1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
3.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
4.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
5.
1720s
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February 11 – Sweden and Prussia sign the Treaty of Stockholm. February 17 – Treaty of The Hague signed between Spain, Britain, France, Austria and the Dutch Republic, ending the War of the Quadruple Alliance, february 29 – Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden resigns to let her husband Frederick I take over as king of Sweden. She had desired a joint rule, in a manner to William and Mary in Britain. March 24 – The Riksdag of the Estates elects Frederick I new King of Sweden, April – South Sea Bubble in England, A scheme for the South Sea Company to take over most of the unconsolidated national debt of Britain massively inflated share prices. July 12 – The Lords Justice in Great Britain attempt to curb some of the excesses of the markets during the South Sea Bubble. September – South Sea Bubble, The English stock market crashes with dropping prices for stock in the South Sea Company, november 16 – Pirate Calico Jack Rackham is brought to trial at Spanish Town in Jamaica, he is hanged at Port Royal two days later. Tuscarora people leave North Carolina as a result of European colonization, the Town on Queen Annes Creek, North Carolina is renamed Edenton in honor of North Carolina Governor Charles Eden, it is incorporated in 1722. Introduction of the Guild Regulation of 1720 in Sweden, the Kangxi Emperor announces that all western businessmen in China can trade only in Guangzhou. Edmond Halley is appointed as Astronomer Royal for England, the Academia Real da Historia is founded in Lisbon, Portugal. Il teatro alla moda, a pamphlet by Benedetto Marcello, is published anonymously in Venice. The first yacht club in the world, the Royal Cork Yacht Club, is founded in Ireland, january 6 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble in England publishes its findings. March 24 – Johann Sebastian Bachs Brandenburg concertos completed and dedicated to Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt, April – Pirates John Taylor and Olivier Levasseur capture the 700-ton Portuguese galleon Nossa Senhora do Cabo at Réunion. The total value of treasure on board is estimated as between £100,000 and £875,000, one of the largest pirate hauls ever, April 4 – Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. May 8 – Pope Innocent XIII succeeds Pope Clement XI as the 244th pope, september 10 – The Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern War. November 2 – The Romanov and architect of the Great Northern War Peter I, is proclaimed the first Emperor of All the Russias and this replaces the 176-year-long Tsardom of Russia with the Russian Empire. December 22 – Philip V of Spain signs in Lerma a Royal Decree transforming the Seminary of Saint Rose of Lima in Caracas into the Universidad Real y Pontificia de Caracas, regular mail service between London and New England is established. A suggestion box is developed under the shogun of Japan. March 8 – Battle of Gulnabad in Persia, Pashtun people of Afghanistan led by Mahmud Hotak decisively defeat forces of the Persian Safavid dynasty, April 5 – Dutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen lands on what is now Easter Island
6.
1730s
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January 29 – Anna Ivanovna becomes empress, following the death of her cousin, Emperor Peter II. March 12 – John Glas deposed from the Church of Scotland, april 8 – Shearith Israel, the first synagogue in New York City, is dedicated. May 15 – Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, retires from his role in the government of Great Britain, leaving Robert Walpole as sole and undisputed leader of the Cabinet. In the new Walpole Ministry, Sir William Strickland, 4th Baronet, becomes Secretary at War, spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington briefly becomes Lord Privy Seal. July 8 – Earthquake affects Valparaiso in the Viceroyalty of Peru, july 12 – Pope Clement XII succeeds Pope Benedict XIII as the 246th pope. September 17 – Mahmud I succeeds Ahmed III as Ottoman Emperor, October 22 – Construction of the Ladoga Canal linking the Neva and Svir Rivers, one of the first major navigable canals constructed in Russia, is completed. March 16 – The Treaty of Vienna is signed between the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Spain. April 2 – The town of Raynham, Massachusetts in Bristol County is entered as a new town by the governor and court of Massachusetts, New England, America. April – British trader Robert Jenkins has his ear cut off by Spanish coast guards in Cuba, july 1 – Benjamin Franklin and fellow-subscribers start the Library Company of Philadelphia. The town is out in 1733 and incorporated as Wilmington in 1740. English Captain Charles Gough rediscovers Gough Island in the South Atlantic, laura Bassi becomes the first official female university teacher on being appointed professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna at the age of 21. John Bevis observes the Crab Nebula for the first time in the modern era, the Royal Theatre of Mantua is built by Ferdinando Galli Bibiena. January 21st - Russia and Persia sign the Treaty of Riascha at Resht, based on the terms of the agreement, Russia would no longer establish claims over Persian territories. June 9 – James Oglethorpe is granted a charter for the colony of Georgia. August – Mikhail Gvozdev in the Sviatoi Gavriil makes the first known crossing of the Bering Strait, september 16 – The magnitude 5.8 Montreal earthquake occurs in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. December 7 – The original Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London is opened, december –139 members of the Parlement of Paris exiled by order of King Louis XV secure their recall. The Republic of Genoa regains Corsica, the worlds first lightship is moored at the Nore in the Thames Estuary of England. This years General Assembly of the Church of Scotland gives rise to the First Secession of 1733, Benjamin Franklin, writing under the name Richard Saunders, begins publication of Poor Richards Almanack
7.
