1.
16th century
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The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1500 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600. It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred, during the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the worlds seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a blow to the authority of the papacy. European politics became dominated by conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting, in United Kingdom, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent and his rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. These events directly challenged the notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle. Polybius The Histories translated into Italian, English, German and French, medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia, is made. It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum,1500, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born. 1500, Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism,1500, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal,1500, The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto. 1501, Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David,1501, Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam,1502, First reported African slaves in The New World 1503, Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan 1503, Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms,1503, Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503, Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21,1504, A period of drought, with famine in all of Spain. 1504, Death of Isabella I of Castile, Joanna of Castille became the Queen,1505, Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty
2.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
3.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
4.
1640s
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February 9 – Ibrahim I succeeds Murad IV as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. March 8–13 – Siege of Galle, Dutch troops take the fortress at Galle on Sri Lanka from the Portuguese. April 13 – The Short Parliament assembles as King Charles I of England attempts to fund the second of the Bishops Wars, may 5 – The Short Parliament is dissolved. May 22 – Catalan Revolt breaks out in Catalonia, august 9 – Forty-one Spanish delegates to Japan at Nagasaki are beheaded. August 20 – Second Bishops War, A Scottish Covenanter army invades Northumberland in England, august 28 – Second Bishops War, Battle of Newburn – The Scottish Covenanter army led by Alexander Leslie defeats the English army near Newburn in England. September – Sebastien Manrique reaches Dhaka, october 26 – The Treaty of Ripon is signed, restoring peace between the Scottish Covenanters and Charles I of England. November 3 – The English Long Parliament is summoned, the Spanish Habsburgs do not recognize Portugals new dynasty, the House of Braganza, until the end of the Portuguese Restoration War in 1668. Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg starts to rule, the first university in Finland, the Academy of Åbo, is founded in Turku. The first book to be printed in North America is published, the first known European coffeehouse opens in Venice. January 4 – Major eruption of the stratovolcano Mount Parker, january 18 – Pau Claris proclaims the Catalan Republic. February 16 – King Charles I of England gives his assent to the Triennial Act, July 5 The Norwegian city of Kristiansand is founded by King Christian IV of Denmark. In England, the Long Parliament abolishes the Court of Star Chamber, July 12 – Portugal and the Dutch Republic sign a Treaty of Offensive and Defensive Alliance at The Hague. The treaty is not respected by both parties and as a consequence has no effect in the Portuguese colonies that are under Dutch rule, august 10 – Charles I of England flees London for the north. October 23 – Irish Rebellion of 1641 breaks out, Irish Catholic gentry, chiefly in Ulster, revolt against the English administration, october 24 – The Irish rebel Sir Felim ONeill of Kinard issues the Proclamation of Dungannon. November 4 – Battle of Cape St Vincent, A Dutch fleet, with Michiel de Ruyter as third in command, November 22 – The Long Parliament of England passes the Grand Remonstrance, part of a series of legislation designed to contain Charles Is absolutist tendencies. The Dutch found a colony on Dejima, near Nagasaki. Portugal is ousted from Malacca by the Dutch, moses Amyrauts De lelevation de la foy et de labaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion is published. René Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy is originally published, the town of Falun in Sweden is given city rights by Queen Kristina
5.
