1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
3.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
4.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
5.
1770s
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January 1 – Foundation of Fort George, Bombay laid by Colonel Keating, principal engineer, on the site of the former Dongri Fort. March 5 – Boston Massacre, Eleven American men are shot, five fatally, march 26 – First voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain James Cook and his crew aboard HMS Endeavour complete the circumnavigation of New Zealand. April 1818,00 – First voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain James Cook, April 20 – Georgian king Erekle II defeats the Ottoman forces in the battle of Aspindza, despite being abandoned by an ally, Russian General Totleben. April 29 – First voyage of James Cook, Captain Cook drops anchor on HMS Endeavour in a bay about 16 km south of the present city of Sydney. Because the young botanist on board the ship, Joseph Banks, discovers 30,000 specimens of plant life in the area,1,600 of them unknown to European science, may 7 – Fourteen-year-old Marie Antoinette arrives at the French court. May 16 –Marie Antoinette marries Louis-Auguste, may 20 – A stampede at a celebration of the newly wedded Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste in Paris kills more than a hundred people. June 9 – Falklands Crisis, Some 1600 Spanish marines, sent by the Spanish governor of Buenos Aires in five frigates, the small British force present promptly surrenders. June 11 – First voyage of James Cook, HMS Endeavour grounds on the Great Barrier Reef, july 1 – Lexells Comet passes the Earth at a distance of 2184129 km, the closest approach by a comet in recorded history. July 5 – Battle of Chesma and Battle of Larga, The Russian Empire defeats the Ottoman Empire in both battles, august 1 – Russo-Turkish War – Battle of Kagul, Russian commander Pyotr Rumyantsev routs 150,000 Turks. Johann Gottfried Herder meets Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Strasbourg, Joseph Priestley, British chemist, recommends the use of a rubber to remove pencil marks. The Baron dHolbachs materialist work Le Système de la Nature ou Des Loix du Monde Physique et du Monde Moral is produced in Neuchâtel, January 9 – Emperor Go-Momozono accedes to the throne of Japan, following his aunts abdication. February 12 – Upon the death of Adolf Frederick, he is succeeded as King of Sweden by his son Gustav III, at the time, however, Gustav is unaware of this, since he is abroad in Paris. The news of his fathers death reaches him about a month later, march – War of the Regulation, North Carolina Governor William Tryon raises a militia to put down the long-running uprising of backcountry militias against North Carolinas colonial government. March 12 – The North Carolina General Assembly establishes Wake County from portions of Cumberland, Johnston, bloomsbury is made the informal county seat. March 15 – Society of Civil Engineers first meets, the worlds oldest engineering society, may 11 – War of the Regulation, North Carolina Governor William Tryon marches his military out of Hillsborough to come to the aid of General Hugh Waddells beleaguered forces. Tryons army stops at Alamance Creek,5 miles away from the Regulator army, may 16 – War of the Regulation, The Battle of Alamance commences after Regulators reject an appeal by Governor Tryon to peacefully disperse. Governor Tryons forces crush the rebellion, causing many Regulators to move to areas outside of North Carolina. May 23 – Battle of Lanckorona, A force of 4,000 Russians under Alexander Suvorov defeat a Polish formation of 1,300 men, july 13 – Russo-Turkish War, Russian forces occupy the Crimea under Prince Vasily Dolgorukov
6.