1740s
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April 8 – War of the Austrian Succession, The Royal Navy captures the Spanish ship of the line Princesa off Cape Finisterre and takes her into British service. May 31 – Frederick II comes to power in Prussia upon the death of his father, July 11 – Pogrom, Jews are expelled from Little Russia. August 1 – The song Rule, Britannia. is first performed at Cliveden, august 17 – Pope Benedict XIV succeeds Pope Clement XII as the 247th pope. October 9–22 – Batavia massacre, Troops of the Dutch East India Company massacre 5, october 20 – Maria Theresa inherits the hereditary dominions of the Habsburg Monarchy under the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. However, her succession to the Holy Roman Empire is contested widely because she is a woman, november – Hertford College, Oxford, is founded for the first time. November 6 – Samuel Richardsons popular and influential epistolary novel Pamela, or, december 16 – Frederick II of Prussia invades the Habsburg possession of Silesia, starting the War of the Austrian Succession. By an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, alien immigrants in the colonies receive British nationality, adam Smith enters Balliol College, Oxford. George Whitefield founds the Bethesda Orphanage near Savannah, Georgia, Spain begins construction on Fort Matanzas in the Matanzas Inlet, approximately 15 miles south of St. Augustine, Florida. Annual British iron production reaches 17,000 tons, the University of Pennsylvania is officially established. April – The New York Slave Insurrection, a plot to set fire to New York City, is discovered, april 10 – An Austrian army is defeated by Prussian troops of Frederick the Great at Mollwitz. May – Vitus Bering sets out from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky to map the coasts of Siberia, may – Spanish victory in Battle of Cartagena de Indias over Great Britain. June 25 – Maria Theresa of Austria is crowned Queen Regnant of Hungary in Bratislava, July 8 – Jonathan Edwards repeats his Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God sermon at Enfield, Connecticut. July 15 – Alexei Chirikov sights land in Southeast Alaska and sends some men aboard his ship ashore in a longboat, august 10 – Battle of Colachel, The Raja of Travancore defeats a Dutch East India Company naval expedition. November 25–26 – Franco-Bavarian troops commanded by Maurice of Saxony storm Prague, december 6 – Elizabeth of Russia becomes czarina after a palace coup. December 19 – Vitus Bering dies in his expedition east of Siberia, december 25 – Anders Celsius develops his own thermometer scale, Centigrade, the predecessor of the Celsius scale. Stemmatographia by Hristofor Zhefarovich, regarded as the first Serbian and Bulgarian secular printed book, is printed in Vienna, the population of China reaches c.143 million. Royal Order of Scotland is founded, January – The House of Commons of Great Britain votes on the alleged rigging of the Chippenham by-election. It becomes a motion of no confidence which leads to the resignation of Robert Walpole, January 9 – Robert Walpole made Earl of Orford and resigns as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, effectively ending his period as Prime Minister of Great Britain
8.
