1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
3.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
4.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
5.
1760s
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January 9 – Afghans defeat Marathas in Battle of Barari Ghat. January 22 – Seven Years War – At the Battle of Wandiwash in India, january 28 – Benning Wentworth creates the New Hampshire Grant of Pownal, Vermont. February 15 – The British Royal Navy ship HMS Royal Katherine runs aground off Bolt Head in England with the loss of 699 lives. February 27 – Seven Years War – French and Indian War & Anglo-Cherokee War, the attack is repelled by the militia under the command of General Hugh Waddell. March 20 – The Great Fire of Boston, Massachusetts, destroys 349 buildings, may–July – Tackys War, a slave rebellion, occurs in Jamaica. June 4 – Expulsion of the Acadians, New England planters arrive to land in Nova Scotia taken from the Acadians. July 3 – A lightning strike causes a fire at Portsmouth Royal Dockyard in England. July 8 – Seven Years War – French and Indian War, Battle of Restigouche, july 19 – A formal request is made to the Spanish government as to allow the founding of the later city of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. July 31 – Seven Years War – Battle of Warburg, The Anglo-Hanoverian army of Ferdinand of Brunswick storms Warburg, August 21 – The church of Our Lady of Candlemas of Mayagüez is founded, establishing the basis for the founding of the city. September 8 – Seven Years War, Jeffery Amherst captures Montreal, september 18 – The town of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, is founded. October 5 The wedding of Princess Isabella of Parma and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, october 9 – Seven Years War, Russian troops enter Berlin. October 16 – Seven Years War – Battle of Kloster-Kamp, Ferdinand of Brunswick is beaten back from the Rhine by a French army, october 25 – George II of Great Britain dies, his grandson George III ascends to the throne. November 3 – Seven Years War – Battle of Torgau, In another extremely hard battle, Frederick defeats Dauns Austrians, Dr. James Fordyces two-volume compendium, Sermons for Young Women, is published. Western countries pay 3,000,000 ounces of silver for Chinese goods, approximate date – Abu Dhabi is founded. January 14 – Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his coalition decisively defeat the Maratha Confederacy, january 16 – The British capture Pondichéry, India from the French. February 8 – An earthquake in London breaks chimneys in Limehouse, march 8 – A second earthquake occurs in North London, Hampstead and Highgate. March 31 – Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, June 6 – A transit of Venus occurs, and is observed from 120 locations around the Earth. Mikhail Lomonosov discovers atmosphere of Venus, july 17 - The first section of the Bridgewater Canal is opened, for the transportation of coal from local mines to Manchester
6.
1770s
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January 1 – Foundation of Fort George, Bombay laid by Colonel Keating, principal engineer, on the site of the former Dongri Fort. March 5 – Boston Massacre, Eleven American men are shot, five fatally, march 26 – First voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain James Cook and his crew aboard HMS Endeavour complete the circumnavigation of New Zealand. April 1818,00 – First voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain James Cook, April 20 – Georgian king Erekle II defeats the Ottoman forces in the battle of Aspindza, despite being abandoned by an ally, Russian General Totleben. April 29 – First voyage of James Cook, Captain Cook drops anchor on HMS Endeavour in a bay about 16 km south of the present city of Sydney. Because the young botanist on board the ship, Joseph Banks, discovers 30,000 specimens of plant life in the area,1,600 of them unknown to European science, may 7 – Fourteen-year-old Marie Antoinette arrives at the French court. May 16 –Marie Antoinette marries Louis-Auguste, may 20 – A stampede at a celebration of the newly wedded Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste in Paris kills more than a hundred people. June 9 – Falklands Crisis, Some 1600 Spanish marines, sent by the Spanish governor of Buenos Aires in five frigates, the small British force present promptly surrenders. June 11 – First voyage of James Cook, HMS Endeavour grounds on the Great Barrier Reef, july 1 – Lexells Comet passes the Earth at a distance of 2184129 km, the closest approach by a comet in recorded history. July 5 – Battle of Chesma and Battle of Larga, The Russian Empire defeats the Ottoman Empire in both battles, august 1 – Russo-Turkish War – Battle of Kagul, Russian commander Pyotr Rumyantsev routs 150,000 Turks. Johann Gottfried Herder meets Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Strasbourg, Joseph Priestley, British chemist, recommends