1780s
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January 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, British Admiral Sir George Rodney defeats a Spanish fleet. February 29 – The Omicron Delta Omega co-ed fraternity is founded by Benjamin Franklin, March 26 – The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain, begins publication. April 16 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, may 4 – The first Epsom Derby horse race is run on Epsom Downs, Surrey, England. May 12 – American Revolutionary War, Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces, may 13 – Cumberland Compact signed by American settlers in the Cumberland Valley of Tennessee. May 19 – New Englands Dark Day, An unaccountable darkness spreads over New England, may 29 – American Revolutionary War, Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre. June 2 – An Anti-Catholic mob led by Lord George Gordon marches on Parliament of Great Britain leading to the outbreak of the Gordon Riots in London, June 7 – The Gordon Riots in London are ended by the intervention of troops. About 285 people are dead, with another 200 wounded. June 23 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Springfield – The Continental Army defeats the British in New Jersey, July 11 – French soldiers arrive in Newport, Rhode Island to reinforce colonists in the American Revolutionary War. August 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Camden, British troops inflict heavy losses on a Patriot army at Camden, South Carolina. August 9 – American Revolutionary War, Spanish admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova captures a British convoy totalling 55 vessels amongst Indiamen, frigates, August 24 – Louis XVI of France abolishes the use of torture in extracting confessions. September 21 – Benedict Arnold gives detailed plans of West Point to Major John André, three days later, André is captured with papers revealing that Arnold was planning to surrender West Point to the British. September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York, October 2 – American Revolutionary War, In Tappan, New York, British spy John André is hanged by American forces. October 7 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Kings Mountain, October 10–October 16 – The Great Hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and Sint Eustatius,22,000 dead. November 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, December 16 – Emperor Kōkaku accedes to the throne of Japan. December 20 – Start of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, jose Gabriel Kunturkanki, businessman and landowner, proclaims himself Inca Túpac Amaru II. The Duke of Richmond calls, in the House of Lords of Great Britain, for manhood suffrage and annual parliaments, jeremy Benthams Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation, presenting his formulation of utilitarian ethics, is printed in London. Nikephoros Theotokis starts introducing Edinoverie, an attempt to integrate the Old Believers into Russias established church, woodford Reserve bourbon whiskey distillery begins operation in Kentucky. C. s pitch. The amateur dramatic group Det Dramatiske Selskab in Christiania is founded in Norway, western countries pay 16,000,000 ounces of silver for Chinese goods
7.
1790s
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January 8 – United States President George Washington gives the first State of the Union address, in New York City. January 11 –11 minor states of the Austrian Netherlands which took part in the Brabant Revolution at the end of 1789 sign a Treaty of Union creating the United States of Belgium, prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt refuses to recognize the new confederations independence. January 26 – Mozarts opera Così fan tutte premiered in Vienna, January 30 – The first boat specialized as a rescue lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne in England. February 1 – In New York City the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first time, February 4 – Louis XVI of France declares to the National Assembly that he will maintain the constitutional laws. February 11 – Two Quaker delegates petition the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery, march 1 – The first United States Census is authorized, it is held later in the year. March 4 – France is divided into 83 départements, which cut across the former provinces, march 21 – Thomas Jefferson reports to President George Washington in New York as the new United States Secretary of State. April 10 – The United States patent system is established, may 17–18 – Battle of Andros, an Ottoman–Algerian fleet destroys the fleet of the Greek privateer Lambros Katsonis. May 29 – Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the last of the 13 original states to do so, June 9 – Royal assent is given to establishment of the port of Milford Haven in Wales. June 23 – The alleged London Monster is arrested in London, july – Louis XVI of France accepts a constitutional monarchy. July 12 – French Revolution, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed and this completes the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships. July 14 – French Revolution, Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people, july 16 – The signing of the Residence Bill establishes a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia, the capital district of the United States. S. July 27 – The Convention of Reichenbach is signed between Prussia and Austria, july 31 – Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a U. S. patent. August 4 – A newly passed U. S. tariff act creates the system of cutters for revenue enforcement, August 14 – The Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish War. December 11 – Russo-Turkish War,26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their lives during Alexander Suvorovs storm of Izmail, January 12 – Holy Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution and the restoration of its Prince-Bishops. January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, February 21 – The United States opens diplomatic relations with Portugal. March 2 – In France, Abolition of guilds is enacted, a mechanical semaphore line for rapid long-distance communication is demonstrated by Claude Chappe in Paris. March 4 – Vermont is admitted as the 14th U. S. state, march 13 – Thomas Paines chief work Rights of Man is published in London. March – In France, the National Constituent Assembly accepts the recommendation of its Commission of Weights, april 21 – The first of forty boundary stones delineating the borders of the new District of Columbia in the United States is laid at Jones Point Light, in Alexandria, Virginia
8.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments
9.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
10.
