1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1790s
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January 8 – United States President George Washington gives the first State of the Union address, in New York City. January 11 –11 minor states of the Austrian Netherlands which took part in the Brabant Revolution at the end of 1789 sign a Treaty of Union creating the United States of Belgium, prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt refuses to recognize the new confederations independence. January 26 – Mozarts opera Così fan tutte premiered in Vienna, January 30 – The first boat specialized as a rescue lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne in England. February 1 – In New York City the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first time, February 4 – Louis XVI of France declares to the National Assembly that he will maintain the constitutional laws. February 11 – Two Quaker delegates petition the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery, march 1 – The first United States Census is authorized, it is held later in the year. March 4 – France is divided into 83 départements, which cut across the former provinces, march 21 – Thomas Jefferson reports to President George Washington in New York as the new United States Secretary of State. April 10 – The United States patent system is established, may 17–18 – Battle of Andros, an Ottoman–Algerian fleet destroys the fleet of the Greek privateer Lambros Katsonis. May 29 – Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the last of the 13 original states to do so, June 9 – Royal assent is given to establishment of the port of Milford Haven in Wales. June 23 – The alleged London Monster is arrested in London, july – Louis XVI of France accepts a constitutional monarchy. July 12 – French Revolution, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed and this completes the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships. July 14 – French Revolution, Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people, july 16 – The signing of the Residence Bill establishes a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia, the capital district of the United States. S. July 27 – The Convention of Reichenbach is signed between Prussia and Austria, july 31 – Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a U. S. patent. August 4 – A newly passed U. S. tariff act creates the system of cutters for revenue enforcement, August 14 – The Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish War. December 11 – Russo-Turkish War,26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their lives during Alexander Suvorovs storm of Izmail, January 12 – Holy Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution and the restoration of its Prince-Bishops. January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, February 21 – The United States opens diplomatic relations with Portugal. March 2 – In France, Abolition of guilds is enacted, a mechanical semaphore line for rapid long-distance communication is demonstrated by Claude Chappe in Paris. March 4 – Vermont is admitted as the 14th U. S. state, march 13 – Thomas Paines chief work Rights of Man is published in London. March – In France, the National Constituent Assembly accepts the recommendation of its Commission of Weights, april 21 – The first of forty boundary stones delineating the borders of the new District of Columbia in the United States is laid at Jones Point Light, in Alexandria, Virginia
6.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments
7.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
8.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
9.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
10.
1810
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As of the start of 1810, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Australian seal hunter Frederick Hasselborough discovers Campbell Island in the Subantarctic, january 12 – The marriage of Napoleon and Joséphine is annulled. February 20 – Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer is executed, march 4 – Peninsular War, The French Army, under the command of André Masséna, retreats from Portugal. March 11 – Napoleon marries Marie-Louise of Austria, april 19 – Venezuela achieves home rule, Vicente Emparán, Governor of the Captaincy General of Venezuela, is removed by the people of Caracas and a junta is installed. Venezuela is the first South American state to proclaim independence from Spain, april 27 – Beethoven composes his famous piano piece, Für Elise. May 1 – Macons Bill Number 2 becomes law in the United States, intending to motivate Britain, may 3 – Lord Byron swims across the Hellespont in Turkey. May 10 – Rev. Henry Duncan opens the worlds first commercial bank in Ruthwell. May 18–May 25 – May Revolution, Armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy, june 4 – The Society in Dedham for Apprehending Horse Thieves is founded in Dedham, Massachusetts. June 23 – John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company, june – Nicolas Appert publishes Lart de conserver pendant plusieurs années toutes les substances animales ou végétales, the first description of modern food preservation using airtight containers. April through Summer – Kingdom of Hawaii unified, july 9 – Napoleon annexes the Kingdom of Holland. July 11 – Frederick Hasselborough discovers Macquarie Island in the subantarctic, july 20 – Patria Boba, A junta of seven patriots led by José Acevedo y Gómez assemble in Bogotá in the Viceroyalty of New Granada to declare its independence from the Spanish Empire. August 2–200 citizens are slaughtered in the Royal barracks and the streets of Quito. August 6 – The city of Santa Cruz de Mompox, in modern-day Colombia, august 20–27 – Battle of Grand Port, The French force the British Royal Navy fleet attempting to blockade a harbour on Isle de France to surrender. August 21 – Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France, is elected Crown Prince of Sweden by the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates, september 8 – The Tonquin sets sail from New York Harbor with 33 employees of John Jacob Astors newly created Pacific Fur Company on board. After a 6-month journey around the tip of South America, the ship arrives at the mouth of the Columbia River, september 16 – Grito de Dolores, Miguel Hidalgo, a Catholic priest from Guanajuato, incites the revolt that becomes the Mexican War of Independence. September 18 – Chile forms its First National Junta, which is the countrys first step towards its independence, september 23 – The Republic of West Florida declares independence from Spain. September 26 – A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates, october – King George III of the United Kingdom is recognized as insane. October 27 – The United States annexes the Republic of West Florida, November 17 – Anglo-Swedish War, Sweden declares war on the United Kingdom
11.