the use of a rubber to remove pencil marks. The Baron dHolbachs materialist work Le Système de la Nature ou Des Loix du Monde Physique et du Monde Moral is produced in Neuchâtel, January 9 – Emperor Go-Momozono accedes to the throne of Japan, following his aunts abdication. February 12 – Upon the death of Adolf Frederick, he is succeeded as King of Sweden by his son Gustav III, at the time, however, Gustav is unaware of this, since he is abroad in Paris. The news of his fathers death reaches him about a month later, march – War of the Regulation, North Carolina Governor William Tryon raises a militia to put down the long-running uprising of backcountry militias against North Carolinas colonial government. March 12 – The North Carolina General Assembly establishes Wake County from portions of Cumberland, Johnston, bloomsbury is made the informal county seat. March 15 – Society of Civil Engineers first meets, the worlds oldest engineering society, may 11 – War of the Regulation, North Carolina Governor William Tryon marches his military out of Hillsborough to come to the aid of General Hugh Waddells beleaguered forces. Tryons army stops at Alamance Creek,5 miles away from the Regulator army, may 16 – War of the Regulation, The Battle of Alamance commences after Regulators reject an appeal by Governor Tryon to peacefully disperse. Governor Tryons forces crush the rebellion, causing many Regulators to move to areas outside of North Carolina. May 23 – Battle of Lanckorona, A force of 4,000 Russians under Alexander Suvorov defeat a Polish formation of 1,300 men, july 13 – Russo-Turkish War, Russian forces occupy the Crimea under Prince Vasily Dolgorukov
7.
1780s
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January 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, British Admiral Sir George Rodney defeats a Spanish fleet. February 29 – The Omicron Delta Omega co-ed fraternity is founded by Benjamin Franklin, March 26 – The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain, begins publication. April 16 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, may 4 – The first Epsom Derby horse race is run on Epsom Downs, Surrey, England. May 12 – American Revolutionary War, Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces, may 13 – Cumberland Compact signed by American settlers in the Cumberland Valley of Tennessee. May 19 – New Englands Dark Day, An unaccountable darkness spreads over New England, may 29 – American Revolutionary War, Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre. June 2 – An Anti-Catholic mob led by Lord George Gordon marches on Parliament of Great Britain leading to the outbreak of the Gordon Riots in London, June 7 – The Gordon Riots in London are ended by the intervention of troops. About 285 people are dead, with another 200 wounded. June 23 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Springfield – The Continental Army defeats the British in New Jersey, July 11 – French soldiers arrive in Newport, Rhode Island to reinforce colonists in the American Revolutionary War. August 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Camden, British troops inflict heavy losses on a Patriot army at Camden, South Carolina. August 9 – American Revolutionary War, Spanish admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova captures a British convoy totalling 55 vessels amongst Indiamen, frigates, August 24 – Louis XVI of France abolishes the use of torture in extracting confessions. September 21 – Benedict Arnold gives detailed plans of West Point to Major John André, three days later, André is captured with papers revealing that Arnold was planning to surrender West Point to the British. September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York, October 2 – American Revolutionary War, In Tappan, New York, British spy John André is hanged by American forces. October 7 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Kings Mountain, October 10–October 16 – The Great Hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and Sint Eustatius,22,000 dead. November 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, December 16 – Emperor Kōkaku accedes to the throne of Japan. December 20 – Start of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, jose Gabriel Kunturkanki, businessman and landowner, proclaims himself Inca Túpac Amaru II. The Duke of Richmond calls, in the House of Lords of Great Britain, for manhood suffrage and annual parliaments, jeremy Benthams Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation, presenting his formulation of utilitarian ethics, is printed in London. Nikephoros Theotokis starts introducing Edinoverie, an attempt to integrate the Old Believers into Russias established church, woodford Reserve bourbon whiskey distillery begins operation in Kentucky. C. s pitch. The amateur dramatic group Det Dramatiske Selskab in Christiania is founded in Norway, western countries pay 16,000,000 ounces of silver for Chinese goods
8.