1650s
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April 27 – Battle of Carbisdale, A Royalist army invades mainland Scotland from the Orkney Islands but is defeated by a Covenanter army. May – The New Model Army is decimated at the Siege of Clonmel, june 9 – The Harvard Corporation, the more powerful of the two administrative boards of Harvard, is established. June 23 – Claimant King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland arrives in Scotland, august 23 – Colonel George Monck forms Moncks Regiment of Foot, forerunner of the Coldstream Guards. September 3 – Third English Civil War, Battle of Dunbar, september 27 – The Kolumbo volcano on Santorini experiences a massive eruption. September 29 – Henry Robinson opens his Office of Addresses and Encounters in Threadneedle Street, november 4 – William III of Orange becomes Prince of the House of Orange the moment of his birth, succeeding his father who had died a few days earlier. He doesnt become stadtholder, so the United Provinces becomes a true republic, December 25 – Thomas Cooper, former Usher of Greshams School, England, is hanged as a Royalist rebel. The first modern Palio horserace is held in Siena, puritans chop down the original Glastonbury Thorn. Captain James Hind makes an attempt to seize power in England. Jews are allowed to return to France and England, cafés begin to become popular in Europe. Three-wheeled wheelchairs are invented in Nuremberg by watchmaker Stephan Farffler, ann Greene, who had been hanged for infanticide in Oxford wakes up on an autopsy table, she is pardoned. Ethiopia deports Portuguese diplomats and missionaries, einkommende Zeitungen becomes the first German newspaper. The town of Sharon, Massachusetts is founded, estimation, Istanbul becomes the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Beijing. Jan Antonín Losy, Czech lutist is born, january 1 – Charles II is crowned King of Scots at Scone. February 22 – St. Peters Flood – First storm tide in the North Sea strikes the coast of Germany, the island of Juist is split in half and the western half of Buise is probably washed away. March 4–5 – St. Peters Flood – Another storm tide in the North Sea strikes the Netherlands, september 3 – English Civil War – Battle of Worcester, the future King Charles II of England is defeated in the last major battle of the war. October – An English diplomatic team headed by Oliver St John goes to The Hague to negotiate an alliance between the Commonwealth of England and the Dutch Republic, october 14 – Laws are passed in Massachusetts forbidding poor people from adopting excessive styles of dress. October 15–16 – Escape of Charles II from England to France, December 17 – Castle Cornet in Guernsey, the last stronghold which had supported the King in the Third English Civil War, surrenders. The Keian Uprising fails in Japan, madanmohan-jiu Temple built at Samta, a village in the Howrah district of West Bengal
6.
1680s
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January, King Amangkurat II of Mataram personally stabbed Trunajaya, who had led a failed rebellion against Mataram, during a ceremonial visit. February – The Reverend Ralph Davenant dies, leaving £100 in his will to start up a new school for the boys of Whitechapel. May – The volcano Krakatoa erupts, probably on a small scale. July 8 – The first documented tornado in America kills a servant at Cambridge, August 21 – Pueblo Revolt, Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe from the Spanish. August 24 – Comédie-Française is founded by decree of Louis XIV of France as La maison de Molière in Paris, november 14 – The Great Comet of 1680 is first sighted. November 17 – Whigs organize processions to burn effigies of the pope in London, chambers of Reunion decide on complete annexation of Alsace. The first Portuguese governor is appointed to Macau, the Swedish city of Karlskrona is founded, as the Royal Swedish Navy relocates there. January 3 – Treaty of Bakhchisarai between the Ottoman vassal Crimean Khanate and the Russian Empire, march 4 – Charles II of England grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania. April – Following the death of its last count, the Palatinate-Landsberg passes to the King of Sweden, may 15 – The Canal du Midi in France is opened officially as the Canal Royal de Languedoc. August 12 – The Ahom King Gadadhar Singha or Gadapani, who takes the Tai name Supaatphaa, August 31 – English perjurer Titus Oates is told to leave his state apartments in Whitehall, his fame begins to wane and he is soon arrested and imprisoned for sedition. September 30 – France annexes the city of Strasbourg, previously an imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. October 28 – A London woman is publicly flogged for the crime of involving herself in politics, December 22 – King Charles II of England signs a warrant for the building of the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London for wounded and retired soldiers. Collections are made in England for needy French refugees, the bell Emmanuel in Notre Dame de Paris is recast. The Port of Honfleur in France is re-modelled by Abraham Duquesne, the basilica of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice, designed by Baldassarre Longhena in 1631, is dedicated. Possible date – The last dodo bird is killed, march 11 – Work begins on construction of the Royal Hospital Chelsea for old soldiers in London, England. April 7 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, exploring rivers in America, reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River. April 9 – At the mouth of the Mississippi River, near modern Venice, Louisiana, Robert de La Salle buries an engraved plate, may 6 – Louis XIV of France moves his court to Versailles. May 7 – The reign of Peter the Great officially begins in Russia, may 11 – Moscow Uprising of 1682, A mob takes over the Kremlin and lynches the leading boyars and military commanders
7.