1811
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As of the start of 1811, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 8 – An unsuccessful slave revolt is led by Charles Deslondes in St. Charles and St. James Parishes, January 22 – The Casas Revolt begins in San Antonio, Spanish Texas. February 5 – British Regency, George, Prince of Wales becomes Prince Regent because of the insanity of his father. February 19 – Peninsular War, Battle of the Gebora – An outnumbered French force under Édouard Mortier routs, march 1 – Citadel Massacre in Cairo, Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali kills the last Mamluk leaders. March 5 – Peninsular War, Battle of Barrosa, an unsuccessful French attack on a larger Anglo-Portuguese-Spanish force attempting to lift the Siege of Cádiz in Spain, march 13 – Battle of Lissa, The British fleet defeats the French. March 22 – The Commissioners Plan for Manhattan is presented, march 25 – Great Comet discovered by Honoré Flaugergues. March 27 – Battle of Anholt, The British Navy defeats Denmark, march 28 – Henri Christophe is proclaimed King Henri I, turning the northern State of Haiti into the Kingdom of Haiti. April 5–6 – Revolutionary riots occur in Buenos Aires, may 14 – Paraguay declares independence from the Spanish Empire. May 16 – Peninsular War Battle of Albuera, Spain, Portugal, may 18 – The Battle of Las Piedras is fought near Las Piedras, Banda Oriental, resulting in the first victory for the independentists of Uruguay. June 9 – The Great Podil fire breaks out in Kiev, June 10 – A volcanic eruption briefly creates Sabrina Island. June 15 – The Klågerup riots in Sweden, July 5 – Venezuela declares its Independence from the Spanish Empire. July 9 – British explorer David Thompson posts a notice at the confluence of the Columbia, July 11 – The Russian Empire removes Anton II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, from his office, placing a Russian-appointed bishop at the head of the Georgian church. July 14 Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro publishes his memoire about the content of gases. David Thompson reaches the mouth of the Columbia River, finding Fort Astoria under construction, July 30 — Mexican War of Independence, Priest and military leader Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is executed as a rebel by the Spanish government of New Spain. October 11 – Inventor John Stevens boat, the Juliana, begins operation as the first steam-powered ferry service, october 23 – José Gervasio Artigas and 16.000 orientales leave the Banda Oriental del Uruguay to go into exile. October 26 – The Argentine Government declares freedom of expression for the press, november – Luddite uprisings begin in northern England and the Midlands. November 7 – Battle of Tippecanoe, American troops led by William Henry Harrison defeat the Native American spiritual leader Tenskwatawa, november 17 – José Miguel Carrera, Chilean founding father, is sworn in as President of the executive Junta of the government of Chile. December 2 – Reverend Samuel Marsden sends the first commercial shipment of wool from New South Wales to England, december 16 – The New Madrid earthquake in the Mississippi Valley near New Madrid reverses the course of the river for a while
12.