1790s
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January 8 – United States President George Washington gives the first State of the Union address, in New York City. January 11 –11 minor states of the Austrian Netherlands which took part in the Brabant Revolution at the end of 1789 sign a Treaty of Union creating the United States of Belgium, prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt refuses to recognize the new confederations independence. January 26 – Mozarts opera Così fan tutte premiered in Vienna, January 30 – The first boat specialized as a rescue lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne in England. February 1 – In New York City the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first time, February 4 – Louis XVI of France declares to the National Assembly that he will maintain the constitutional laws. February 11 – Two Quaker delegates petition the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery, march 1 – The first United States Census is authorized, it is held later in the year. March 4 – France is divided into 83 départements, which cut across the former provinces, march 21 – Thomas Jefferson reports to President George Washington in New York as the new United States Secretary of State. April 10 – The United States patent system is established, may 17–18 – Battle of Andros, an Ottoman–Algerian fleet destroys the fleet of the Greek privateer Lambros Katsonis. May 29 – Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the last of the 13 original states to do so, June 9 – Royal assent is given to establishment of the port of Milford Haven in Wales. June 23 – The alleged London Monster is arrested in London, july – Louis XVI of France accepts a constitutional monarchy. July 12 – French Revolution, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed and this completes the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships. July 14 – French Revolution, Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people, july 16 – The signing of the Residence Bill establishes a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia, the capital district of the United States. S. July 27 – The Convention of Reichenbach is signed between Prussia and Austria, july 31 – Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a U. S. patent. August 4 – A newly passed U. S. tariff act creates the system of cutters for revenue enforcement, August 14 – The Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish War. December 11 – Russo-Turkish War,26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their lives during Alexander Suvorovs storm of Izmail, January 12 – Holy Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution and the restoration of its Prince-Bishops. January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, February 21 – The United States opens diplomatic relations with Portugal. March 2 – In France, Abolition of guilds is enacted, a mechanical semaphore line for rapid long-distance communication is demonstrated by Claude Chappe in Paris. March 4 – Vermont is admitted as the 14th U. S. state, march 13 – Thomas Paines chief work Rights of Man is published in London. March – In France, the National Constituent Assembly accepts the recommendation of its Commission of Weights, april 21 – The first of forty boundary stones delineating the borders of the new District of Columbia in the United States is laid at Jones Point Light, in Alexandria, Virginia
9.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments
10.
1777
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As of the start of 1777, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Princeton, American general George Washingtons army again defeats the British, january 12 – Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California. January 15 – Vermont declares its independence from New York, becoming the Vermont Republic, an independent country, March – Third voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain Cook discovers Mangaia and Atiu in the Cook Islands. May 8 – First performance of Richard Brinsley Sheridans comedy of manners The School for Scandal at the Theatre Royal, may 16 – Lachlan McIntosh and Button Gwinnett shoot each other during a duel near Savannah, Georgia. Gwinnett, a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, june 13 – American Revolution, The Marquis de Lafayette lands near Georgetown, South Carolina, to help the Continental Congress train its army. June 14 – The Stars and Stripes is adopted by the Continental Congress as the flag of the United States, july 8 – The 1777 Constitution of Vermont is signed, officially abolishing slavery. July 6 – American Revolutionary War – Siege of Fort Ticonderoga, After a bombardment by British artillery under General John Burgoyne, American forces retreat from Fort Ticonderoga, New York. August 6 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Oriskany, Loyalists gain a victory over Patriots. August 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Bennington, British, august 22 – American Revolutionary War – Siege of Fort Stanwix is ended by withdrawal of British forces following a ruse by Benedict Arnold to persuade them that a much larger force is arriving. September 3 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Coochs Bridge, British and Hessian forces defeat American militia in a skirmish in New Castle County. September 11 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Brandywine, The British gain a victory in Chester County. October 4 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Germantown, Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe. October 6 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery, British troops capture Fort Clinton, october 7 – American Revolutionary War – Second Battle of Saratoga, Battle of Bemis Heights, British General John Burgoyne is defeated by American troops. October 17 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Saratoga, British General John Burgoyne surrenders to the American troops, november 15 – American Revolution, After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania. November 17 – American Revolution, The Articles of Confederation are submitted to the states for ratification, november 29 – San Jose, California is founded. It is the first pueblo in Spanish Alta California, december 19 – American Revolutionary War, George Washingtons Continental Army goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. December 24 – Third voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain Cook locates Kiritimati, december 30 – Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria dies & is succeeded by his distant cousin Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria. The 2nd edition of Encyclopædia Britannica is published, the code duello is adopted at the Clonmel Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland
11.