1750s
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January – A fire in Istanbul destroys 10,000 homes. April – A second fire devastates Istanbul, a third fire later in the year destroys a further 10,000 homes. April 4 – A small earthquake hits Warrington, England, March 20 – First number of Samuel Johnsons The Rambler appears. May – Riots break out in Paris, France fueled by rumors of police abducting children, July 9 – Traveller Jonas Hanway leaves St. Petersburg to return home via Germany and the Netherlands. Later the same year, Hanway reputedly becomes the first Englishman to use an umbrella, July 11 – Halifax, Nova Scotia is almost completely destroyed by fire. August 23 – A small earthquake hits Spalding, Lincolnshire, England, September 30 – A small earthquake hits Northampton, England. November 11 – A riot breaks out in Lhasa, Tibet, november 18 – Westminster Bridge is officially opened in London. Hannah Snell reveals her sex to her Royal Marines compatriots, the King of Dahomey has income of 250,000 pounds from the overseas export of slaves. Maruyama Okyo paints The Ghost of Oyuki, Britain produces c. 2% of the entire worlds output of industrial goods and the Industrial Revolution begins. Galley slavery is abolished in Europe, upon his death, Frederick I of Sweden is succeeded as king by Adolf Frederick. March 31 – Frederick, Prince of Wales dies in London and is succeeded by his son and his mother Augusta of Saxe-Gotha becomes Dowager Princess of Wales. May 11 – The Pennsylvania legislature grants a charter to Benjamin Franklin, July 28 – Kingdom of Kartli defeats a large army of Tabriz Khanate under Erekle II in the Battle of Kirkhbulakh July 31 – Fire destroys 1,000 houses in Stockholm. August 13 – The Academy and College of Philadelphia, predecessor to the private University of Pennsylvania, opens its doors, September 13 – Kalvária Banská Štiavnica in the Kingdom of Hungary is completed. October 27 – The Hōreki period begins in Japan, december 3 – Battle of Arnee in India, A British East India Company-led force under Robert Clive defeats and routs a much larger Franco-Indian army under the command of Raza Sahib at Arni. Ferdinando Galiani published the first modern analysis, Della Moneta In the University of Glasgow Adam Smith is appointed professor of logic. Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus publishes his Philosophia Botanica, the first textbook of descriptive systematic botanical taxonomy, maria Theresa thaler minted, it becomes an international currency. 1751–1775 – 13% of appointees to audiencias in the Spanish Empire are Creoles, January 30 – The British Empire adopts the Gregorian calendar. February 11 – Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the United States, is opened, February 27 – The Virginia Assembly passes a law making maiming a felony, in response to the practice of gouging
9.
1760s
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January 9 – Afghans defeat Marathas in Battle of Barari Ghat. January 22 – Seven Years War – At the Battle of Wandiwash in India, january 28 – Benning Wentworth creates the New Hampshire Grant of Pownal, Vermont. February 15 – The British Royal Navy ship HMS Royal Katherine runs aground off Bolt Head in England with the loss of 699 lives. February 27 – Seven Years War – French and Indian War & Anglo-Cherokee War, the attack is repelled by the militia under the command of General Hugh Waddell. March 20 – The Great Fire of Boston, Massachusetts, destroys 349 buildings, may–July – Tackys War, a slave rebellion, occurs in Jamaica. June 4 – Expulsion of the Acadians, New England planters arrive to land in Nova Scotia taken from the Acadians. July 3 – A lightning strike causes a fire at Portsmouth Royal Dockyard in England. July 8 – Seven Years War – French and Indian War, Battle of Restigouche, july 19 – A formal request is made to the Spanish government as to allow the founding of the later city of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. July 31 – Seven Years War – Battle of Warburg, The Anglo-Hanoverian army of Ferdinand of Brunswick storms Warburg, August 21 – The church of Our Lady of Candlemas of Mayagüez is founded, establishing the basis for the founding of the city. September 8 – Seven Years War, Jeffery Amherst captures Montreal, september 18 – The town of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, is founded. October 5 The wedding of Princess Isabella of Parma and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, october 9 – Seven Years War, Russian troops enter Berlin. October 16 – Seven Years War – Battle of Kloster-Kamp, Ferdinand of Brunswick is beaten back from the Rhine by a French army, october 25 – George II of Great Britain dies, his grandson George III ascends to the throne. November 3 – Seven Years War – Battle of Torgau, In another extremely hard battle, Frederick defeats Dauns Austrians, Dr. James Fordyces two-volume compendium, Sermons for Young Women, is published. Western countries pay 3,000,000 ounces of silver for Chinese goods, approximate date – Abu Dhabi is founded. January 14 – Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his coalition decisively defeat the Maratha Confederacy, january 16 – The British capture Pondichéry, India from the French. February 8 – An earthquake in London breaks chimneys in Limehouse, march 8 – A second earthquake occurs in North London, Hampstead and Highgate. March 31 – Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, June 6 – A transit of Venus occurs, and is observed from 120 locations around the Earth. Mikhail Lomonosov discovers atmosphere of Venus, july 17 - The first section of the Bridgewater Canal is opened, for the transportation of coal from local mines to Manchester
10.