1812
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As of the start of 1812, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch enters into force in the Austrian Empire, february 7 The last New Madrid earthquake strikes New Madrid, Missouri, with an estimated moment magnitude of over 8. Novelist Charles Dickens is born in Portsmouth, England, february 12 – Napoleon authorizes the usage of Mesures usuelles, the basis of the metric system. February 13 – First Chilean newspaper Aurora de Chile is dealing with political philosophy, february 27 Argentine War of Independence, Manuel Belgrano raises the Flag of Argentina in the city of Rosario for the first time. English poet Lord Byron gives his first address as a member of the British House of Lords, March 5 – Prussia and France sign the Treaty of Paris March 15 – Luddites attack the wool-processing factory of Frank Vickerman in West Yorkshire. March 16–April 6 – Siege of Badajoz, The Anglo-Portuguese Army, under the Earl of Wellington, besieges Badajoz in Spain, March 19 – The Cádiz Cortes create the first modern Spanish constitution. The 1812 Caracas earthquake destroys Caracas in Venezuela, april 4 – U. S. President James Madison enacts a 90-day embargo on trade with the United Kingdom. April 30 – Louisiana is admitted as the 18th U. S. state, may 11 – John Bellingham assassinates British Prime Minister Spencer Perceval in the lobby of the British House of Commons. May 16 – Russian Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov signs the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the Russo-Turkish War, may 25 – Felling mine disaster, A mine explosion at the Felling colliery near Jarrow, England leaves 96 dead. June 1 – War of 1812, U. S. President James Madison asks the U. S. Congress to declare war on the United Kingdom. June 4 – Following Louisianas admittance as a U. S. state, june 16 – New York State charters City Bank of New York, which later became Citibank. June 18 – The War of 1812 between the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom begins, june 24 – Napoleons Grande Armée crosses the Neman River and invades Russia. July 12 – Americans invade Canada at Windsor, Ontario, july 18 – Russias Patriotic War – Battle of Klyastitsy, Kulnev defeats Oudinot but sustains a mortal wound. July 22 – Peninsular War – Battle of Salamanca, British forces led by Lord Wellington defeat French troops near Salamanca in Spain, august 5 – War of 1812, Tecumsehs Indian force ambushes Thomas Van Hornes 200 Americans at Brownstone Creek, causing them to flee and retreat. August 12 – Peninsular War, The combined English and Portuguese army under the command of Wellington enters Madrid following the Battle of Salamanca, august 15 – War of 1812, Battle of Fort Dearborn – Potawatomi warriors overrun the United States fort in Illinois Territory. August 16 – War of 1812, American General William Hull surrenders Fort Detroit without a fight to the British Army, august 19 – War of 1812, The USS Constitution defeats the British frigate Guerriere off the coast of Nova Scotia. The British shot is said to have bounced off the Constitutions sides, september 7 – Napoleonic Wars – French invasion of Russia – Battle of Borodino, The bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic Wars ends in a tactical victory for Napoleon. There are at least 70,000 casualties, with a minimum of 6,562 dead from the French Grande Armée alone, september 14 – French invasion of Russia, Napoleons troops enter Moscow, which is deliberately set on fire by Muscovites on orders of Fyodor Rostopchin
13.
