1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1790s
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January 8 – United States President George Washington gives the first State of the Union address, in New York City. January 11 –11 minor states of the Austrian Netherlands which took part in the Brabant Revolution at the end of 1789 sign a Treaty of Union creating the United States of Belgium, prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt refuses to recognize the new confederations independence. January 26 – Mozarts opera Così fan tutte premiered in Vienna, January 30 – The first boat specialized as a rescue lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne in England. February 1 – In New York City the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first time, February 4 – Louis XVI of France declares to the National Assembly that he will maintain the constitutional laws. February 11 – Two Quaker delegates petition the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery, march 1 – The first United States Census is authorized, it is held later in the year. March 4 – France is divided into 83 départements, which cut across the former provinces, march 21 – Thomas Jefferson reports to President George Washington in New York as the new United States Secretary of State. April 10 – The United States patent system is established, may 17–18 – Battle of Andros, an Ottoman–Algerian fleet destroys the fleet of the Greek privateer Lambros Katsonis. May 29 – Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the last of the 13 original states to do so, June 9 – Royal assent is given to establishment of the port of Milford Haven in Wales. June 23 – The alleged London Monster is arrested in London, july – Louis XVI of France accepts a constitutional monarchy. July 12 – French Revolution, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed and this completes the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships. July 14 – French Revolution, Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people, july 16 – The signing of the Residence Bill establishes a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia, the capital district of the United States. S. July 27 – The Convention of Reichenbach is signed between Prussia and Austria, july 31 – Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a U. S. patent. August 4 – A newly passed U. S. tariff act creates the system of cutters for revenue enforcement, August 14 – The Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish War. December 11 – Russo-Turkish War,26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their lives during Alexander Suvorovs storm of Izmail, January 12 – Holy Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution and the restoration of its Prince-Bishops. January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, February 21 – The United States opens diplomatic relations with Portugal. March 2 – In France, Abolition of guilds is enacted, a mechanical semaphore line for rapid long-distance communication is demonstrated by Claude Chappe in Paris. March 4 – Vermont is admitted as the 14th U. S. state, march 13 – Thomas Paines chief work Rights of Man is published in London. March – In France, the National Constituent Assembly accepts the recommendation of its Commission of Weights, april 21 – The first of forty boundary stones delineating the borders of the new District of Columbia in the United States is laid at Jones Point Light, in Alexandria, Virginia
6.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments
7.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
8.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
9.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
10.
1816
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As of the start of 1816, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. This year was known as the Year Without a Summer because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, the sulfur from this eruption reflected the suns rays and caused severe global cooling, catastrophic in some locations. December 25 1815/January 6 – Tsar Alexander I of Russia signs an order for the expulsion of the Jesuits from St. Petersburg, January 9 – Sir Humphry Davys Davy lamp is first tested underground as a coal mining safety lamp at Hebburn Colliery in north east England. January 17 – Fire nearly destroys the city of St. Johns, february 10 – Friedrich Karl Ludwig, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, dies and is succeeded by Friedrich Wilhelm, his son and founder of the House of Glücksburg. February 20 – Gioachino Rossinis opera buffa The Barber of Seville premières at the Teatro Argentina in Rome, march 29/April 10 – The Second Bank of the United States obtains its charter. April 28 – The French Caisse des dépôts et consignations is created by Louis XVIII, may 2 – Leopold of Saxe-Coburg marries Charlotte Augusta, but she dies the next year. June 4 – The Governorate of Estonia of the Russian Empire emancipates its peasants from serfdom, june 19 – Battle of Seven Oaks, The Hudsons Bay Company is defeated by the North West Company, near Winnipeg, Canada. July – Lord Byron, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Polidori, gathered at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in a rainy Switzerland and this gives rise to two classic Gothic narratives, Mary Shelleys Frankenstein and Polidoris The Vampyre. July 9 – The United Provinces of South America declares independence from Spain, july 17 – The French passenger ship Medusa runs aground off the coast of Senegal, with 140 lives lost in the botched rescue that takes weeks, leading to a scandal in the French government. August 14 – The United Kingdom formally annexes the Tristan da Cunha archipelago in the southern Atlantic Ocean, august 12/24 – The Treaty of St. Louis is signed in St. Louis. August 27 – Bombardment of Algiers, Various European Allies ships force Omar Agha, october 21 – Penang Free School is founded by Rev. Sparke Hutchings on the island of Penang. October 25/November 6 – James Monroe defeats Rufus King in the United States presidential election, november 19 – University of Warsaw established. November 30/December 11 – Indiana is admitted as the 19th U. S. state, december 12 – Merger of the thrones of Sicily and Naples into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies under King Ferdinand I. December 9/21 – American Colonization Society established to support the emigration of free African Americans to Africa, shaka starts to rule the Zulu Kingdom at about this date. Banjul, capital of the Gambia, is founded as a trading post named Bathurst, E. Remington and Sons is founded in the United States. Robert Stirling patents his Stirling engine, at this time known as Stirlings air engine, a rail capable of supporting a heavy locomotive is developed. Pomeroy, American politician and railroad executive January 30 – Nathaniel P. S
11.