1778
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As of the start of 1778, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 5 – South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation, february 23 – American Revolutionary War, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the American troops. March 6–October 24 – Captain Cook explores and maps the Pacific Northwest coast of North America from Cape Foulweather to the Bering Strait, march 10 – American Revolutionary War, George Washington approves the dishonorable discharge of Lieut. Frederick Gotthold Enslin for attempting to commit sodomy, with John Monhort a soldier, may 30 – Benedict Arnold signs US oath of allegiance at Valley Forge June 24 – A total solar eclipse takes place across parts of USA from Texas to Virginia. June 28 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Monmouth, George Washingtons Continental Army battles the British general Sir Henry Clintons army to a draw near Monmouth County, June The start of the Anglo-French War. July 3 – American Revolutionary War, the Wyoming Massacre takes place near Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, july 4 – American Revolutionary War, George Rogers Clark takes Kaskaskia. July 10 – Louis XVI of France declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain, july 27 – American Revolutionary War – First Battle of Ushant, British and French fleets fight to a standoff. August 3 – La Scala opera house in Milan opens with the première of Antonio Salieris Europa riconosciuta, august 29 – American Revolutionary War, The tactically inconclusive Battle of Rhode Island takes place, after which the Continental Army abandons its position on Aquidneck Island. September – The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed, september 7 – American Revolutionary War, French invasion of Dominica captures the British fort there before the latter is aware that France has entered the war in the Franco-American alliance. September 17 – The Treaty of Fort Pitt is signed, the first formal treaty between the United States and a Native American tribe, september 19 – The Continental Congress passes the first budget of the United States. November 26 – In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to land on Maui, the first settlement is made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky, by 13 families under Colonel George Rogers Clark. Phillips Academy, the most prestigious boarding school in the United States, is founded by Samuel Phillips Jr. The term thoroughbred is first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick. Thomas Kitchins The Present State of the West-Indies, Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe is published in London, London, H. G. Bohn – via Hathi Trust
12.
1779
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As of the start of 1779, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 11 – English troops surrender to the Marathas in Wadgaon, India, January 19 – Ching-Thang Khomba is crowned King of Manipur. January 22 – American Revolutionary War, Claudius Smith is hanged at Goshen, Orange County, the General Assembly also establishes Warrenton to be the county seat of Warren County and Louisburg to be the county seat of Franklin County. February 12 – Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Bouligny arrives with Malagueño colonists at Bayou Teche to establish the city of New Iberia, february 14 – Captain James Cook is killed on the Sandwich Islands on his third and last voyage. March 10 – Treaty of Aynalıkavak between Ottoman Turkey and Russian Empire about Crimean Khanate, may 13 – War of the Bavarian Succession, Russian and French mediators at the Congress of Teschen negotiate an end to the war. In the agreement Austria receives a part of the Bavarian territory, june 1 – American Revolutionary War, Benedict Arnold is court-martialed for malfeasance in his treatment of government property. June 16 – American Revolutionary War, In support of the U. S, july 16 – American Revolutionary War, United States forces led by General Anthony Wayne capture Stony Point, New York from British troops. July 20 – Tekle Giyorgis I begins the first of his five reigns as Emperor of Ethiopia, july 22 – Battle of Minisink, The Goshen Militia is destroyed by Joseph Brants forces. July – The Great Siege of Gibraltar starts and this is an action by French and Spanish forces to wrest control of Gibraltar from the established British garrison. The garrison, led by George Augustus Eliott, later 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar, survives all attacks, september – Battle of Baton Rouge, Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez capture the city from the British. The Bonhomme Richard sinks, but the Americans board the Serapis and other vessels, october 4 – The Fort Wilson Riot against James Wilson and others in Philadelphia takes place. November 2 – The North Carolina General Assembly carves a new county from Dobbs County, North Carolina, december 13 – Alexandre, Vicomte de Beauharnais marries Joséphine Tascher. December 22 – American Revolutionary War, Capture of Savannah – British forces under Archibald Campbell take the city of Savannah, december 25 – Fort Nashborough, later to become Nashville, Tennessee, is founded by James Robertson. December 31 – Affair of Fielding and Bylandt, a naval engagement between the British and Dutch off the Isle of Wight. Industrial Revolution in England, The Iron Bridge is erected across the River Severn in Shropshire and it will open to traffic on January 1,1781. The spinning mule is perfected by the Lancashire inventor Samuel Crompton, boulton and Watts Smethwick Engine, now the oldest working engine in the world, is brought into service. The city of Tampere, Finland, is founded, joint Spanish-Portuguese survey of Amazon basin begins to determine the boundary between the colonial possessions in South America. London, H. G. Bohn – via Hathi Trust
13.