1793
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January 7 – The Ebel riot in Sweden. January 9 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a gas balloon in the United States, January 21 – After being found guilty of treason by the French National Convention, Citizen Capet, Louis XVI of France, is guillotined in Paris. January 23 – Second Partition of Poland, The Russian Empire, february 1 – French Revolutionary Wars, France declares war on Great Britain and the Netherlands. February 25 – George Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting as President of the United States, february 27 – The Giles resolutions are introduced to the United States House of Representatives, asking the House to condemn Alexander Hamiltons handling of loans. March 1–3 – John Langdon serves as President pro tempore of the United States Senate, march 4 – George Washington is sworn in as President of the United States in Philadelphia for his second term. March 5 – French troops are defeated by Austrian forces and Liège is recaptured, march 7 – France declares war on Spain. March 18 Second Battle of Neerwinden, A Coalition army of Habsburg Austria, the first republican state in Germany, the Republic of Mainz, is declared by Andreas Joseph Hofmann. April 6 – The Committee of Public Safety is established in France with Georges Danton as its head, april 22 – George Washington signs the Neutrality Proclamation. June – The Macartney Embassy, a British diplomatic mission to China led by George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney, reaches Canton, june 2 – The Girondins are overthrown in France. June 10 – The Jardin des Plantes and the Muséum national dhistoire naturelle are created by the National Convention, the museum opens in Paris the following year and the garden houses one of the first public zoos. July 9 – The Act Against Slavery is passed in Upper Canada, july 13 – Charlotte Corday kills Jean-Paul Marat in his bath. July 17 – Charlotte Corday is executed, july 29 – John Graves Simcoe decides to build a fort and settlement at Toronto, having sailed into the bay there. August 1–November 9 – The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 hits Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,5,000 die, august 10 – French Revolution – Feast of Unity, Crowds in Paris burn monarchist emblems. The Louvre is officially opened in Paris, France, august 23 – The following universal conscription decree is enacted in France, The young men shall go to battle and the married men shall forge arms. The women shall make tents and clothes and shall serve in the hospitals, the old men will be guided to the public places of the cities to kindle the courage of the young warriors and to preach the unity of the Republic and the hatred of kings. September 5 – French Revolution – The National Convention begins the 10-month Reign of Terror, september 8 – The first Círio de Nazaré is celebrated in Belém. October 5 – French Revolutionary Wars, Raid on Genoa – The British Royal Navy boards, october 15–16 – French Revolution, Battle of Wattignies – A French Republican force commanded by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan compels a Habsburg Austrian Coalition army to retire. October 24 – The French Republican Calendar is adopted by the National Convention, november 10 – The dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution reaches a climax with the celebration of the Goddess Reason in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris
11.
1794
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As of the start of 1794, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 4 – The French First Republic abolishes slavery, february 11 – The first session of the United States Senate is open to the public. March 11 – Canonsburg Academy is chartered by the General Assembly, march 14 – Eli Whitney is granted a patent for the cotton gin. March 24 – Tadeusz Kościuszko makes his proclamation starting the Kościuszko Uprising against the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussian Partition. March 27 – The United States Government authorizes the building of the first six United States Navy vessels, not to be confused with October 13,1775, april 4 – Battle of Racławice, Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising defeat forces of the Russian Empire. April 5 – French Revolution, Georges Danton is executed, april 17–19 – Kościuszko Uprising – Warsaw Uprising, The Polish people overthrow the Russian garrison in Warsaw. April 29–May 1 – Battle of Boulou, The French defeat the Spanish, may 7 – French Revolution, Robespierre establishes the Cult of the Supreme Being as the new state religion of the French First Republic. May 8 – French Revolution, Chemist Antoine Lavoisier is executed by guillotine, may 18 – Battle of Tourcoing, French troops defeat British forces. May 28–June 1 – The Glorious First of June, British, June 4 – British troops capture Port-au-Prince in Haiti. June 17 The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom is established, Battle of