1817
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As of the start of 1817, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Sailing through the Sandwich Islands, Otto von Kotzebue discovers New Year Island, january 19 – An army of 5,423 soldiers, led by General José de San Martín, starts crossing the Andes from Argentina to liberate Chile and then Peru. January 20 – Ram Mohan Roy and David Hare found Hindu College, Calcutta, offering instructions in Western languages, february 12 – Battle of Chacabuco, The Argentine/Chilean patriotic army defeats the Spanish. March 3 President James Madison vetoes John C, U. S. Congress passes law to split the Mississippi Territory, after Mississippi drafts a constitution, creating the Alabama Territory effective in August. March 4 – James Monroe is sworn in as President of the United States, march 21 – The flag of the Pernambucan Revolt is publicly blessed by the dean of Recife cathedral, Brazil. April – An earthquake strikes Palermo, Sicily, april 3 – Princess Caraboo appears in Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, England. April 15 – The American School for the Deaf opens in Hartford, april 29 – The Rush–Bagot Treaty is signed. May – The General Convention of the Episcopal Church founds the General Theological Seminary while meeting in New York City, june 12 – German inventor Karl Drais drives his dandy horse, the earliest form of bicycle, in Mannheim. June 25 – A large riot breaks out in Copenhagen Prison, july 4 – At Rome, New York, construction on the Erie Canal begins. July – Tradesman Jeffery Sedwards establishes the Skibbereen Abstinence Society in Ireland, August 15 – By act of the U. S. August 22 – The town of Araraquara, Brazil is founded. August 23 – An earthquake near the site of the ancient Greek city of Helike results in 65 deaths, october 31 – Emperor Ninkō accedes to the throne of Japan. November 5 – Third Anglo-Maratha War breaks out with the Battle of Khadki, november 20 – The first Seminole War begins in Florida. November 22 – Frédéric Cailliaud discovers the old Roman emerald mines at Sikait, december 10 – Mississippi is admitted as the 20th U. S. state, formerly the Mississippi Territory. First cholera pandemic originates in Bengal, reaching Calcutta by September, a typhus epidemic occurs in Edinburgh and Glasgow. King Ferdinand VII of Spain, by decree, makes the production and sale of tobacco a legal endeavor in Cuba
12.