1781
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As of the start of 1781, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – William Pitt the Younger, later Prime Minister of Great Britain, enters Parliament, january 1 – Industrial Revolution, The Iron Bridge opens across the River Severn in England. January 2 – Virginia passes a law ceding its western land claims, january 5 – American Revolutionary War, Richmond, Virginia is burned by British naval forces led by Benedict Arnold. January 6 – Battle of Jersey, British troops prevent the French from occupying Jersey in the Channel Islands, january 17 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Cowpens, The American Continental Army under Daniel Morgan decisively defeats British forces in South Carolina. February 2 – The Articles of Confederation are ratified by Maryland, february 3 – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, Capture of Sint Eustatius – British forces take the Dutch Caribbean island of Sint Eustatius with only a few shots fired. March – Riots break out in Socorro, Santander, and spread to other towns, march 1 – The United States Continental Congress implements the Articles of Confederation, forming its Perpetual Union as the United States in Congress Assembled. March 13 – Sir William Herschel discovers the planet Uranus, originally he calls it Georgium Sidus in honour of King George III of Great Britain. March 15 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Guilford Court House, may 18 – An army sent from Lima put down the rebellions and captures and savagely executes Túpac Amaru II. July 27 – French spy François Henri de la Motte is hanged and drawn before a crowd at Tyburn. Alstons troops surrender after Fannings men attempt to ram the house with a cart of burning straw, august 30 – American Revolution, A French fleet under Comte de Grasse enters Chesapeake Bay, cutting British General Charles Cornwallis off from escape by sea. September 4 – Los Angeles is founded as El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de Los Ángeles de Porciuncula by a group of 44 Spanish settlers in California. September 5 – American Revolution – Battle of the Chesapeake, A British fleet under Thomas Graves arrives and fights de Grasse, but is unable to break through to relieve the Siege of Yorktown. September 6 – American Revolution – Battle of Groton Heights, A British force under Benedict Arnold attacks a fort in Groton, Connecticut, achieving a strategic victory. September 10 – American Revolution, Graves gives up trying to break through the now-reinforced French fleet and returns to New York, september 28 – American Revolution, American and French troops begin a siege of the British at Yorktown, Virginia. October 12 – First bagpipes competition in the Masonic Arms, Falkirk, october 20 – A Patent of Toleration, providing limited freedom of worship, is approved in the Habsburg Monarchy. November 5 – John Hanson is elected President of the Continental Congress, henry Hurle officially founds the Ancient Order of Druids in London, England. December – A school is founded in Washington County, Pennsylvania that will later be known as Washington & Jefferson College, joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor abolishes serfdom. Bank of North America is chartered by the Continental Congress, Charles Messier publishes the final catalog of Messier objects
14.
1782
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As of the start of 1782, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 7 – The first American commercial bank opens, january 15 – Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris goes before the U. S. Congress to recommend establishment of a national mint and decimal coinage. February 5 – The Spanish defeat British forces and capture Minorca, march 14 – Battle of Wuchale, Emperor Tekle Giyorgis pacifies a group of Oromo near Wuchale. March 27 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, march 31 – Mission San Buenaventura is founded in Las Californias, part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. April 6 – Rama I succeeds King Taksin of Siam who is overthrown in an coup détat and moves the capital from Thonburi across the Menam to Rattanakosin Island. April 12 – Battle of the Saintes, A British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney defeats a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse in the West Indies, april 19 – John Adams secures recognition of the United States as an independent government by the Dutch Republic. During this visit, he negotiates a loan of five million guilders financed by Nicolaas van Staphorst. June 18 – In Switzerland, Anna Göldi is sentenced to death for witchcraft, june 20 – The bald eagle is chosen as the emblem of the United States of America. July – Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, receives a visit from Pope Pius VI, July 1 – Raid on Lunenburg, American privateers attack the British settlement at Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. July 16 – Première of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail at the Burgtheater in Vienna,16 July –29 August – Masonic Congress of Wilhelmsbad, Germany - one of historys most important ever secret society congresses. Masonic Congress of Wilhelmsbad by Terry Melanson August 7 George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers merit in battle, Étienne Maurice Falconets Bronze Horseman statue of Tsar Peter the Great is unveiled in Saint Petersburg. November 30 – American Revolutionary War, In Paris, representatives from the United States, december 14 – The Montgolfier brothers first test fly a hot air balloon in France, it floats nearly 2 km. Chief Kamehameha I of Hawaii gains control of the part of the island of Hawaii after defeating his cousin Kīwalaʻō. Princess Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova is the first woman in the world to direct a scientific academy, london creates the Foot Patrol for public security. The British parliament extends James Watts patent for the engine to the year 1800. The North Carolina General Assembly incorporates Washington, North Carolina, in China, the Siku Quanshu is completed, the largest literary compilation in Chinas history. The books are bound in 36,381 volumes with more than 79,000 chapters, comprising about 2.3 million pages, Saint Petersburg in Russia has 300,000 inhabitants. London, H. G. Bohn – via Hathi Trust
15.
