Hundred Years War end with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon, financial troubles in England following the conflict results in the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts ends with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field, establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century. In Asia, under the rule of the Yongle Emperor, who built the Forbidden City and commanded Zheng He to explore the world overseas, tamerlane established a major empire in the Middle East and Central Asia, in order to revive the Mongol Empire. In Africa, the spread of Islam leads to the destruction of the Christian kingdoms of Nubia, the formerly vast Mali Empire teeters on the brink of collapse, under pressure from the rising Songhai Empire. In the Americas, both the Inca Empire and the Aztec Empire reach the peak of their influence, 1400s 1401, Dilawar Khan establishes the Malwa Sultanate in present-day central India 1402, Ottoman and Timurid Empires fight at the Battle of Ankara resulting in Timurs capture of Bayezid I. 1402, Sultanate of Malacca founded by Parameshwara,1403, The Yongle Emperor moves the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. 1403, The settlement of the Canary Islands signals the beginning of the Spanish Empire, 1405–1433, Zheng He of China sails through the Indian Ocean to India, Arabia, and East Africa to spread Chinas influence and sovereignty. 1405, Paregreg war, Majapahit civil war of succession between Wikramawardhana against Wirabhumi, 1405–1407, The first voyage of Zheng He, a massive Ming dynasty naval expedition visited Java, Palembang, Malacca, Aru, Samudera and Lambri. 1410s 1410, The Battle of Grunwald is the battle of the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War leading to the downfall of the Teutonic Knights. 1410–1413, Foundation of St Andrews University in Scotland,1414, Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan, takes over Delhi founding the Sayyid dynasty
3.
16th century
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The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1500 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600. It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred, during the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the worlds seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a blow to the authority of the papacy. European politics became dominated by conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting, in United Kingdom, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent and his rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. These events directly challenged the notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle. Polybius The Histories translated into Italian, English, German and French, medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia, is made. It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum,1500, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born. 1500, Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism,1500, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal,1500, The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto. 1501, Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David,1501, Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam,1502, First reported African slaves in The New World 1503, Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan 1503, Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms,1503, Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503, Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21,1504, A period of drought, with famine in all of Spain. 1504, Death of Isabella I of Castile, Joanna of Castille became the Queen,1505, Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty
4.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
5.
Danish literature
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Danish literature, a subset of Scandinavian literature, stretches back to the Middle Ages. The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on stones and other objects. In the late 12th century Saxo Grammaticus wrote Gesta Danorum, during the 16th century, the Lutheran Reformation came to Denmark. During this era, Christiern Pedersen translated the New Testament into Danish, fine poetry was created in the early 17th century by Anders Arrebo. The challenges faced during Denmarks absolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled in Jammersminde by Leonora Christina of the Blue Tower, ludvig Holberg, influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and Humanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French, German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such as Johannes Ewald and Jens Baggesen. Other 18th century writers include the hymn writer Hans Adolph Brorson, during Denmarks Golden Age, literature centred on Romantic thinking, with authors such as philosopher Henrik Steffens and the poet Bernhard Severin Ingemann. One of the most important figures in Danish literary culture was Nikolaj Grundtvig, Hans Christian Andersen is remembered first and foremost for his fairy tales, written between 1835 and 1872. Søren Kierkegaard was an existentialist philosopher and a theologian, Modern Breakthrough was a strong Scandinavian movement covering naturalism and debating literature towards the end of the 19th century, led by Georg Brandes. Henrik Pontoppidan became a Nobel prize winner in 1917 for his descriptions of present-day life in Denmark. Jens Peter Jacobsen began the naturalist movement in Denmark with his romantic, melancholic poems, other writers include Holger Drachmann, Herman Bang, and Sophus Schandorph. The 20th century began with reactions against the naturalist movement, moving instead towards nationalism, a national conservative trend was embodied in the works of Kaj Munk and Valdemar Rørdam. Modern realism was practiced by Bang and J. P. Jacobsen, social realism was practiced by Hans Kirk and Martin Andersen Nexø. Jeppe Aakjær, Johannes Jørgensen and Nobel prize-winner Johannes V. Jensen brought a new dimension to Danish literature, karen Blixen, who also used the penname Isak Dinesen is notable for her memoir Out of Africa. In general, the trade continues to thrive in Denmark despite recent problems triggered by the current economic crisis. The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on memorial stones, some of them contain short poems in alliterative verse. Saxos work is an important primary source for the study of Scandinavian myths, other medieval literary works include the Danish ballads, recorded since the 16th century by aristocratic ladies in their manuscript albums. These led to the Book of a Hundred Ballads published by Anders Sørensen Vedel, Collection Tragica by Metter Gøya, the 16th century brought the Lutheran Reformation to Denmark and a new period in the nations literature
6.