1818
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As of the start of 1818, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Battle of Koregaon, Troops of the British East India Company score a victory over the Maratha Empire. January 3 – Venus occults Jupiter and it is the last occultation of one planet by another before November 22,2065. January 11 – Percy Bysshe Shelleys Ozymandias is published pseudonymously in London, february 5 – Upon his death, King Charles XIII of Sweden is succeeded on both thrones by his adoptive son Charles XIV/III John, starting the Royal House of Bernadotte. February 12 – Chile proclaims its independence from Spain, march 11 – Mary Shelleys Frankenstein is published anonymously in London. March 15 – First Seminole War, General Andrew Jackson and his American army invade Florida, march 22 – Easter Day in Western Christianity falls on its earliest possible date. In Western Christianity, it not occur on this date again until 2285. April – John Ross sets sail in search of the Northwest Passage, april 1 – First Seminole War, Battle of Miccosukee, Florida, General Andrew Jackson defeats chief Kinhagee. April 5 – Battle of Maipú in the Chilean War of Independence, april 14–August 9 – United States Survey of the Coast operations suspended. May 11 Charles XIV of Sweden–Norway is crowned king of Sweden, the Old Vic theatre founded in London. The Westmorland Gazette is first published at Kendal in the Lake District of England, in July, August 1 – Separate Topographical Bureau of the United States Department of War established. September – Sir Stamford Raffles sets out to visit Lord Hastings, september 7 – Carl III of Sweden–Norway is crowned king of Norway, in Trondheim. September 23 – Border markers are installed for the European territory of Moresnet. October 5 – Claudine Thévenet founds the Roman Catholic order Religieuses de Jésus-Marie in Lyon, November 11 – Anglo-Chinese College is founded by Robert Morrison in Malacca. November 16 – The Saint Louis Academy, which later becomes Saint Louis University, is founded by Reverend Louis William Valentine Dubourg, december 3 – Illinois is admitted as the 21st U. S. state. December 13 – Cyril VI of Constantinople quits his place as an Ecumenical Pariarch, the Afghans defeat a Persian invasion at the Battle of Kafir Qala. The first edition of the Farmers Almanac is published in the United States, First Serbian dictionary, made by Vuk Karadžić. Besses o th Barn brass band is formed in Whitefield, near Manchester, congressman August 31 – Arthur St
13.
1820
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As of the start of 1820, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Trienio Liberal in Spain, A constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to the summoning of the Spanish Parliament, january 20 – Indiana University Bloomington is founded as the Indiana State Seminary. January 28 – History of Antarctica, An Imperial Russian Navy expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, january 29 – George IV of the United Kingdom ascends the throne on the death at Windsor Castle of his father George III, ending the period known as the British Regency. There will be a gap of 21 years before the title Prince of Wales is next used, january 30 – History of Antarctica, Irish Royal Navy captain Edward Bransfield lands on the mainland of Antarctica. February 6 Capture of Valdivia, Lord Cochrane occupies Valdivia in the name of the Republic of Chile,86 free African American colonists sail from New York City to Freetown, Sierra Leone. February 14 – Minh Mạng starts to rule in Vietnam, february 20 – A revolt begins in Santa María Chiquimula, Totonicapán department of Guatemala. March 3 and March 6 – Slavery in the United States, The Missouri Compromise becomes law, allowing admission of Missouri and Maine, slave and free states respectively, March 9 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain accepts the new constitution, beginning the Trienio Liberal. March 10 – The Royal Astronomical Society is founded in London, March 15 – Maine is admitted as the 23rd U. S. state. April – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers the relationship between electricity and magnetism, april 1 – A Proclamation, signed By order of the Committee of Organisation for forming a Provisional Government, begins the Radical War in Scotland. April 8 – The statue of the Venus de Milo is discovered on the Greek island of Milos by a peasant named Yorgos Kentrotas, april 12 – Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece. April 15 – King William I of Württemberg marries his cousin, Pauline Therese, may 1 – The last hanging, drawing and quartering in Britain is meted out to the Cato Street conspirators for treason. May 11 – HMS Beagle is launched at Woolwich Dockyard, may 20 – John Stuart Mill sets out on his formative boyhood trip to France. March – A revolt under Guglielmo Pepe forces Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies to sign a constitution modeled on the Spanish Constitution of 1812, july 20 – Saint Cronans Boys National School opens in Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland under the title Bray Male School and it is the oldest school in Bray and its notable pupils will include President of Ireland Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh. July 26 – Opening of Union Chain Bridge across the River Tweed between England and Scotland, an iron suspension bridge designed by Captain Samuel Brown. Its span of 449 ft is the worlds longest for a bridge at this time. August 24 – A Constitutionalist insurrection breaks out at Oporto, Portugal, september 2 – The Daoguang Emperor succeeds the throne of the Qing Dynasty in China. September 15 – Revolution breaks out in Lisbon against John VI of Portugal, october 9 – Guayaquil declares independence from Spain
14.