1742
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As of the start of 1742, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – The House of Commons of Great Britain votes on the rigging of the Chippenham by-election. It becomes a motion of no confidence which leads to the resignation of Robert Walpole, january 9 – Robert Walpole made Earl of Orford and resigns as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, effectively ending his period as Prime Minister of Great Britain. January 24 – Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor, february 12 – John Carteret, 2nd Lord Carteret becomes Secretary of State for the Northern Department in Great Britain. February 16 – Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain, april 13 – George Frideric Handels oratorio The Messiah is first performed in Dublin, Ireland. May 17 – Frederick the Greats army defeats Austrians in Chotusitz, may 24 – War of the Austrian Succession, Battle of Sahay July 7 – War of Jenkins Ear, British troops repel those of Spain in the Battle of Bloody Marsh in the Province of Georgia. July 14 – William Pulteney is created 1st Earl of Bath in Great Britain, september – Construction starts on the Foundling Hospital in London. November 13 – The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters is founded, december 2 – The Pennsylvania Journal first appears in print in the United States. Daniel le Pelley succeeds Nicolas le Pelley as Seigneur of Sark, the Kingdom of Prussia captures Jihlava. Colin Maclaurin publishes his Treatise on Fluxions, anders Celsius proposes the Celsius temperature scale. James Bradley succeeds Edmond Halley as Astronomer Royal, the University of Erlangen is founded. The Lopukhina Conspiracy arises at the Russian court, in Peru, Juan Santos takes the name Atahualpa II and begins an ill-fated rebellion against the Spanish rule. The Afghan tribes unite as a monarchy, Charles Jervass English translation of Don Quixote is published posthumously. Through a printers error, the name is printed as Charles Jarvis. It is acclaimed as the most faithful English rendering of the made up to that time. Spain completes the construction of Fort Matanzas in the Matanzas Inlet, approximately 15 miles south of St. Augustine, rome decrees that Roman ceremonial practice in Latin is to be the law for Chinese missions
11.
1743
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As of the start of 1743, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 14 – Henry Pelham becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain, february 21 – George Frideric Handels oratorio, Samson premieres in London. March 2 – Battle of La Guaira, a British expeditionary fleet under Sir Charles Knowles is defeated by the Spanish, may 30 – The Dalecarlian rebellion in Sweden. August 7 – Russia and Sweden sign the Treaty of Åbo, september 11 – Natalia Lopukhina is flogged in front of the Twelve Collegia building in Saint Petersburg. September 13 – The Treaty of Worms is signed between Great Britain, Austria, and Sardinia, november 5 – Coordinated scientific observations of the transit of Mercury are organized by Joseph-Nicolas Delisle. The last wolf in Scotland is thought to have shot in 1743
12.
1745
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As of the start of 1745, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. May 11 – War of the Austrian Succession, Battle of Fontenoy – French forces defeat an Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian army including the Black Watch, june 4 – Frederick the Great destroys the Austrian army at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg. June 16 – King Georges War, British capture Cape Breton Island in North America from the French, july 9 – War of the Austrian Succession, Battle of Melle – The French are victorious in an engagement against the Pragmatic Allies. July 26 – The first recorded cricket match takes place in Surrey. August 19 – The Jacobite rising of 1745 begins at Glenfinnan in Scotland where Charles Edward Stuart raises his standard, august 21 – Catherine the Great marries Peter III of Russia in Saint Petersburg. September 11 – Jacobite rising, Jacobites enter Edinburgh, six days later, september 12 – Francis I is elected Holy Roman Emperor with the support of his wife, Maria Theresa. He is the successor of Charles VII Albert of Bavaria, an enemy of the House of Habsburg, september 14 – Madame de Pompadour is officially presented in the court of Louis XV of France. September 16 – Jacobite rising, Canter of Coltbrigg – British 13th and 14th Dragoons flee Jacobites near Edinburgh, september 21 – Battle of Prestonpans, British Government forces are defeated by the Jacobites in Scotland. December 4 – Jacobite rising, The Scottish Jacobite army reaches as far south as Derby in England causing panic in London, december 18 Jacobite rising, A Jacobite victory at the Clifton Moor Skirmish, the last action between two military forces on English soil. December 23 – Jacobite rising, A Jacobite victory at the Battle of Inverurie, december 25 – The Treaty of Dresden gives Prussia full possession of Silesia. December 28 – For 5 days, fire destroys buildings in Istanbul
13.