Swedish literature
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Swedish literature refers to literature written in the Swedish language or by writers from Sweden. The first literary text from Sweden is the Rök Runestone, carved during the Viking Age circa 800 AD, with the conversion of the land to Christianity around 1100 AD, Sweden entered the Middle Ages, during which monastic writers preferred to use Latin. Therefore, there are only a few texts in the Old Swedish from that period, Swedish literature only flourished when the Swedish language was standardized in the 16th century, a standardization largely due to the full translation of the Bible into Swedish in 1541. This translation is the so-called Gustav Vasa Bible, with improved education and the freedom brought by secularisation, the 17th century saw several notable authors develop the Swedish language further. In Sweden, the period starting in 1880 is known as realism because the writing had a focus on social realism. In the late 19th and early 20th century, other writers included Ola Hansson. In the 1900s, one of the earliest novelists was Hjalmar Söderberg, the early 20th century continued to produce notable authors, such as Selma Lagerlöf and Pär Lagerkvist. In the 1960s, Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö collaborated to produce a series of internationally acclaimed detective novels, the most successful writer of detective novels is Henning Mankell, whose works have been translated into 37 languages. In the spy genre, the most successful writer is Jan Guillou. In recent decades, a handful of Swedish writers have established themselves internationally, such as the detective novelist Henning Mankell, also well-known outside of Sweden is the childrens book writer Astrid Lindgren, author of works such as Pippi Longstocking and Emil of Maple Hills. Most runestones had a practical, rather than a literary, purpose and are mainly of interest to historians. Several runic inscriptions are also nonsensical by nature, being used for magical or incantatory purposes, the most notable literary exception is the Rök Runestone from circa 800 AD. It contains the longest known inscription, and encompasses several different passages from sagas and legends, part of it is written in alliterative verse, or fornyrdislag. It is generally regarded as the beginning of Swedish literature, the Christianization of Sweden was one of the main events in the countrys history, and it naturally had an equally profound impact on literature. The Gök runestone is a case in point of how the older literature dissolved and it uses the same imagery as the Ramsund carving, but a Christian cross has been added and the images are combined in a way that completely distorts the internal logic of events. Whatever the reason may have been, the Gök stone illustrates how the pagan heroic mythos was going towards its dissolution, Literature now looked to foreign texts to provide models. By 1200, Christianity was firmly established and a Medieval European culture appeared in Sweden, only a selected few mastered the written language, but little was written down. Complete manuscripts are found from the early 14th century, written in Latin
7.