Mykonos, The British Royal Navy captures French frigate Sibylle. June 24 – Bowdoin College is founded in Brunswick, Maine, June 26 – Battle of Fleurus, French forces defeat the Austrians and their allies, leading to permanent loss of the Austrian Netherlands and destruction of the Dutch Republic. French use of an observation balloon marks the first participation of an aircraft in battle, july 12 – Horatio Nelson loses the sight in his right eye in a British military operation at Calvi in Corsica. July 13–September 6 – Kościuszko Uprising – Siege of Warsaw, The Polish people resist a siege by armies of the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia. July 27 – Thermidorian Reaction, Robespierre is arrested on the orders of the French National Convention, he is executed the next day, august 20 – Battle of Fallen Timbers in Northwestern Ohio. August 29 – Stonyhurst College is finally established as a Roman Catholic school in Lancashire, England, september 10 – The University of Tennessee is established at Knoxville. October – A Federal army quells the Whiskey Rebellion in the United States, October 10 – Battle of Maciejowice, Forces of the Russian Empire defeat Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising, Tadeusz Kościuszko is wounded and captured. November 4 – Battle of Praga, Russian General Alexander Suvorov storms Warsaw in the war against the Polish Kościuszko Uprising and captures Praga, one of its suburbs, november 14 – The first recorded meeting of the Franklin Literary Society is held at Canonsburg Academy. November 19 – The United States and Great Britain conclude the Jay Treaty, coffee is forbidden by royal decree in Sweden
12.
1797
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As of the start of 1797, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – The Treaty of Tripoli, a treaty between the United States and Ottoman Tripolitania, is signed at Algiers. January 7 – The parliament of the Cisalpine Republic adopts the Italian green-white-red tricolour as the official flag, January 26 – The Treaty of the Third Partition of Poland is signed in St. Petersburg by the Russian Empire, Austria and the Kingdom of Prussia. February 2 – Siege of Mantua, Field marshal Dagobert von Wurmser capitulates the fortress city to the French, only 16,000 men of the garrison are capable of marching out as prisoners of war. February 3 – Battle of Faenza, A French corps under General Claude Victor-Perrin defeats the forces from the Papal States at Castel Bolognese near Faenza, Italy. February 12 – First performance of Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser, with the music composed in January by Joseph Haydn which also becomes the tune to the Deutschlandlied, the German national anthem. February 14 – The Battle of Cape St Vincent, part of the French Revolutionary Wars, The British Royal Navy under Admiral Sir John Jervis defeats a larger Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Portugal. February 18 – Spanish Governor José María Chacón peacefully surrenders the colony of Trinidad to a British naval force commanded by Sir Ralph Abercromby, february 19 – Treaty of Tolentino, Pope Pius VI signs a peace treaty with Revolutionary France. He is forced to deliver works of art, treasures, territory, february 22 – The last invasion of Britain begins, French forces under the command of American Colonel William Tate land near Fishguard in Wales. February 25 – William Tate surrenders to the British at Fishguard, february 26 – The Bank of England issues the first one-pound and two-pound notes. March 4 – Inauguration of John Adams, John Adams is sworn in as the second President of the United States, march 5 – Protestant missionaries from the London Missionary Society land in Tahiti from the Duff. March 16 – Battle of Valvasone, The Austrian army led by Archduke Charles fights a rearguard action at the crossing of the Tagliamento river but is defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte at Valvasone, april 16 – Spithead and Nore mutinies in the British Royal Navy. April 17 – Veronese Easter, Citizens of Verona, Italy, april 18 – Armistice of Leoben, On behalf of the French Republic a delegation under Napoleon Bonaparte signs a peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire at Leoben. May 10 – The first ship of the United States Navy, may 12 – War of the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Venice, ending the city and Republic of Venices 1,100 years of independence. The last doge of Venice, Ludovico Manin, steps down, the Venetian Ghetto is thrown open. May 30 – William Wilberforce marries Barbara Ann Spooner, june 29 – Napoleon Bonaparte creates in a decree the birth of the Cisalpine Republic. He appoints ministers and establishes the first constitution, july 24 – Horatio Nelson is wounded at the Battle of Santa Cruz, losing an arm. August 29 – Massacre of Tranent, British troops attack protestors against enforced recruitment into the militia at Tranent in Scotland, october – The XYZ Affair inflames tensions between France and the United States
13.