1690s
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January 6 – Joseph, son of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes King of the Romans. January 7 – The first recorded full peal is rung, at St Sepulchre-without-Newgate in the City of London, January 14 – The clarinet is said to have been invented in Nuremberg, Germany. February 3 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony issues the first paper money in North America, may 20 – England passes the Act of Grace, forgiving followers of the deposed James II. June 14 – King William III of England lands in Ireland to confront James II, June 8 – Siddi general Yadi Sakat razes the Mazagon Fort in Mumbai. July 10 – Anglo-Dutch navy defeated by the French in the Battle of Beachy Head, july 11 – Battle of the Boyne, north of Dublin. King William III of England defeats the deposed James II who returns to exile in France, the rebellion in Ireland continues for a further year until the Orange army gains full control. July 26 – French landing party raids and burns Teignmouth in Devon, however, with the loss of James IIs position in Ireland, any plans for a real invasion are soon shelved and Teignmouth is the last-ever French attack on England. September 25 – The only issue of Publick Occurrences is published in Boston, Massachusetts, October 6–12 October – Massachusetts Puritans led by Sir William Phips besiege the city of Quebec. October 8 – Ottomans recapture Belgrade during Great Turkish War, november 17 – Barclays Is founded in London, England. December – Earliest recorded sighting of the planet Uranus, by John Flamsteed, december 29 – An earthquake hits Ancona in the Papal States of Italy. Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III Carnojevic leads the first of the two Great Serbian Migrations into the Habsburg Empire, following Ottoman atrocities in Kosovo, the Hearth Tax is abolished in Scotland, one year after its abolition in England and Wales. Giovanni Domenico Cassini observes differential rotation within Jupiters atmosphere, arcangelo Corelli publishes his Concerti Grossi. The Barrage Vauban, a work in the city of Strasbourg was completed Possible year of the disappearance of the western part of the island of Buise in St. Peters Flood. March 5 – Nine Years War, French troops under Marshal Louis-Francois de Boufflers besiege the Spanish-held town of Mons, march 20 – Leislers Rebellion, A new governor arrives in New York – Jacob Leisler surrenders after a standoff of several hours. March 29 – The Siege of Mons ends in the city’s surrender, april 9 – A fire at the Palace of Whitehall in London destroys its Stone Gallery. May 6 – The Spanish inquisition condemns and forcibly baptizes 219 xuetas in Palma, when 37 try to escape the island, they are burned alive at the stake. May 16 – Jacob Leisler is hanged for treason, June 23 – Ahmed II succeeds Suleiman II as emperor of the Ottoman Empire. July 12 Pope Innocent XII becomes the 242nd pope, succeeding Pope Alexander VIII, Williamite War in Ireland, Battle of Aughrim, Protestant Williamite forces led by Godert de Ginkell decisively defeat Jacobites under the Marquis de St Ruth
8.