1821
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As of the start of 1821, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 21 – Peter I Island in the Antarctic first sighted by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, January 28 – Alexander Island, the largest in Antarctica, is first discovered by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. February 9 – Columbian College of the District of Columbia is chartered by President Monroe, march 4 – James Monroe begins his second term as President of the United States. March 5 – President James Monroe is sworn in for his second term, may 5 – Emperor Napoleon dies in exile on Saint Helena of stomach cancer. May 26 – Establishment of the Peloponnesian Senate by the Greek rebels, june 14 – King Badi VII of Sennar surrenders his throne and realm to Ismail Pasha, general of the Ottoman Empire, ending the existence of that Sudanese kingdom. June 19 – The Filiki Eteria are decisively defeated by the Ottomans at Drăgășani, june 24 – Battle of Carabobo, Simón Bolívar wins Venezuelas independence from Spain. June 27 – The New Hampton School is founded in the United States state of New Hampshire, july 10 – The United States takes possession of its newly bought territory of Florida from Spain. July 19 – George IV is crowned king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, july 28 – Peru declares independence from Spain. August 10 – Missouri is admitted as the 24th U. S. state, august 19 – Navarino massacre, Greek rebels massacre 3,000 inhabitants of the city of Navarino. August 21 – Jarvis Island is discovered by the crew of the Eliza Frances, september 4 Chilean general José Miguel Carrera is executed by an Argentinian military tribunal in the city of Mendoza. The Ukase of 1821, Russia proclaims territorial sovereignty over Northwestern North America, september 7 – The Republic of Gran Colombia is established, with Simón Bolívar as the founding President and Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president. September 15 – Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, on October 29, the newly independent First Mexican Empire proposes that Guatemala should merge with it. September 18 – Amherst College is founded in Massachusetts, september 23 – Greek War of Independence, Siege of Tripolitsa ends when Greek rebels capture the city of Tripoli, Greece. November 16 – American Old West, The Santa Fe Trail is first used by William Becknell, november 28 – Panama declares independence from Spain, joining Gran Colombia. December 1 – The Dominican Republic declares independence from Spain and it would be invaded by Haiti in 1822. December 6 – The South Orkney Islands are discovered by George Powell, December 15 – The worlds first geographical society, the Société de géographie, is established in Paris. December 19 – The Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland begins to erupt, town of Al-Ubayyid established in Sudan. High-quality cotton is introduced in Egypt, January 8 James Longstreet, American Confederate general W. H. L. Wallace, American Civil War general January 16 – John C
15.
1822
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As of the start of 1822, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 7 – The first group of freed slaves from the United States arrive to the west coast of Africa, january 13 – The design of the modern-day flag of Greece is adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus for their naval flag. February 6 – Chinese junk Tek Sing sinks in the South China Sea with the loss of around 1600 people on board, february 9 – The invading Haitian forces led by Jean-Pierre Boyer arrive in Santo Domingo to overthrow the newly founded Dominican Republic. February 24 – The first Swaminarayan temple, Kalupur Swaminarayan Mandir at Ahmedabad in the British Raj, is inaugurated. March 31 – Greek War of Independence, Start of Chios massacre, may 24 – Battle of Pichincha, Simón Bolívar secures the independence of Quito. May 25 – Execution of Christos Palaskas and Alexis Noutsos by Odysseas Androutsos forces, may 26 –116 people die in the Grue Church fire, the biggest fire disaster in Norways history. June 6 – Alexis St. Martin accidentally shot in the stomach, july 3 – Charles Babbage publishes a proposal for a difference engine, a forerunner of the modern computer for calculating logarithms and trigonometric functions. Construction of a version will proceed under British Government sponsorship 1823–32. July 8 – The Chippewas turn over a tract of land in Ontario to the United Kingdom. July 13 – Greek War of Independence, Greeks defeat Ottoman forces at Thermopylae, july 26 – Guayaquil Conference, José de San Martín arrives in Guayaquil, Ecuador, to meet with Simón Bolívar. July 27 – Guayaquil Conference, Simón Bolívar and General José de San Martín meet in Guayaquil, july 31 – The last public whipping is carried out in Edinburgh. August 12 – St Davids College is founded in Wales by Thomas Burgess, August 15–29 – Visit of King George IV to Scotland. August 22 – The English ship Orion lands at Yerba Buena, now named San Francisco, september 7 – Brazilian independence, Brazil declares its independence from Portugal. September 16 George Canning is appointed British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, constituent Congress of Peru begins its first session. September 22 – Portugal approves its first Constitution, september 27 – Jean-François Champollion announces his success in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs using the Rosetta Stone in a letter to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in Paris. October 12 – Pedro I of Brazil is declared the constitutional Emperor of Brazil, October 31 – Emperor Agustín de Iturbide of the First Mexican Empire dissolves the countrys Congress of the Union and replaces it with a military junta. October–December – Congress of Verona, Russia, Austria and Prussia approve French intervention in Spain, November 9 – Action of 9 November 1822, USS Alligator engages three pirate schooners off Cuba as part of the West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States. November 13 Greek War of Independence, Nafplio falls to the Greek rebels, congregation of St. Basil founded in France
16.