1814
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As of the start of 1814, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 14 – Denmark cedes Norway into personal union with Sweden in exchange for west Pomerania, Sweden never again takes part in war. January 29 – Battle of Brienne, Emperor Napoleon I of France is victorious against von Blücher, January 31 – Gervasio Antonio de Posadas becomes Supreme Director of Argentina. February – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, represents Britain at the Congress of Chatillon, February 1 Lord Byrons semi-autobiographical tale in verse The Corsair is published by John Murray in London and sells 10,000 copies on this day. Mount Mayon eruption the 2nd time, Cagsawa Church is destroyed is devastated, February 11 – Norways independence is proclaimed, marking the ultimate end of the Kalmar Union. February 12 – A fire destroys the Custom House, London, February 14 – Battle of Vauchamps, Napoleon I of France is victorious against von Blücher. February 18 – Battle of Montereau, Napoleon is victorious against Austrian forces, February 21 – Great Stock Exchange Fraud in London. March 7 – Battle of Craonne, Napoleon is victorious against von Blücher, march 8 – Napoleonic Wars, A night attack by the British under Sir Thomas Graham on the French fortress of Bergen op Zoom ends in failure. March 9 – American naval schooner USS Enterprise reaches Wilmington, North Carolina, march 10 – Battle of Laon, von Blücher defeats Napoleon. March 12 – Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême enters Bordeaux, march 25 – De Nederlandsche Bank is established. March 27 – War of 1812 – Battle of Horseshoe Bend, In northern Alabama, march 30 – Napoleonic Wars, Battle of Paris. March 31 – Anti-Napoleonic troops occupy Paris, april 6 – Bourbon Restoration, Louis XVIII is invited to occupy the restored French throne. April 10 – The Duke of Wellington wins the Battle of Toulouse, april 11 – Napoleon abdicates unconditionally as Emperor of the French. April 12 – The Royal Norwegian Navy is re-established, april 18/19 – Genoa surrenders to the British Royal Navy. April 28 – Ligurian Republic revived, may 3 – The Duke of Provence, the future Louis XVIII of France, returns to Paris. May 4 – Ferdinand VII of Spain abolishes the Spanish Constitution of 1812, may 5 – British-American War, British forces attack Fort Ontario at Oswego, New York. May 17 The Constitution of Norway is signed and the Danish Crown Prince Christian Frederik is elected King of Norway by the Norwegian Constituent Assembly, the occupation of Monaco changes from French to Austrian hands. May 30 – The First Treaty of Paris is signed returning Frances borders to their 1792 extent, Napoleon is exiled to Elba on the same day
14.
1815
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As of the start of 1815, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke in Seaham, january 3 – Austria, Britain, and Bourbon-restored France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussia and Russia. January 8 – War of 1812 – Battle of New Orleans, ironically, the Battle of New Orleans was fought after the Commissioners had signed the Treaty of Ghent which would be ratified in Feb of 1815. Thus, this battle had no impact on the outcome of the war, january 15 – War of 1812 – Capture of USS President, American frigate USS President, commanded by Commodore Stephen Decatur, is forced to surrender to a squadron of four British frigates. February – The Hartford Convention arrives in Washington, D. C, february 3 – The first commercial cheese factory is founded in Switzerland. February 4 – The first Dutch student association, the Groninger Studentencorps Vindicat atque Polit is founded in the Netherlands, the first rector of the senate is B. J. Winter. February 6 – New Jersey grants the first American railroad charter to John Stevens, february 17 – The Spanish reconquest of Latin America begins. February 18 – The War of 1812 between the United States the United Kingdom, officially ends, following ratification of the Treaty of Ghent in Washington, february 26 – Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from Elba. March 1 Napoleon returns to France from his banishment on Elba, march 16 – William I becomes King of the Netherlands. March 2–18 – Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy, the last king in Ceylon, is deposed under the terms of the Kandyan Convention, which results in Ceylon becoming a British colony. March 20 – Napoleon enters Paris after escaping from Elba with an army of 140,000. April 5–12 – Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies blows its top explosively during an eruption, killing upwards of 92,000, april 21 – The eastern part of the former Garhwal Kingdom is joined with Kumaon division under the administration of the British Raj. April 24 – The Second Serbian Uprising against Ottoman rule takes place in Takovo, by the end of the year Serbia is acknowledged as a semi-independent state, the ideals of the First Serbian Uprising have thus been temporarily achieved. May 3 – Battle of Tolentino, Austria defeats the Kingdom of Naples, joachim Murat, the defeated King of Naples, is forced to flee to Corsica and is later executed. May 30 – The Arniston, an East Indiaman repatriating wounded troops to England from Ceylon, is wrecked near Waenhuiskrans, South Africa, june 9 – Final Act of the Congress of Vienna is signed, A new European political situation is set. The German Confederation and Congress Poland are created and the neutrality of Switzerland is guaranteed, also, Luxembourg declares independence from the French Empire. June 15 – The Duchess of Richmonds ball is held in Brussels, june 16 Battle of Ligny, Napoleon defeats a Prussian army under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. Battle of Quatre Bras, Marshal Ney wins a victory over an Anglo-Dutch force
15.