Christine de Pizan
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Christine de Pizan was an Italian French late medieval author. She served as a writer for several dukes and the French royal court during the reign of Charles VI. She wrote both poetry and prose works such as biographies and books containing practical advice for women and she completed forty-one works during her 30-year career from 1399 to 1429. She married in 1380 at the age of 15, and was widowed 10 years later, much of the impetus for her writing came from her need to earn a living to support her mother, a niece and her two surviving children. She spent most of her childhood and all of her life in Paris and then the abbey at Poissy. Her early courtly poetry is marked by her knowledge of aristocratic custom and fashion of the day, particularly involving women, supported and encouraged by important royal French and English patrons, she influenced 15th-century English poetry. In recent decades, Christine de Pizans work has returned to prominence by the efforts of scholars such as Charity Cannon Willard, Earl Jeffrey Richards. Certain scholars have argued that she should be seen as an early feminist who efficiently used language to convey that women could play an important role within society. This characterization has been challenged by critics, who say that it is either an anachronistic use of the word or a misinterpretation of her writing. Christine de Pizan was born in 1364 in Venice, Italy and she was the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano, a physician, court astrologer, and Councillor of the Republic of Venice. Following her birth, Thomas de Pizan accepted an appointment to the court of Charles V of France, as the astrologer, alchemist. In this atmosphere, Christine was able to pursue her intellectual interests, but she did not assert her intellectual abilities, or establish her authority as a writer until she was widowed at the age of 25. She married Etienne du Castel, a secretary to the court. She had three children, a daughter, a son Jean, and another child who died in childhood, Christines family life was threatened in 1387 when her husband, while in Beauvais on a mission with the king, suddenly died in an epidemic. Following Castels death, she was left to support her mother, a niece, when she tried to collect money from her husbands estate, she faced complicated lawsuits regarding the recovery of salary due her husband. Note that in letters he signed as secretary of the king in 1381 and 1382 the signature of Etienne was Ste de Castel. The abbreviation of his first name could be both as a phonetic abbreviation of Estienne and as the first letters of his name in Latin. In order to support herself and her family, Christine turned to writing, by 1393, she was writing love ballads, which caught the attention of wealthy patrons within the court
8.
John Lydgate
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John Lydgate of Bury was a monk and poet, born in Lidgate, near Haverhill, Suffolk, England. Lydgates poetic output is prodigious, amounting, at a conservative count and he explored and established every major Chaucerian genre, except such as were manifestly unsuited to his profession, like the fabliau. The Siege of Thebes is an excursion in the same field of chivalric epic. In a graffito written towards the end of his life, Lydgate admitted to all manner of childhood sins, I stole apples … I made mouths at people like a wanton ape. I was late to rise and dirty at meals, I was chief shammer of illness. He was admitted to the Benedictine monastery of Bury St Edmunds Abbey in 1382, some time between then and the start of the new century he was at Oxford University, where he may have met his future patron, Henry V. It was during this period that Lydgate wrote his work, Isopes Fabules. Having literary ambitions he sought and obtained patronage for his work at the courts of Henry IV of England, Henry V of England. His patrons included, amongst many others, the mayor and aldermen of London and his main supporter from 1422 was Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. In 1423 Lydgate was made prior of Hatfield Broad Oak, Essex and he soon resigned the office to concentrate on his travels and writing. He was a writer of poems, allegories, fables and romances. The Fall of Princes, is the last and longest of Lydgates works, at one time, the long allegorical poem The Assembly of Gods was attributed to him, but the work is now considered anonymous. Lydgate was also believed to have written London Lickpenny, a satirical work, however. He also translated the poems of Guillaume de Deguileville into English, in his later years he lived and probably died at the monastery of Bury St. Edmunds. At some point in his life he returned to the village of his birth and added his signature, J. Allan Mitchell, ed. John Lydgate, The Temple of Glass. Kalamazoo, MI, Medieval Institute Publications,2007, who lesith his fredam, in soth, he lesith all. Lydgate is also credited with the first known usage of the adage Needs must in its fullest form, shakespeare later uses it in Alls Well That Ends Well. The Online Medieval Sources Bibliography cites printed and online editions of Lydgates works
9.