1783
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As of the start of 1783, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 3 – American Revolutionary War, The Kingdom of Great Britain acknowledges the independence of the United States of America, at this time the Spanish government does not grant diplomatic recognition. February 4 – American Revolutionary War, Great Britain formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the United States, february 5 –1783 Calabrian earthquakes, First of a sequence of five earthquakes in Calabria, Italy, leaving 50,000 dead. February 26 – The United States Continental Armys Corps of Engineers is disbanded, march 5 – Last celebration of Massacre Day in Boston, Massachusetts. April 8 – The Crimean Khanate, which had existed since 1441 and was the last remnant of the Mongol Golden Horde, is annexed by the Russian Empire of Catherine the Great, april 15 – Preliminary articles of peace ending the American Revolutionary War are ratified. May 18 – The first United Empire Loyalists, fleeing the new United States, reach Parrtown in Saint John, New Brunswick, may 26 – A Great Jubilee Day celebrating end of American Revolution held in Trumbull, Connecticut. June 4 or June 5 – The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their montgolfière hot air balloon at Annonay in France and it has been described as one of the greatest environmental catastrophes in European history. July 16 – Grants of land in Canada to American loyalists are announced, july 24 – The Treaty of Georgievsk is signed between Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti making Georgia a protectorate of Russia. August 4 – Mount Asama, the most active volcano in Japan, begins climactic eruption, killing roughly 1,400 people directly and exacerbating a famine, resulting in another 20,000 deaths. August 10 – The British East India Company packet ship Antelope is wrecked off Ulong Island in the Palau group, august 18 – The 1783 Great Meteor passes on a thousand-mile track across the North Sea, Great Britain and France, prompting scientific discussion. August 27 – Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert launch the worlds first hydrogen-filled balloon, Le Globe and this is also the beginning of the Old West. September 9 – Dickinson College is chartered in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, october 3 – First Waterford Crystal glassmaking business begins production in Waterford, Ireland. November 2 – In Rocky Hill, New Jersey, United States General George Washington gives his Farewell Address to the Army, november 21 – In Paris, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent, marquis dArlandes, make the first untethered hot air balloon flight. November 24 – In Spain, the Cedula of Population is signed, stating anyone who will swear fealty to Spain and is of the Roman Catholic faith is welcome to populate Trinidad. November 25 – American Revolutionary War, The last British troops leave New York City 3 months after the signing of the Treaty of Paris. November 27 – English rector, John Michell concludes that some stars might have enough gravity force to prevent light escapes from them, november 29 –1783 New Jersey earthquake, An earthquake of 5.3 magnitude strikes New Jersey. December 1 – Jacques Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert make the first manned flight in a balloon, La Charlière. December 4 – At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, U. S, General George Washington formally bids his officers farewell
16.