1798
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As of the start of 1798, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Constantine Hangerli enters Bucharest as Prince of Wallachia, january 22 – A coup détat is staged in the Netherlands. Unitarian Democrat Pieter Vreede makes an end to the power of the parliament, february 10 – The papacy is removed from power by French General Louis-Alexandre Berthier. March 5 – French troops enter Bern, march 7 – French forces invade the Papal States and establish the Roman Republic. S. and Spain. April 12 – Helvetic Republic, a French client republic, proclaimed following collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy on French invasion, april 26 – France annexes Geneva. May 9 – Napoleon sets off for Toulon, and sails aboard Vice-Admiral Brueyss flagship LOrient, may 23 – Irish republicans and nationalists, known as the Society of United Irishmen, launch a rebellion against British rule in expectation of greater support from France which only sent 1100 men. The United Irishmen are unique amongst Irish nationalist movements in that they unify Catholics, the rebellion rages sporadically but is defeated by the British by October. June 12 The French take Malta, a moderate coup détat in the Netherlands deposes Pieter Vreede. June 13 – Mission San Luis Rey de Francia is founded, july 1 – Egyptian Campaign, Napoleon disembarks his French army in Marabout Bay. July 7 Quasi-War, The United States Congress rescinds treaties with France, in the action of USS Delaware vs La Croyable, the newly-formed United States Navy makes its first capture. July 11 – The United States Marine Corps is re-established, july 12 – Battle of Shubra Khit between French and Mamelukes, during Napoleons march from Alexandria to take Cairo. July 14 – The Alien and Sedition Acts become United States law, making it a crime to write, publish. July 16 – The Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen Act is signed into law, creating the Marine Hospital Service, july 21 – Battle of the Pyramids, Napoleon defeats Ottoman forces near the Pyramids. July 24 – Napoleon occupies Cairo, july 31 – A second round of elections are held in the Netherlands, no general elections this time. August 1 – Battle of the Nile, Lord Nelson defeats the French navy under Admiral Brueys, august 22 – French troops land at Kilcummin in County Mayo to assist the Irish rebellion. September – Charles Brockden Brown publishes the first significant American novel, the Gothic fiction Wieland, or, The Transformation, an American Tale. September 10 – Battle of St. Georges Caye, Off the coast of British Honduras, september 18 – Lyrical Ballads is published anonymously by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, inaugurating the English Romantic movement in literature. November 4 – Beginning of the Russo-Ottoman siege of Corfu, november 8 – British whaler John Fearn becomes the first European to land on Nauru
14.
1799
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As of the start of 1799, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 9 – British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger introduces an income tax of two shillings to the pound to raise funds for Great Britains war effort in the Napoleonic Wars. February 28 – Action of 28 February 1799 British Royal Navy frigate HMS Sybille defeats the French frigate Forte off the mouth of the Hooghly River in the Bay of Bengal, march 1 – Federalist James Ross becomes President pro tempore of the United States Senate. March 3 – The Russo-Ottoman siege of Corfu ends with the surrender of the French garrison, march 7 – Napoleon captures Jaffa in Palestine and his troops proceed to kill more than 2,000 Albanian captives. March 29 – New York passes a law aimed at gradually abolishing slavery in the state, may 4 – Battle of Seringapatam, Tipu Sultan is defeated and killed by the British, captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam ends. May 21 – Siege of Acre ends after two months, Napoleons attempt to widen his Middle Eastern campaign into Syria is frustrated by Ottoman forces, may 27 – Battle of Winterthur, Habsburg forces secure control of north-east Switzerland from the French Army of the Danube. June 18 – Action of 18 June 1799, a French frigate squadron under Rear-admiral Perrée is captured by the British fleet under Lord Keith off Toulon, july 7 – Ranjit Singhs men take their positions