1700s (decade)
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January 26 – At approximately 9 p. m. the Cascadia earthquake occurred with an estimated moment magnitude of 8. 7–9.2. This megathrust earthquake ruptured about 1,000 kilometers of the Cascadia Subduction Zone, February 3 – The Lesser Great Fire destroys a substantial part of central Edinburgh, Scotland. February 12 – The Great Northern War begins with a joint invasion of Swedish territory in Germany and Latvia by Denmark, Sweden has control of the Baltic Sea and holds territory that includes Finland, Estonia, Latvia and parts of northern Germany. To challenge its power, an alliance is formed between Tsar Peter I of Russia, King Frederick IV of Denmark and Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, Swedens ruler is the militaristic Charles XII, known as the Swedish Meteor. February 27 – Island of New Britain discovered by William Dampier in the western Pacific, March 1 – Protestant Germany and Denmark–Norway adopt the Gregorian calendar. March 1, March 11, February 29 – Swedish calendar adopted, early March – William Congreves comedy The Way of the World is first performed in London. March 25 – Treaty of London signed between France, England and Holland, april – Fire destroys many buildings in Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia, including two in the palace complex. May 5 Within a few days of John Drydens death, his last written work is performed as part of Vanbrughs version of The Pilgrim, William Penn begins monthly meetings for blacks advocating emancipation. July 11 – The Prussian Academy of Sciences is founded with Gottfried Leibniz as president, summer – Charles XII of Sweden counter-attacks his enemies by invading Zealand, assisted by an Anglo-Dutch naval squadron under Sir George Rooke, rapidly compelling the Danes to submit to peace. August 18 – Peace of Travendal concluded between the Swedish Empire, Denmark–Norway and Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal, on the same day, Augustus II, King of Poland, and Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, enter the war against Sweden. Late summer – A Russian army invades Swedish Estonia and besieges the town of Narva, November 1 – Charles II, last Spanish king of the House of Habsburg, dies insane at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid leaving no children. November 15 – Louis XIV accepts the Spanish crown on behalf of his grandson Philip of Anjou, November 18 – Battle of Olkieniki, Lithuanian Civil War, victory for the anti-Sapieha coalition. November 23 – Pope Clement XI succeeds Pope Innocent XII as the 243rd pope, November 30 – Battle of Narva in Estonia. Having led his army of 8,000 on a march from Denmark to Estonia. December 28 – Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, is appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, mission San Xavier del Bac is founded in New Spain near Tucson, as a Spanish Roman Catholic mission. An inventory made for the Medici family of Florence is the first documentary evidence for a piano, an English translation of the novel Don Quixote, translated from the original by many hands and published by Peter Motteux, begins publication in London. While popular among readers, it eventually come to be known as one of the worst translations of the novel. The value of sales of English manufactured products to the Atlantic economy is £3.9 million, date – Lions become extinct in Libya
9.
1672
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As of the start of 1672, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. March – The Synod of Jerusalem brings together bishops and representatives from the whole of Eastern Orthodox Christendom to discuss Orthodox dogma against the challenge of Protestantism, March 17 – Third Anglo-Dutch War, The Kingdom of England declares war on the Dutch Republic. April 8 – France declares war on the Dutch Republic, invading the country on April 29, may 2 – John Maitland becomes Duke of Lauderdale and Earl of March. June 1 – Münster and Cologne begin their invasion of the Dutch Republic, june 7 – Third Anglo-Dutch War, Battle of Solebay, an indecisive sea battle between the Dutch Republic and the joined forces of England and France. June 12 – French forces under king Louis XIV cross the Rhine into the Netherlands, the city of Utrecht is occupied by the French Army. July 4 – William III of Orange is appointed Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland on July 16, august 20 – Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, is slaughtered by a mob in The Hague. September – Raimondo Montecuccoli and the Great Elector assemble at Halberstadt to attack the French, bernard von Galen withdraws from the city of Groningen slowly to the south. October – Spain begins construction on the fort that will become Castillo de San Marcos, designed to protect St. Augustine. October 18 – The Treaty of Buchach between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is signed, richard Hoare becomes a partner in the London goldsmiths business which, as private banking house C. Hoare & Co. will survive through to the 21st century
10.