1780s in archaeology
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The decade of the 1780s in archaeology involved some significant events. 1786, Antonio Bernasconi and Colonel Antonio del Rio examine the ruins of Palenque, making the first map of the site,1780, Tomb of the Scipios rediscovered in Rome. 1786, Gold thumb ring of Senicianus discovered near Calleva Atrebatum in England,1789, The Stony Stratford Hoard uncovered in England. Xagħra Stone Circle first discovered in Malta,1785, Engineer Diego Ruiz visits and publishes the first account of El Tajín. 1789, Saggio di lingua Etrusca by Luigi Lanzi,1780, The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland is formed. 1783, The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland is incorporated,1783, June 13 - Thomas Young, English Egyptologist. 1784, July 25 - Richard William Howard Vyse, English soldier,1785, November 24 - Philipp August Böckh, German classical scholar and antiquarian. 1786, December 11 - William John Bankes, English Member of Parliament, explorer,1787, March 28 - Claudius James Rich, English traveller and scholar. 1788, September 10 - Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes,1788, December 29 - Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, Danish archaeologist
17.
1780 in architecture
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The year 1780 in architecture involved some significant events. April 17 - Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux in France, designed by Victor Louis is inaugurated, june 24 - Chesme Church in Saint Petersburg, designed by Yury Felten, is consecrated. Assumption Cathedral, Kharkiv, Ukraine, is consecrated, fragrant Hills Pagoda in China is completed. Kashi Vishwanath Temple on the Ganges in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, is built, xumi Fushou Temple in Chengde Mountain Resort, China, is built. Royal Villa of Monza in Lombardy, designed by Giuseppe Piermarini, is completed, reconstruction of Palazzo Tucci in Lucca, Tuscany by Ottaviano Diodati is commissioned. October 1 - Robert Smirke, English architect April 23 - Sanderson Miller, English Gothic Revival architect and landscape designer August 29 - Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect
18.
1780 in Great Britain
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Events from the year 1780 in Great Britain. Monarch - George III Prime Minister - Frederick North, Lord North,16 January - American Revolutionary War,8 March - American Revolutionary War, The League of Armed Neutrality is formed by Russia to try to prevent the Royal Navy from searching neutral vessels for contraband. 26 March - The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain,4 May - The first Epsom Derby horse race is run on Epsom Downs, Surrey. 12 May - American Revolutionary War, Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces,2 June - An Anti-Catholic mob led by Lord George Gordon marches on Parliament leading to the outbreak of the Gordon Riots in London. 7 June - The Gordon Riots are ended by the intervention of troops, about 285 people are shot dead, with another 200 wounded and around 450 arrested. July - Robert Raikes initiates a Sunday school movement, in Gloucester,10 July - American Revolutionary War,6,000 French troops led by Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau land in Newport, Rhode Island but are pinned down by the British. September - Outbreak of the Second Anglo-Mysore War in India,9 August - American Revolutionary War, Spanish admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova captures a British convoy totalling 55 vessels amongst Indiamen, frigates and other cargo ships off Cape St. Vincent. 16 August - American Revolutionary War, Battle of Camden - The British defeat the Americans near Camden,2 October - American Revolutionary War, British spy John André is hanged by American forces. 7 October - American Revolutionary War, Patriot militia defeat the Loyalist militia at the Battle of Kings Mountain,20 November - American Revolutionary War, Britain declares war on the Dutch Republic to stop it from joining the League of Armed Neutrality. 20 December - Outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the Duke of Richmond calls, in the House of Lords, for manhood suffrage and annual parliaments, which are rejected. William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, begins development of Buxton Crescent, the market town of Middleton, Dorset, is demolished by order of the landowner, Joseph Damer, Lord Milton, and the population moved to a new model village, Milton Abbas. The original Craven Cottage is built by William Craven, 6th Baron Craven, in London
19.
1780 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1780 in Ireland. August - Passenger boat service begins on Grand Canal between Dublin and Sallins, lady Berry, sentenced to death for the murder of her son, is released when she agrees to become an executioner. The model cotton manufacturing town of Prosperous, County Kildare, developed by Robert Brooke, january - William Henry Fitton, geologist. 12 March - David Barry, military surgeon and physiologist,20 March - Myles Byrne, a leader of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and soldier in the service of France. 13 April - Alexander Mitchell, engineer and inventor of the screw-pile lighthouse, may - Amhlaoibh Ó Súilleabháin, author, teacher, draper and politician. 17 August - George Croly, poet, novelist, historian,1 December - Edward Bowen, lawyer and politician in Lower Canada. 20 December - John Wilson Croker, statesman and author, michael John Brenan, priest and ecclesiastical historian. Anne Devlin, republican and housekeeper to Robert Emmet,2 February - Thomas Waite, civil servant. 3 June - Henry Denny Denson, soldier and politician in Nova Scotia,25 August - William Bowles, naturalist. October - Robert Boyle-Walsingham, British Royal Navy officer and politician,19 November - Jocelyn Deane, politician
20.