1747
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As of the start of 1747, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 31 – The first venereal diseases clinic opens at London Lock Hospital, february 11 – King Georges War, A combined French and Indian force, commanded by Captain Nicolas Antoine II Coulon de Villiers, attacks and defeats British troops at Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia. April 9 – The Scottish Jacobite Lord Lovat is beheaded by axe on Tower Hill, London, may 14 – War of the Austrian Succession – First battle of Cape Finisterre, The British Navy defeats a French fleet. June 9 – Emperor Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan, june 24–October 14 – The English ships Dobbs galley and California, under Captains William Moore and Francis Smith, explore Hudson Bay, discovering there is no Northwest Passage by this route. July 2 – War of the Austrian Succession – Battle of Lauffeld, France defeats the armies of Hanover, Great Britain. October Thomas Herring is appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, following the capture of Kandahar, Ahmad Shah Durrani is chosen by a Loya jirga as first leader of the Durrani Empire, predecessor of Afghanistan. October 25 – War of the Austrian Succession – Second battle of Cape Finisterre, november 9 – Rioters in Amsterdam demand governmental reform. November 17–19 – Knowles Riot in Boston, Massachusetts, against impressment to the British Royal Navy, november 22 – Prince William IV of Orange becomes stadtholder of all the provinces of the United Provinces. James Linds experiment begins to prove that citrus fruits prevent scurvy, War of the Austrian Succession, Spanish troops invade and occupy the coastal towns of Beaufort and Brunswick in the Royal Colony of North Carolina during what becomes known as the Spanish Alarm. They are later driven out by the local militia, samuel Johnson begins work on A Dictionary of the English Language in London
14.
1740s in archaeology
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The decade of the 1740s in archaeology involved some significant events. 1747, The mummified remains known as Amcotts Moor Woman, a bog body, is unearthed from a bog in Lincolnshire. 1747, Substantial remains of the Temple of Apollo are discovered in Mdina, many of the ruins are dispersed among private collections. 1748, Pompeii rediscovered as the result of excavations by Spanish military engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre. 1740, Nicholas Mahudels Les Monumens les plus anciens de lindustrie des hommes, des Arts et reconnus dans les pierres de Foudres,1744, First volume of Le Antichità di Ercolano, account of discoveries at Herculaneum. 1743, The Papenbroek Collection is bequeathed to Leiden University, comprising about 150 antiquities and it is put on public display and published in 1746, but poorly cared for until it gets an official curator, half a century later. 1743, November 23 - Théophile Corret de la Tour dAuvergne, French antiquary 1747, March 7 - Nicholas Mahudel, French antiquary Archaeology timeline
15.
1744 in architecture
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The year 1744 in architecture involved some significant events. Giác Lâm Pagoda in Saigon is built by Lý Thụy Long, sabil-Kuttab of Katkhuda in Cairo, designed by Katkhuda of Egypt, is built. Tombul Mosque in Shumen, Ottoman Empire, is completed, st Botolphs Aldgate church in the City of London, designed by George Dance the Elder, is completed. St John the Baptists Church, Knutsford in England, designed by J. Garlive, is completed, twelve Collegia in Saint Petersburg, designed by Domenico Trezzini and Theodor Schwertfeger, is completed. The second Summer Palace in Saint Petersburg, designed by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, is completed, remodelling of the Hirschholm Palace in Denmark to a design by Lauritz de Thurah is completed. Remodelling of the Princes Mansion, Copenhagen in Denmark by Nicolai Eigtved is completed, the Würzburg Residence in Germany, designed by Balthasar Neumann with Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, Maximilian von Welsch, Robert de Cotte and Germain Boffrand, is completed. Morelia Cathedral in Mexico is completed, alamo Mission in San Antonio is begun. Holden Chapel at Harvard University is completed, st. Peters Church in the Great Valley of Chester County, Pennsylvania, is built. Withcote Chapel in Leicestershire, England, is remodelled, st. Martins Church, Warsaw, is reconstructed to a design by Karol Bay at about this date. August 7 - Thomas Harrison, English architect September 20 or 21 - Giacomo Quarenghi, Italian-born architect
16.