1819 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1819. January 30 – Romney Literary Society established as the Polemic Society of Romney, on April 3, Charles Wentworth Dilke lets his house, next door to Keats, to Mrs Brawne, whose daughter Fanny would become the love of Keats life. In the summer he writes Lamia, on September 19 he writes his ode To Autumn at Winchester, and on October 19 proposes marriage to Fanny. April 1 – In London The New Monthly Magazine publishes John Polidoris Gothic fiction The Vampyre and it is first published in book form later in the year. August 16 – The Peterloo Massacre takes place in England, inspiring Percy Bysshe Shelley, in Italy, October – In Britain, Richard Carlile is convicted of blasphemy and sent to prison for publishing The Age of Reason by Thomas Paine. Joseph Perls epistolary novel Megalleh Temirim, written under the name Obadiah ben Pethahiah, the publisher Collins is founded as a printer of religious literature in Glasgow by William Collins. W. & R. Chambers, established by brothers William Chambers of Glenormiston and Robert Chambers in Edinburgh, edward Ball – The Black Robber Ann Hatton – The Oath of Vengeance Thomas Hope – Anastasius Washington Irving – The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. E. T. A. D. E. N. J. Urquhart Honoré de Balzac – Le Père Goriot
17.
1819 in France
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Events from the year 1819 in France. Monarch – Louis XVIII1 March - François-Marie-Benjamin Richard, Archbishop of Paris,6 March - Émile Blanchard, zoologist and entomologist. 4 April - Louis Gustave Vapereau, writer and lexicographer,29 May - Louis, duc de Decazes, statesman. 10 June - Gustave Courbet, painter,28 June - Henri Harpignies, painter. 2 July - Charles-Louis Hanon, piano pedagogue and composer,3 July - Louis Théodore Gouvy, composer. 22 July - Ernest Cosson, botanist,14 August - Agenor, duc de Gramont, diplomat and statesman. 26 August - Louis Adolphe Cochery, politician and journalist,15 September - Jules Etienne Pasdeloup, conductor. 17 September - Jeanne Sylvanie Arnould-Plessy, actress,18 September - Léon Foucault, physicist. 20 September - Théodore Chassériau, painter,21 September - Princess Louise Marie Thérèse of France, Petite-Fille de France. 28 September - Aimé Millet, sculptor,19 October - Ardant du Picq, Colonel and military theorist. 19 November - Émile Deschanel, author and politician,19 November - Auguste Vacquerie, journalist and man of letters. 22 December - Pierre Ossian Bonnet, mathematician, Marie Firmin Bocourt, zoologist and artist. Nicolas Édouard Delabarre-Duparcq, military critic and historian, augustin Marie Morvan, physician, politician and writer. 10 January - Claude de Beauharnais, politician,12 January - André Morellet, economist and writer. 25 January - Théodore-Pierre Bertin, writer, introduced modern shorthand to France,16 February - Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes, painter. February - Philippe-Louis-Marc-Antoine de Noailles, 1st duc de Mouchy, politician,11 March - Michel-Louis-Étienne Regnaud de Saint-Jean dAngély, politician. 29 May - Jean Jacques Étienne Lucas, Navy officer and hero of the Battle of Trafalgar,3 June - Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne, Revolutionary figure. 6 July - Sophie Blanchard, balloonist, first woman killed in an aviation accident,18 July - Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond, geologist and traveller
18.