1780 in the United States
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Events from the year 1780 in the United States. January 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, February 3 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Youngs House February 29 – The Omicron Delta Omega co-ed fraternity is founded by Benjamin Franklin. March 1 - Pennsylvania is the first American state to abolish slavery, may 13 – Cumberland Compact signed by American settlers in the Cumberland Valley of Tennessee. May 19 – New Englands Dark Day, An unaccountable darkness spreads over New England, july 11 – Expédition Particulière, French soldiers arrive in Newport, Rhode Island to reinforce colonists in the American Revolutionary War. Three days later, André is captured with papers revealing that Arnold was planning to surrender West Point to the British, september 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York. September 26 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Charlotte October 2 – American Revolutionary War, In Tappan, New York, British spy John André is hanged by American forces. October 7 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Kings Mountain, American Revolutionary War January 14 – Henry Baldwin, Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1830 till 1844. January 30 – Israel Pickens, United States Senator from Alabama from 1821 till 1825, march 20 – Thomas Metcalfe, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1848 till 1849. April 4 – Edward Hicks, painter May 1 – John McKinley, United States Senator from Alabama from 1826 till 1831, Associate Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court from 1837 till 1852. June 21 – Martin D. Hardin, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1816 till 1817, july 9 – Ephraim Bateman, United States Senator from New Jersey from 1826 from 1829. August 20 – William Woodbridge, Governor of Michigan from 1840 till 1841, september 8 – George Troup, United States Senator from Georgia from 1816 till 1818 and from 1829 till 1833. October 17 – Richard Mentor Johnson, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1819 till 1829, October 22 – John Forsyth, United States Senator from Georgia from 1818 till 1819 and from 1829 till 1834. October 25 – Freeman Walker, United States Senator from Georgia from 1819 till 1821, november 8 – Samuel A. Foote, Governor of Connecticut from 1834 till 1835. United States Senator from Connecticut from 1827 till 1833, december 31 – Gideon Tomlinson, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1831 till 1837. June 3 – Thomas Hutchinson, last governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony Media related to 1780 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
22.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
23.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
24.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
25.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
26.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
27.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
28.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
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Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
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Pig (zodiac)
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The Pig is the twelfth and the last sign of the Earthly Branches. In the continuous Sexagenary cycle, every twelfth year corresponds to Hai, there are five types of Pigs, named after the Chinese elements. In order, they are, Metal, Water, Wood, Fire, in the Japanese zodiac and Tibetan zodiac, the Pig is replaced by the boar. In the Dai zodiac, the Pig is replaced by the elephant, in the Gurung zodiac, the Pig is replaced by the deer. According to the myths, the Pig was the last to arrive when the Jade Emperor called for the great meeting, other sources said that Buddha called for a great meeting when he was about to leave the earth. Legend has it that just as the emperor was about to call it a day, the term lazy Pig is due here as the Pig got hungry during the race, promptly stopped for a feast then fell asleep. After the nap, the Pig continued the race and was named the 12th, other sources say that given his very stout form, he was just too slow a swimmer, and thus he could not do anything against the other animals. The natural element of the Pig is water, thus it is commonly associated with emotions and intuitions. Yet, given that along with the elements, the animal zodiac also follows a cycle, however, the Pig is yin, and this only the negative aspects of the elements can be attached to them, thus only 5 kinds of Pigs are found in the zodiac. Thus, a person born on 9 February 1899 still belongs to the preceding zodiac while those born on 31 January 1900 already belongs to the following zodiac, aside from being assigned a year, the Pig is also assigned to govern a month in the Lunar Calendar. As the Lunar month begins on Spring, the Pig is assigned to the 10th month and this lunar month corresponds to the Gregorian calendar as beginning from 7 November and ending at 6 December. The first half of the month is called 立冬, literally, it means the start of winter. It begins when the Sun reaches the longitude of 225°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the longitude of 225°. In the Gregorian calendar, it begins around 7 November. The second half of the month is called 小雪, literally, the time of the Little Snow. It begins when the Sun reaches the longitude of 240°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the longitude of 240°
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