1673
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As of the start of 1673, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 22 – Impostor Mary Carleton is hanged at Newgate Prison in London for multiple thefts, February 10 – Première of Molières comédie-ballet The Imaginary Invalid in Paris. During the fourth performance, on February 17, the playwright, playing the title rôle, collapses on stage, on June 12, the kings Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, is forced to resign the office of Lord High Admiral because of the Act. – Jean-Baptiste Lullys first opera, Cadmus et Hermione, is premièred in France, may 17 – In America, trader Louis Joliet and Jesuit missionary-explorer Jacques Marquette begin exploring the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. June 14 – Second Battle of Schooneveld, The Dutch fleet again defeats the jointed Anglo-French fleet, June 17 – French explorers Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet reach the headwaters of the Mississippi River and descend to Arkansas. July 6 – French troops conquer Maastricht, july 11 – The Netherlands and Denmark sign a defense treaty. July 24 – Edmund Halley enters Queens College at Oxford, as an undergraduate, August 8 – In the American colonies, a Dutch battle fleet of 23 ships demands the surrender of New York. August 9 – Dutch forces under Admiral Cornelis Evertsen de Jonge recapture New York from the English, August 21 – Battle of Texel, The Dutch fleet under Michiel de Ruyter defeats the English and French fleet. This prevents Englands Blackheath Army from landing in Zeeland August 30 – Leopold I, Spain, Netherlands, september 12 – William, Prince of Orange occupies Naarden. November 9 – King Charles II of England removes Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, november 11 – Polish and Lithuanian military units under the command of soon-to-be-king Jan Sobieski defeat the Turkish army in the Battle of Khotyn. In this battle, rockets of Kazimierz Siemienowicz are successfully used, november 13 – Dutch troops commanded by Raimondo Montecuccoli and William, Prince of Orange conquer Bonn. November 14 – Christopher Wren is knighted, november 23 – James, Duke of York, marries Mary of Modena. France begins its expedition against Ceylon, chelsea Physic Garden, the second oldest botanic garden in England, is founded by the Society of Apothecaries for the study of medicinal and other plants. The Mitsui familys trading and banking house is founded in Japan, the stalactic grotto of Antiparos is discovered. Archpriest Petrovich Avvakum writes his Zhitie as the first Russian autobiography
11.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
12.
Charles XI of Sweden
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Charles XI, also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death, in a period of Swedish history known as the Swedish Empire. Charles was the son of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden. His father died when he was five years old, so Charles was educated by his governors until his coronation at the age of seventeen, soon after, he was forced out on military expeditions to secure the recently acquired dominions from Danish troops in the Scanian War. Changes in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government, Charles XI was succeeded by his only son Charles XII, who made use of the well-trained army in battles throughout Europe. The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XI does not mean that he was the 11th king of Sweden who had the name Charles. His fathers name was due to his great-grandfather, King Charles IX of Sweden and this descendant was actually the 5th King Charles. The numbering tradition thus begun still continues, with the present king of Sweden being Carl XVI Gustaf, Charles was born in the Stockholm Palace Tre Kronor in November 1655. His father, Charles X of Sweden, left Sweden in July to fight in the war against Poland, after several years of warfare, the king returned in the winter of 1659 and gathered his family and the Riksdag of the Estates in Gothenburg. In mid-January 1660 he fell ill and one month later he wrote his last will, per Brahe was one member of the council. In addition, Charles X Gustav left command of the army and these provisions among others led to the remainder of the council immediately challenging the will. February 14, the day after King Charles Xs death, Hedwig Eleonora sent a message to the council stating that she knew that they contested the will and that she demanded that it should be respected. The council answered that the will must first be discussed with the parliament, and at the council in Stockholm on May 13. The parliament questioned whether it would be good for her health or suitable for a widow to attend council, and her reply that the council would be allowed to meet without her and only inform her when they considered it necessary was met with satisfaction from the council. Hedwig Eleonoras ostensible indifference to politics came as a relief to the lords of the guardian government. His mother, Queen Hedvig Eleonora, remained the regent until Charles XI attained his majority on 18 December 1672. During his first appearances in parliament, Charles spoke to the government through her and he would whisper the questions he had in her ear, and she would ask them aloud and clearly for him. As an adolescent, Charles devoted himself to sports, exercise and he appeared ignorant of the very rudiments of statecraft and almost illiterate. His main difficulties are now seen as evident signs of dyslexia, according to many contemporary sources, the king was considered poorly educated and therefore not qualified to conduct himself effectively in foreign affairs
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