1819 in the United States
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Events from the year 1819 in the United States. President, James Monroe Vice President, Daniel D, january 25 – Thomas Jefferson founds the University of Virginia. January 30 – Romney Literary Society established as the Polemic Society of Romney, february 15 – The United States House of Representatives agrees to the Tallmadge Amendment barring slaves from the new state of Missouri. February 22 – Spain cedes Florida to the United States, March 1 – The U. S. naval vessel USS Columbus is launched in Washington, DC. March 2 – Arkansas Territory is created, March 6 – McCulloch v. Maryland, The U. S. Supreme Court rules that the Bank of the United States is constitutional. May 22 – The SS Savannah leaves port at Savannah, Georgia on a voyage to become the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, the ship arrives at Liverpool, England on June 20. July 4 – Arkansas Territory is effective, august 6 – Norwich University is founded by Captain Alden Partridge in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States. August 24 – Samuel Seymour sketches a Kansa lodge and war dance at the present location of Manhattan, Kansas and this work is now the oldest drawing known to be made in the state of Kansas. December 14 – Alabama is admitted as the 22nd U. S. state, the ʻAi Noa Movement takes power in Hawaii. February 23 – George S. Cook, prominent early American photographer June 30 – William A. Wheeler, september 7 – Thomas A. Hendricks, United States Senator from Indiana from 1863 to 1869 and the 21st Vice President of the United States from March till November 1885. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series, Vol.43, the American Historical Review, Vol.25, No. 4, pp. 692–695 J. Wilfrid Parsons, the Catholic Church in America in 1819, A Contemporary Account. The Catholic Historical Review, Vol.5, No,4, pp. 301–310 Report of Inspection of the Ninth Military Department,1819. The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol.7, No, the Depression of 1819-1822, A Social History. The American Historical Review, Vol.39, No,1, pp. 28–47 Martin Staples Shockley. The Proprietors of Richmonds New Theatre of 1819, the William and Mary Quarterly, Second Series, Vol.19, No. Two accounts of the upper Wabash country, 1819-20, Indiana Magazine of History, Vol.37, No. William Jones and His Unsuccessful Steamboat Venture of 1819, bulletin of the Business Historical Society, Vol.21, No
19.
1819 in science
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The year 1819 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. Johann Franz Encke computes the orbit of Comet Encke, identifying it as periodic, july 1 – Johann Georg Tralles discovers the Great Comet of 1819. It was the first comet analyzed using polarimetry, by François Arago, Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier isolate the alkaloid brucine from Strychnos nux-vomica. October 15 – Desolation Island in the South Shetland Islands of the Antarctic is discovered by Captain William Smith in the Williams, greenough publishes his book, A critical examination of the first principles of geology in a series of essays. August – René Laennec publishes De l’Auscultation Médiate ou Traité du Diagnostic des Maladies des Poumons et du Coeur in Paris, English physician John Bostock publishes the first account of allergic rhinitis. May 22 – SS Savannah leaves port at Savannah, Georgia on a voyage to become the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, the ship arrives at Liverpool, England, on June 20. Invention of the M1819 breech-loading flintlock using interchangeable parts by Captain John H. Hall of Harpers Ferry Armory in the United States, Cambridge Philosophical Society founded as a scientific society at the University of Cambridge in England. Copley Medal, Not awarded May 3 – Nikolai Annenkov, botanist, June 5 – John Couch Adams, mathematician and astronomer. August 13 – George Gabriel Stokes, mathematician and physicist, september 18 – Léon Foucault, physicist. September 23 – Hippolyte Fizeau, physicist, january – Elsa Beata Bunge, Swedish botanist August 19 – James Watt, British inventor, mechanical engineer and mathematician. November 22 – John Stackhouse, English botanist
20.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
21.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
22.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
23.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
24.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
25.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
26.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
27.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
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Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