outside Lahore. July 12 – Ranjit Singh captures Lahore from the Bhangi Misl, july 15 – In the Egyptian port city of Rosetta, French Captain Pierre Bouchard finds the Rosetta Stone. July 25 – At Aboukir in Egypt, Napoleon defeats 10,000 Ottoman Mamluk troops under Mustafa Pasha, august 27 – War of the Second Coalition, Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland – Britain and Russia send an expedition to the Batavian Republic. October 6 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, Battle of Castricum – Franco-Dutch forces defeat the Russo-British expedition force, October 9 – HMS Lutine is sunk in the West Frisian Islands. October 12 – Jeanne Geneviève Labrosse becomes the first woman to jump from a balloon with a parachute, October 16 – Action of 16 October 1799, A Spanish treasure convoy worth more than £54,000,000 is captured by the British Royal Navy off Vigo. October 18 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, Anglo-Russian expedition forces surrender in North Holland, november 9 – Napoleon overthrows the French Directory in a coup détat. December 14 – George Washington, the first President of the United States, dies at Mount Vernon, december 31 – The Dutch East India Companys charter is allowed to expire by the Batavian Republic. The Place Royale in Paris is renamed Place des Vosges when the Department of Vosges becomes the first to pay new Revolutionary taxes. 12-year-old Conrad John Reed finds what he describes as a yellow rock along Little Meadow Creek in Cabarrus County, North Carolina. Conrads father John Reed learns that the rock is actually gold in 1802, the assassination of the 14th Tui Kanokupolu, Tukuʻaho, plunges Tonga into half a century of civil war. The Nawab of Oudh in northern India sends to George III of England the Padshah Nama, William Cockerill begins building cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium. The small town of Tignish, Prince Edward Island, Canada is founded and she was the central character of the Petticoat affair
15.
1796 in architecture
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The year 1796 in architecture involved some significant events. October 8 - The Sans Souci Theatre in Westminster, London, opens to the public, built by dramatist, musician, somerset House in London, designed by William Chambers is completed. The parish church of Urtijëi in the Italian Tyrol, designed by Joseph Abenthung, is completed, hwaseong Fortress in Suwon, Korea, designed by Jeong Yak-yong, is completed. Work begins on Blaise Castle, commissioned by John Scandrett Harford from William Paty, the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Fustat, Egypt, is rebuilt by Mamluk leader Mourad Bey
16.
1796 in Australia
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Edward Youngs The Revenge and the comedy The Hotel are the first works performed. 23 January – The distillation of spirits is prohibited,5 February – Soldiers from the New South Wales Corps wreck a house belonging to millwright John Baughan. 10 February – Magistrate William Balmain challenges Macarthur over the house-wrecking incident,29 February – Macarthur resigns as Inspector of the Public Works and is replaced by Richard Atkins. June – George Bass makes an attempt to cross the Blue Mountains. Coal is discovered near Port Stephens,14 September – Governor Hunter complains to the Colonial Secretary of Macarthur’s behaviour. 15 September – Macarthur complains to Colonial Secretary of Hunter’s governing,9 November – As Sydney grows, Hunter disbands the convict night watch. He divides Sydney into four districts responsible for their own watchmen, first beer is brewed in Australia by John Boston. 20 March – Edward Gibbon Wakefield date unknown Henry Vincent, first superintendent of Rottnest Island Aboriginal Prison Barker, the World Upside Down, Australia 1788 –1830. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007
17.
1796 in Canada
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Events from the year 1796 in Canada. About 600 Blacks from Jamaica are deported to Nova Scotia, known as Maroons, they help rebuild the Halifax Citadel. In 1800, most of them leave for Sierra Leone, Africa, york officially becomes the capital of Upper Canada. American David McLane, being convicted of treason, is hanged on a gibbet on the glacis of the fortifications at Quebec. July 10 - Joseph Fairbanks, merchant and political figure in Nova Scotia
18.