Pietru Caxaro
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Peter Caxaro was a Maltese philosopher and poet. He is so far Maltas first known philosopher, fragments of works are extant. His philosophical views and positions him as an honourable adherent of the mediaeval humanist movement. His contribution skilfully stands as a reflection of the social and cultural revival of his time. The discovery of the man and his philosophy is immeasurably relevant to further recognition of the tenure of an ancient civilization. No portrait of Caxaro has been found, Peter Caxaro was born of a noble Mdina family in Malta. Unfortunately, the date of his birth is unknown. We might suppose, however, that he was born around the beginning of the 15th century and his fathers name was Leo, and his mothers Zuna. It might be possible that the family was of Jewish descent which had forced to convert to the Catholic faith. It is known one of Caxaros brothers, Nicholas, was killed in 1473 following a brawl with people from Siggiewi, Malta. Caxaro’s first studies were undertaken in Malta, later, he went to Palermo, Sicily, to pursue them further. At the time, Palermo was a flourishing city imbued with the spirit of Renaissance humanism, there, Caxaro completed his studies and became a notary in 1438. A couple of months after his graduation, he was appointed judge at the courts of Gozo for the years 1440-1441, in 1441, he also sat as judge in the courts of Malta, and the similarly in 1475. He was judge at the courts in 1460-1461, 1470–1471 and 1481–1482. Caxaro was also jurat at the Town Council of Mdina in 1452-1453, 1458–1459, 1461–1462, 1469–1470, 1474–1475 and he was a notary or secretary to the same council in 1460 and 1468. He possessed considerable property at the side of Malta, and was the owner of six slaves. During all this time, Caxaro was on good terms with the Dominican friars. These had a monastery at Rabat, Malta, very close to Mdina, Caxaros home-town, the Dominicans had originally arrived in Malta around 1450, and quickly forged good friendships amongst the literary population and professional people, including academics
10.
Il-Kantilena
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Il-Kantilena is the oldest known literary text in the Maltese language. It dates from the 15th century but was not found until 1966 or 1968 by Prof. Godfrey Wettinger, the poem is attributed to Pietru Caxaro, and was recorded by Caxaros nephew, Brandano, in his notarial register. Although written in Maltese, in Latin script, it was a very early Maltese that had not yet been influenced much by Italian or English and this text contains many sorts-Arabic morphemes. The only Romance words are vintura luck, sometimes translated into English as fate, in general, early Maltese texts contain very little non-Semitic vocabulary, even in later texts, poetry tends to use more Semitic vocabulary than general language use. Il Cantilena, How much can a modern Arab decipher is a translation of the Cantilena using similarity to classical and contemporary Arabic, mejju ġie bil-Ward u Zaħar, the second oldest known document in Maltese
11.
Maltese literature
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Maltese literature is any literature originating from Malta or by Maltese writers or literature written in the Maltese language. This article will give an overview of the history of Maltese-language literature, as Maltese evolved after Count Roger I of Sicily ended Arab rule on the island at the end of the 11th century, there was little interest in developing a written form of the language. Initially only the clergy, aristocracy and bourgeoisie were able to read and write, under the Knights of St John both Italian and French were used for official documents and correspondence. During the British colonial period the use of English was encouraged through education and it was not until 1936 that Maltese was recognised as the islands official language. The development of native Maltese literary works has historically been hampered by the diglossia that has characterized the culture of Malta throughout its history. For many centuries, Maltese was known as the language of the kitchen and the workshop, while Italian was the language of education, literature, the arts, law and commerce. Hence, until the early 20th century, the vast majority of works in Malta were written in Italian by the community of Maltese Italians. From 1800 onwards these were supplanted by English. The Maltese language is heavily overlaid with Romance and English influences as a result. The native tongue had only to wait for the arrival of a new mentality which could integrate an unwritten, popular tradition with a written, the earliest known Maltese dictionary was written by Francois de Vion Thezan Court. In 1700, an anonymous Gozitan poet wrote Jaħasra Mingħajr Ħtija, a collection of religious sermons by a certain Dun Ignazio Saverio Mifsud, published between 1739 and 1746, is regarded as the earliest known example of Maltese prose. An anonymous poem entitled Fuqek Nitħaddet Malta, was written c,1749, regarding the Conspiracy of the Slaves. A few years later, in 1752, a catechism entitled Tagħlim Nisrani ta Dun Franġisk Wizzino was published in both Maltese and Italian, the occasion of Carnival in 1760 saw the publication of a collection of burlesque verses under the heading Żwieġ la Maltija, by Dun Feliċ Demarco. A child of the Romantic movement, Maltese patriot Mikiel Anton Vassalli hailed the emergence of literary Maltese as one of the ancient patrimonies. The first translation into Maltese of a text, the Gospel of St. John, was published in 1822. The first Maltese language newspaper, l-Arlekkin Jew Kawlata Ingliża u Maltija appeared in 1839, the first epic poem in Maltese, Il-Ġifen Tork, by Giovanni Antonio Vassallo, was published in 1842, followed by Ħrejjef bil-Malti and Ħrejjef u Ċajt bil-Malti in 1861 and 1863 respectively. The same author published the first history book in the Maltese language entitled Storja ta’ Malta Miktuba għall-Poplu in 1862,1863 saw the publication of the first novel in Maltese, Elvira Jew Imħabba ta’ Tirann by the Neapolitan author, Giuseppe Folliero de Luna. Bonello The Cantilena is the oldest written text known to exist in Maltese, dating no later than 1485, the death of Pietru Caxaro
12.