1816
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As of the start of 1816, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. This year was known as the Year Without a Summer because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, the sulfur from this eruption reflected the suns rays and caused severe global cooling, catastrophic in some locations. December 25 1815/January 6 – Tsar Alexander I of Russia signs an order for the expulsion of the Jesuits from St. Petersburg, January 9 – Sir Humphry Davys Davy lamp is first tested underground as a coal mining safety lamp at Hebburn Colliery in north east England. January 17 – Fire nearly destroys the city of St. Johns, february 10 – Friedrich Karl Ludwig, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, dies and is succeeded by Friedrich Wilhelm, his son and founder of the House of Glücksburg. February 20 – Gioachino Rossinis opera buffa The Barber of Seville premières at the Teatro Argentina in Rome, march 29/April 10 – The Second Bank of the United States obtains its charter. April 28 – The French Caisse des dépôts et consignations is created by Louis XVIII, may 2 – Leopold of Saxe-Coburg marries Charlotte Augusta, but she dies the next year. June 4 – The Governorate of Estonia of the Russian Empire emancipates its peasants from serfdom, june 19 – Battle of Seven Oaks, The Hudsons Bay Company is defeated by the North West Company, near Winnipeg, Canada. July – Lord Byron, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Polidori, gathered at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in a rainy Switzerland and this gives rise to two classic Gothic narratives, Mary Shelleys Frankenstein and Polidoris The Vampyre. July 9 – The United Provinces of South America declares independence from Spain, july 17 – The French passenger ship Medusa runs aground off the coast of Senegal, with 140 lives lost in the botched rescue that takes weeks, leading to a scandal in the French government. August 14 – The United Kingdom formally annexes the Tristan da Cunha archipelago in the southern Atlantic Ocean, august 12/24 – The Treaty of St. Louis is signed in St. Louis. August 27 – Bombardment of Algiers, Various European Allies ships force Omar Agha, october 21 – Penang Free School is founded by Rev. Sparke Hutchings on the island of Penang. October 25/November 6 – James Monroe defeats Rufus King in the United States presidential election, november 19 – University of Warsaw established. November 30/December 11 – Indiana is admitted as the 19th U. S. state, december 12 – Merger of the thrones of Sicily and Naples into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies under King Ferdinand I. December 9/21 – American Colonization Society established to support the emigration of free African Americans to Africa, shaka starts to rule the Zulu Kingdom at about this date. Banjul, capital of the Gambia, is founded as a trading post named Bathurst, E. Remington and Sons is founded in the United States. Robert Stirling patents his Stirling engine, at this time known as Stirlings air engine, a rail capable of supporting a heavy locomotive is developed. Pomeroy, American politician and railroad executive January 30 – Nathaniel P. S
16.
1813 in France
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Events from the year 1813 in France. 20 May–21 May - Battle of Bautzen, French victory over a combined Russian/Prussian army,3 June-11 June - Peninsular War, Siege of Tarragona, Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese forces fail to capture port from its Franco-Italian garrison. 21 June - Peninsular War, Battle of Vitoria, decisive victory by Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese forces,7 July - Peninsular War, Siege of San Sebastian by Anglo-Portuguese forces begins. 25 July - Peninsular War, Battle of Maya, French victory over British forces,25 July - Peninsular War, Battle of Roncesvalles, French victory over Anglo-Portuguese forces. 25 July - Peninsular War, Battle of the Pyrenees, large-scale French offensive,2 August - Peninsular War, Battle of the Pyrenees ends in a tactical Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese victory. 23 August - Battle of Großbeeren, French defeated by an allied Prussian-Swedish army,26 August - Battle of Katzbach, French defeat by Russo-Prussian army. 26 August-27 August - Battle of Dresden results in French victory,30 August - Battle of Kulm, French defeated by Austrian, Russian, and Prussian forces. 31 August - Peninsular War, Battle of San Marcial, Spanish victory over French army,6 September - Battle of Dennewitz, Prussians and Russians victory over French forces. 