1744 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1744 in Ireland. 26 February - A house in Pill Lane, Dublin, collapses while Roman Catholic mass is being there, killing the priest. 14 April - The Physico-Historical Society is formed in Dublin for the preservation of manuscripts, rare printed books,20 April - Arthur Price is translated from Meath to become Church of Ireland Archbishop of Cashel. 23 May - The Hospital for Incurables is opened in Dublin as a charitable institution,1 August - Battle of Velletri in the Kingdom of Naples, Spanish-Neapolitan forces defeat those of the Archduchy of Austria. Irish mercenaries fight on both sides,3 August - The Colthurst Baronetcy, of Ardrum in the County of Cork, is created in the Baronetage of Ireland. October - Wet and cold season, leading to oats and potatoes being spoiled in the north – the rot year,5 February - Spranger Barry makes his stage debut at the Theatre Royal, Dublin. 6 December - First performance of Handels Irish-premiered oratorio Messiah in Cork, drawing school of the Dublin Society is founded. 11 July - Pierce Butler, soldier, planter, statesman, one of United States Founding Fathers, represented South Carolina in the Continental Congress, robert Brooke, soldier, Governor of St Helena. Bishop James Murphy, Bishop of Clogher 1801-1824,11 January - James Hamilton, 7th Earl of Abercorn
17.
1744 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1744 in Sweden Monarch – Frederick I30 January - Execution of Skinnar Per Andersson. March - The threatening war with Denmark is prevented by a treaty between Sweden and Denmark, july - The Empire of Russia agree to recall their troops from Sweden. 18 August - The wedding between Crown Prince Adolf Frederick and Louisa Ulrika of Prussia on Drottningholm Palace, August - Creation of the LOrdre de lHarmonie
18.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
19.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
20.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
21.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
22.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
23.
George II of Great Britain
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George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain, he was born, after the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his fathers reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, as king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent twelve summers in Hanover, where he had direct control over government policy. He had a relationship with his eldest son, Frederick. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson, George III. For two centuries after George IIs death, history tended to him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper. Since then, most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, both of Georges parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband. She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who never saw their mother again. George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar Holstein. In addition to French and German, he was schooled in English and Italian. Georges second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702, consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, Georges father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, the English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July, on 22 August /2 September 1705O. S. /N. S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen. George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, in early 1707, Georges hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick
24.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
25.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
26.
Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
27.
Pig (zodiac)
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The Pig is the twelfth and the last sign of the Earthly Branches. In the continuous Sexagenary cycle, every twelfth year corresponds to Hai, there are five types of Pigs, named after the Chinese elements. In order, they are, Metal, Water, Wood, Fire, in the Japanese zodiac and Tibetan zodiac, the Pig is replaced by the boar. In the Dai zodiac, the Pig is replaced by the elephant, in the Gurung zodiac, the Pig is replaced by the deer. According to the myths, the Pig was the last to arrive when the Jade Emperor called for the great meeting, other sources said that Buddha called for a great meeting when he was about to leave the earth. Legend has it that just as the emperor was about to call it a day, the term lazy Pig is due here as the Pig got hungry during the race, promptly stopped for a feast then fell asleep. After the nap, the Pig continued the race and was named the 12th, other sources say that given his very stout form, he was just too slow a swimmer, and thus he could not do anything against the other animals. The natural element of the Pig is water, thus it is commonly associated with emotions and intuitions. Yet, given that along with the elements, the animal zodiac also follows a cycle, however, the Pig is yin, and this only the negative aspects of the elements can be attached to them, thus only 5 kinds of Pigs are found in the zodiac. Thus, a person born on 9 February 1899 still belongs to the preceding zodiac while those born on 31 January 1900 already belongs to the following zodiac, aside from being assigned a year, the Pig is also assigned to govern a month in the Lunar Calendar. As the Lunar month begins on Spring, the Pig is assigned to the 10th month and this lunar month corresponds to the Gregorian calendar as beginning from 7 November and ending at 6 December. The first half of the month is called 立冬, literally, it means the start of winter. It begins when the Sun reaches the longitude of 225°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the longitude of 225°. In the Gregorian calendar, it begins around 7 November. The second half of the month is called 小雪, literally, the time of the Little Snow. It begins when the Sun reaches the longitude of 240°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the longitude of 240°