Bengal
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Bengal is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, in 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal, the predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Dense woodlands, including rainforests, cover Bengals northern and eastern areas. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the worlds largest mangrove forest, in the coastal southeast lies Coxs Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km. The region has a climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons. Bengal has played a role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations, at times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine. The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong. The term Bangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records, the modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery, most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, the total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 and Bangladesh 147,570 km2. The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres above the sea level, because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres, a major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered, West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south
13.
Arakida Moritake
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Arakida Moritake was a Japanese poet who excelled in the fields of waka, renga, and in particular haikai. He was the son of Negi Morihide, and a Shintoist, at the age of 69, he became head priest of the Inner Ise Shrine. Moritakes most famous poem, A fallen blossom returning to the bough, I thought -- But no, wikilivres has original media or text related to this article, Arakida Moritake A history of Japanese literature
14.
Shinto
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Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified Shinto religion, practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods. The word Shinto was adopted, originally as Jindō or Shindō, from the written Chinese Shendao, the oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as spirits, essences or gods, Kami and people are not separate, they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, Shinto has 81,000 shrines and 85,000 priests in the country. According to Inoue, In modern scholarship, the term is used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals. In these contexts, Shinto takes on the meaning of Japans traditional religion, as opposed to religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam. Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories, Shrine Shinto and it consists in taking part in worship practices and events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions usually attached to Buddhist temples, the current successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80,000 shrines nationwide. Folk Shinto includes the folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing, some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions. Sect Shinto is a designation originally created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities. These communities originated especially in the Edo period, the basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a later development and grew self-consciously. They can identify a founder, a set of teachings. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, and usually classified under five headings, pure Shinto sects, Confucian sects, mountain worship sects, purification sects, and faith-healing sects. Koshintō, literally Old Shinto, is a reconstructed Shinto from before the time of Buddhism, today based on Ainu religion and it continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane. Many other sects and schools can be distinguished, Kami or shin is defined in English as god, spirit, spiritual essence, all these terms meaning the energy generating a thing. Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms, rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami
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Waka (poetry)
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Waka is a type of poetry in classical Japanese literature. Waka are composed in Japanese, and are contrasted with poetry composed by Japanese poets in Classical Chinese, although waka in modern Japanese is written as 和歌, in the past it was also written as 倭歌, and a variant name is yamato-uta. As a result, the word waka became effectively synonymous with tanka, tanka consist of five lines of 5-7-5-7-7 on or syllabic units. Therefore, tanka is sometimes called Misohitomoji, meaning it contains 31 syllables in total. The term waka originally encompassed a number of differing forms, principally tanka and chōka and these last three forms, however, fell into disuse at the beginning of the Heian period, and chōka vanished soon afterwards. Thus, the term came in time to refer only to tanka. Chōka consist of 5-7 on phrases repeated at least twice,802, which is of a pattern 5-7 5-7 5-7 5-7-7. Since then, the term waka came to be almost synonymous