1796 in France
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Events from the year 1796 in France. 9 March - Widow Joséphine de Beauharnais marries General Napoléon Bonaparte,12 April - Battle of Montenotte, French victory over Austria and Sardinian forces. Napoleon Bonapartes first victory as an army commander,13 April - Battle of Millesimo, French victory against Austrian and Sardinian forces. 14 April-15 April - Second Battle of Dego, French victory over Austro-Sardinian forces,21 April - Battle of Mondovì, French victory over the Kingdom of Sardinia. 10 May - Battle of Lodi, French victory over Austria,15 May - French troops take Milan. 5 July - Battle of Rastatt, French victory against Austria,5 August - Battle of Castiglione, French victory over Austria. 11 August - Battle of Neresheim, French victory over Austria,19 August - Second Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed by France and Spain, to ally against Great Britain. 24 August - Battle of Amberg, Austrian victory over French forces,3 September - Battle of Würzburg, Austrian victory over France. 4 September - Battle of Rovereto, French victory against Austria,8 September - Battle of Bassano, French victory over Austrian forces. 15 November-17 November - Battle of the Bridge of Arcole, French victory over Austria,17 February - Louis Eugène Marie Bautain, philosopher and theologian. 22 February - Alexis Bachelot, Roman Catholic priest and Prefect Apostolic of the Sandwich Islands,17 March - Jean-François Bayard, playwright. 31 March - Philippe Buchez, author and politician,1 June - Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, physicist and military engineer. 24 June - Charles Cousin-Montauban, Comte de Palikao, general,17 July - Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, painter. 24 September - Antoine-Louis Barye, sculptor,6 November - Jean-Claude-Léonard Baveux, priest and missionary in Canada. 21 November - Jean Zuléma Amussat, surgeon,1 January - Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde, musician and chemist. 8 January - Jean-Marie Collot dHerbois, actor, dramatist, essayist,23 February - Jean-Nicolas Stofflet, leader of Revolt in the Vendée. 6 March - Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, writer,26 March - François de Charette, soldier and politician. 1 May - Alexandre Guy Pingré, astronomer and naval geographer,30 July - Nicolas de Pigage, architect
19.
1796 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1796 in Ireland. 1 February - Wolfe Tone arrives in France,12 July - First Orange Institution parades on The Twelfth held to commemorate the Battle of the Boyne in Portadown, Lurgan and Waringstown. 9 August - The convict ship Marquis Cornwallis leaves Cork for Australia, september - Gold rush in the Wicklow Hills near Avoca. 10 December - The convict ship Britannia leaves Cork for Australia,15 December - Expédition dIrlande, French expedition sails from Brest. 22 December - French fleet, with Wolfe Tone on board, arrives in Bantry Bay, insurrection Act and Treason by Women Act passed. Building of the Four Courts in Dublin is substantially completed under the supervision of James Gandon, edward Buntings A General Collection of the Ancient Irish Music is published. 27 March - Robert James Graves, surgeon, april - Abraham Brewster, judge and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. 20 July - Maziere Brady, judge and Lord Chancellor of Ireland,16 August - Francis Crozier, British Royal Navy officer and polar explorer. 4 October - Robert King, 4th Earl of Kingston, soldier,27 November John MacEnery, priest and pioneer archaeologist. Richard Mayne, barrister and joint first Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis,3 December - Francis Kenrick, headed the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia, then was Archbishop of Baltimore. George Crawford Hyndman, auctioneer and marine biologist, John Pitt Kennedy, British military engineer, agricultural reformer and civil servant. George Maguire, Mayor of St. Louis, Missouri, michael Joseph Quin, author, journalist and editor
20.