9 September - Peninsular War, Siege of San Sebastian ends with surrender of French garrison,16 October-19 October - Battle of Leipzig, one of the most decisive defeats suffered by Napoleon Bonaparte. 7 October - Peninsular War, Battle of the Bidassoa, tactical Anglo-Portuguese victory over French forces,30 October-31 October - Battle of Hanau, tactical French victory over Austro-Bavarian forces. 10 November - Peninsular War, Battle of Nivelle, French defeated by British, Portuguese,18 July - Pierre Alphonse Laurent, mathematician. 15 August - Léon Gastinel, composer,23 October - Félix Ravaisson-Mollien, philosopher and archaeologist. 29 October - Eugène Pelletan, writer, journalist and politician,30 November - Charles-Valentin Alkan, composer and pianist. 22 December - Jean-Jacques Bourassé, priest, archaeologist and historian,2 January - Pedro de Almeida Portugal, 3rd Marquis of Alorna, Portuguese general in French service. 6 January - Louis Baraguey dHilliers, general,19 March - Jean Baptiste, baron Franceschi, general. 1 May - Jean-Baptiste Bessières, Marshal of France,23 May - Geraud Duroc, general. 6 June - Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart, architect,26 June - Jacques Thomas Sarrut 29 July - Jean-Andoche Junot, general. 11 August - André Joseph Boussart, general,1 September - Edmé-Martin Vandermaesen, general
17.
1813 in the United States
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Events from the year 1813 in the United States. March 4 – James Madison is sworn in as President of the United States for his second term, march 22 – War of 1812, Col. Richard M. Johnson puts out an order for raising a regiment of mounted volunteers in Kentucky. March 29 – Mexican War of Independence – Battle of Rosillo Creek, The Republican Army of the North defeats the Spanish Royalist Army in present-day Bexar County, Texas. April 27 – War of 1812 – Battle of York, United States troops raid, destroy, but do not hold York, capital of Upper Canada. May 1–9 – War of 1812, First Siege of Fort Meigs, British allied forces, under General Henry Proctor and Chief Tecumseh, lay siege to the fort but do not capture it. May 5 – War of 1812, Dudleys Massacre, A detachment under Colonel William Dudley attempting to relieve the siege of Fort Meigs is decimated, may 27 – War of 1812, In Canada, American forces capture Fort George. June 6 – War of 1812 – Battle of Stoney Creek, july – War of 1812, Second Siege of Fort Meigs fails to defeat General Green Clay. July 5 – War of 1812, Three weeks of British raids on Fort Schlosser, Black Rock and Plattsburgh, August 30 – Creek War – Fort Mims massacre, A force of Creeks belonging to the Red Sticks faction kill hundreds of settlers in Fort Mims in Alabama. September 10 – War of 1812 – Battle of Lake Erie, An American squadron under Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry defeats a British squadron, capturing six ships. October 5 – War of 1812 – Battle of the Thames in Upper Canada, William Henry Harrison defeats the British, and native leader Tecumseh is killed in battle. October 26 – War of 1812 – Battle of Chateauguay, Charles de Salaberry defeats an American invasion November 11 – War of 1812 – Battle of Cryslers Farm, the Americans are defeated by the British. November 16 – The British announce a blockade of Long Island Sound, December 30 – War of 1812, British soldiers burn Buffalo, New York. The Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania is founded, War of 1812 Creek War January 21 – John C. Frémont, soldier, explorer and U. S. Bogy, senator from Missouri from 1873 to 1877 April 23 – Stephen A. Douglas, U. S. Senator from Illinois from 1855 to 1873 October 16 – Daniel D. Pratt, senator from Indiana from 1869 to 1875 December 10 – Zachariah Chandler, U. S. Senator from Michigan from 1857 to 1875 and in 1879 December 19 – Joseph P. Comegys, senator from Delaware from 1856 to 1857 December 20 – Samuel J. Kirkwood, U. S. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.6,4, pp. 346–358 Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.1813. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series, Vol.47, James Morrells Account of a Trip to Ballston and Saratoga Springs in August 1813
18.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
19.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
20.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
21.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
22.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
23.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
24.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
25.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
26.
Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