with tanka. Famous examples of works are the diaries of Ki no Tsurayuki and Izumi Shikibu, as well as such collections of poem tales as The Tales of Ise. Lesser forms of waka featured in the Manyōshū and other ancient sources exist, besides that, there were many other forms like, Bussokusekika, This form carved on a slab of slate – the Buddha footprint or bussokuseki – at the Yakushi-ji temple in Nara. Sedōka, The Manyōshū and Kokinshū recorded this form, katauta, The Manyōshū recorded this form. Waka has a history, first recorded in the early 8th century in the Kojiki. In literary historian Donald Keenes books, he uses four large categories, Early, the most ancient waka were recorded in the historical record the Kojiki and the 20 volumes of the Manyōshū, the oldest surviving waka anthology. The editor of the Manyōshū is anonymous, but it is believed that the editor was Ōtomo no Yakamochi. He was a poet who belonged to the youngest generation represented in the anthology, indeed. The first waka of volume 1 was by Emperor Ōjin, nukata no Ōkimi, Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, Yamabe no Akahito, Yamanoue no Okura, Ōtomo no Tabito and his son Yakamochi were the greatest poets in this anthology. The Manyōshū recorded not only the works of the royalty and nobility, the main topics of the Manyōshū were love, sadness, and other miscellaneous topics. But in the 9th century, Japan stopped sending official envoys to Tang dynasty China and it was presented to the emperor in 905. Rise of Japanese national culture The first three chokusenshū The first three imperially-commissioned waka anthologies were the Kokin Wakashū, the Gosen Wakashū and the Shūi Wakashū
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1481
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Year 1481 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar). May 3 – Mehmed II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire dies and is succeeded by his son Bayezid II, may 21 – Christian I, King of Denmark and Norway dies and is succeeded by his son John. June 21 – The papal bull Aeterni regis grants all land south of the Canary Islands to Portugal, august 29 – John II of Portugal starts to rule in his own right. September 10 – Alphonso II of Naples recaptures the city of Otranto, december 26 – Battle of Westbroek, Holland defeats the troops of Utrecht. The Constitució de lObservança was approved by the Catalan Courts, establishing the submission of power to the laws of the Principality of Catalonia. With the death of Duke Charles IV of Anjou, Anjou reverts to the French crown under Louis XI of France, symeon I succeeds Maximus III as Patriarch of Constantinople. Ludovico Sforza emerges as Regent of Milan, axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan, dies and is succeeded by his brother Tízoc. Fribourg and Solothurn become Cantons of Switzerland, fire destroys the roof and the spires of the Notre-Dame de Reims cathedral. The Aztec Calendar Stone or Sun Stone is carved
17.
Rinzai
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The Rinzai school is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism. Rinzai is the Japanese line of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang Dynasty by Linji Yixuan, though there were several attempts to establish Rinzai lines in Japan, it first took root in a lasting way through the efforts of the monk Myōan Eisai. In 1168, Myōan Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years, in 1187, he went to China again, and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which is known in Japan as Rinzai. Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the time during which Rinzai Zen was established in Japan also saw the rise of the samurai to power. Along with early support, Rinzai came to enjoy the patronage of this newly ascendant warrior class. During the Muromachi period, the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools because it was favoured by the Shogun. The school may be said to have flowered and achieved a distinctly Japanese identity with Shūhō Myōchō and Musō Soseki. In the beginning of the Muromachi period, the Five Mountain System system was worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura, presided over by Nanzen-ji, a second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, the monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shogun for the governing of state affairs. Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence. The Ōtōkan lineage, which centered on Daitoku-ji, also had a degree of freedom. It was founded by Nanpo Shōmyō, Shūhō Myōchō, and Kanzan Egen, a well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū. Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher, by the 18th century, the Rinzai school had entered a period of stagnation and decline. At that time, the monk Hakuin Ekaku became prominent as a revitalizer and organizer of Rinzai Zen, Hakuins systemization of the kōan training system serves today as the framework of formal Rinzai practice. All contemporary Rinzai-lineages stem from Inzan Ien and Takujū Kosen, both students of Gasan Jitō, Gasan is considered to be a dharma heir of Hakuin, though he did not belong to the close circle of disciples and was probably not even one of Hakuins dharma heirs. Through Hakuin, all contemporary Japanese Rinzai-lineages are part of the lineage, brought to Japan in 1267 by Nanpo Jomyo