1796 in the United States
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Events from the year 1796 in the United States. S. July 11 – The United States takes possession of Detroit from Great Britain under the terms of the Jay Treaty July 14 – The de Portolá Expedition sets out from San Diego to find the Port of Monterey. July 22 – Surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company name an area in Ohio Cleveland after Gen. Moses Cleaveland, august 31 – John McKinly, the first President of Delaware, dies in Wilmington, Delaware. September 17 – U. S. President George Washington issues his Farewell Address, november 2 – John Adams defeats Thomas Jefferson in the U. S. presidential election. November 4 – The Treaty of Tripoli is signed at Tripoli, november 10 – The de Portolá Expedition returns from its terminus point to San Diego after failing to find Vizcaínos Port of Monterey. Electoral College meets to elect John Adams president, panic of 1796–1797 February 18 – John Bell, United States Senator from Tennessee from 1847 till 1859. April 10 – Thomas Fitzgerald, United States Senator from Michigan from 1848 till 1849, July 24 – John M. Clayton, United States Senator from Delaware from 1829 till 1836, from 1845 till 1849 and from 1853 till 1856. September 26 – Richard H. Bayard, United States Senator from Delaware from 1841 till 1845, proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol.19 Henry S. Parsons. William and Mary College in 1796, the William and Mary Quarterly, Second Series, Vol.15, No. Early Party Machinery in the United States, Pennsylvania in the Election of 1796, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.60, No. The Westward Migration of a Planter Pioneer in 1796, the William and Mary Quarterly, Second Series, Vol.21, No. The Tennessee Constitution of 1796, A Product of the Old West, the Journal of Southern History, Vol.9, No. The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol.3, amelia Simmons Fills a Need, American Cookery,1796. The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol.14, washingtons Farewell, the French Alliance, and the Election of 1796. The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol.43, No, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.91, No. Edwin R. Baldridge Jr. Talleyrands visit to Pennsylvania, 1794-1796, the Significance of Thomas Pinckneys Candidacy in the Election of 1796. The South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol.76, No, an English Immigrant Views American Society, Benjamin Henry Latrobes Virginia Years, 1796-1798. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.85, advertisements For Runaway Slaves, Indentured Servants, and Apprentices in the Pennsylvania Gazette, 1795–1796
21.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
22.
French Republican Calendar
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The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France. Sylvain Maréchal, prominent anticlerical atheist, published the first edition of his Almanach des Honnêtes-gens in 1788, on pages 14–15 appears a calendar, consisting of twelve months. The first month is Mars, ou Princeps, the last month is Février, the lengths of the months are the same, however, the 10th, 20th, and 30th are singled out of each month as the end of a décade. Individual days were assigned, instead of to the saints, to people noteworthy for mostly secular achievements. Later editions of the almanac would switch to the Republican Calendar, the days of the French Revolution and Republic saw many efforts to sweep away various trappings of the ancien régime, some of these were more successful than others. The new Republican government sought to institute, among other reforms, a new social and legal system, a new system of weights and measures, and a new calendar. Amid nostalgia for the ancient Roman Republic, the theories of the Enlightenment were at their peak, natural constants, multiples of ten, and Latin as well as Old Greek derivations formed the fundamental blocks from which the new systems were built. The new calendar was created by a commission under the direction of the politician Charles-Gilbert Romme seconded by Claude Joseph Ferry and it is because of his position as rapporteur of the commission that the creation of the republican calendar is attributed to Romme. The calendar is called the French Revolutionary Calendar because it was created during the Revolution. Indeed, there was initially a debate as to whether the calendar should celebrate the Great Revolution, which began in July 1789, or the Republic, immediately following 14 July 1789, papers and pamphlets started calling 1789 year I of Liberty and the following years II and III. It was in 1792, with the problem of dating financial transactions. Originally, the choice of epoch was either 1 January 1789 or 14 July 1789, after some hesitation the assembly decided on 2 January 1792 that all official documents would use the era of Liberty and that the year IV of Liberty started on 1 January 1792. This usage was modified on 22 September 1792 when the Republic was proclaimed, the establishment of the Republic was used as the epochal date for the calendar, therefore, the calendar commemorates the Republic, not the Revolution. In France, it is known as the calendrier républicain as well as the calendrier révolutionnaire, the Revolution is usually considered to have ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire in Year VIII. The French Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon I as Empereur des Français on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII, French coins of the period naturally used this calendar. Many show the year in Arabic numbers, although Roman numerals were used on some issues, Year 11 coins typically have a XI date to avoid confusion with the Roman II. Napoléon finally abolished the calendar with effect from 1 January 1806, however, it was used again during the brief Paris Commune, 6–23 May 1871. These documents have kept their original dates for legal accuracy and citation purposes, years appear in writing as Roman numerals, with epoch 22 September 1792, the beginning of the Republican Era
23.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
24.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
25.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
26.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
27.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
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Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
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Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
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Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