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Japanese tea ceremony
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The Japanese tea ceremony, also called the Way of Tea, is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha, powdered green tea. In Japanese, it is called chanoyu or sadō, chadō, while the manner in which it is performed, Zen Buddhism was a primary influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. Much less commonly, Japanese tea ceremony uses leaf tea, primarily sencha, in case it is known in Japanese as senchadō as opposed to chanoyu or chadō, see sencha tea ceremony. Tea gatherings are classified as a tea gathering chakai and a formal tea gathering chaji. A chakai is a simple course of hospitality that includes confections, thin tea. A chaji is a more formal gathering, usually including a full-course kaiseki meal followed by confections, thick tea. A chaji can last up to four hours, chadō is counted as one of the three classical Japanese arts of refinement, along with kōdō for incense appreciation, and kadō for flower arrangement. The first documented evidence of tea in Japan dates to the 9th century, the entry in the Nihon Kōki states that Eichū personally prepared and served sencha to Emperor Saga who was on an excursion in Karasaki in the year 815. It was practiced by Japanese nobles, by imperial order in the year 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan. However, the interest in tea in Japan faded after this, in China, tea had already been known, according to legend, for more than a thousand years. The form of tea popular in China in Eichūs time was cake tea or brick tea —tea compressed into a nugget in the manner as Pu-erh. This then would be ground in a mortar, and the resulting ground tea mixed together various other herbs. The custom of drinking tea, first for medicinal, and then largely also for reasons, was already widespread throughout China. In the early 9th century, Chinese author Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, Lu Yus life had been heavily influenced by Buddhism, particularly the Zen–Chán school. His ideas would have an influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. He also took tea seeds back with him, which eventually produced tea that was considered to be the most superb quality in all of Japan and this powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals in Buddhist monasteries. This period, approximately 1336 to 1573, saw the budding of what is regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a practice, and began to evolve its own aesthetic
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Anime
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Anime is Japanese hand-drawn or computer animation. The word is the pronunciation of animation in Japanese, where this term references all animation. Arguably, the abstract approach to the words meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product, some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of orientalism. The earliest commercial Japanese animation dates to 1917, and Japanese anime production has continued to increase steadily. Anime is distributed theatrically, by way of television broadcasts, directly to home media and it is classified into numerous genres targeting diverse broad and niche audiences. Anime is an art form with distinctive production methods and techniques that have been adapted over time in response to emergent technologies. It consists of an ideal story-telling mechanism, combining art, characterization, cinematography. The production of anime focuses less on the animation of movement and more on the realism of settings as well as the use of effects, including panning, zooming. Being hand-drawn, anime is separated from reality by a gap of fiction that provides an ideal path for escapism that audiences can immerse themselves into with relative ease. Diverse art styles are used and character proportions and features can be quite varied, the anime industry consists of over 430 production studios, including major names like Studio Ghibli, Gainax, and Toei Animation. Despite comprising only a fraction of Japans domestic film market, anime makes up a majority of Japanese DVD sales and it has also seen international success after the rise of English-dubbed programming. This rise in popularity has resulted in non-Japanese productions using the anime art style. Anime is an art form, specifically animation, that all genres found in cinema. In Japanese, the term refers to all forms of animation from around the world. In English, anime is more used to denote a Japanese-style animated film or television entertainment or as a style of animation created in Japan. The etymology of the anime is disputed. The English term animation is written in Japanese katakana as アニメーション and is アニメ in its shortened form, in English, anime—when used as a common noun—normally functions as a mass noun
