1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments
6.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
7.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
8.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
9.
1820
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As of the start of 1820, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Trienio Liberal in Spain, A constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to the summoning of the Spanish Parliament, january 20 – Indiana University Bloomington is founded as the Indiana State Seminary. January 28 – History of Antarctica, An Imperial Russian Navy expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, january 29 – George IV of the United Kingdom ascends the throne on the death at Windsor Castle of his father George III, ending the period known as the British Regency. There will be a gap of 21 years before the title Prince of Wales is next used, january 30 – History of Antarctica, Irish Royal Navy captain Edward Bransfield lands on the mainland of Antarctica. February 6 Capture of Valdivia, Lord Cochrane occupies Valdivia in the name of the Republic of Chile,86 free African American colonists sail from New York City to Freetown, Sierra Leone. February 14 – Minh Mạng starts to rule in Vietnam, february 20 – A revolt begins in Santa María Chiquimula, Totonicapán department of Guatemala. March 3 and March 6 – Slavery in the United States, The Missouri Compromise becomes law, allowing admission of Missouri and Maine, slave and free states respectively, March 9 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain accepts the new constitution, beginning the Trienio Liberal. March 10 – The Royal Astronomical Society is founded in London, March 15 – Maine is admitted as the 23rd U. S. state. April – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers the relationship between electricity and magnetism, april 1 – A Proclamation, signed By order of the Committee of Organisation for forming a Provisional Government, begins the Radical War in Scotland. April 8 – The statue of the Venus de Milo is discovered on the Greek island of Milos by a peasant named Yorgos Kentrotas, april 12 – Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece. April 15 – King William I of Württemberg marries his cousin, Pauline Therese, may 1 – The last hanging, drawing and quartering in Britain is meted out to the Cato Street conspirators for treason. May 11 – HMS Beagle is launched at Woolwich Dockyard, may 20 – John Stuart Mill sets out on his formative boyhood trip to France. March – A revolt under Guglielmo Pepe forces Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies to sign a constitution modeled on the Spanish Constitution of 1812, july 20 – Saint Cronans Boys National School opens in Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland under the title Bray Male School and it is the oldest school in Bray and its notable pupils will include President of Ireland Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh. July 26 – Opening of Union Chain Bridge across the River Tweed between England and Scotland, an iron suspension bridge designed by Captain Samuel Brown. Its span of 449 ft is the worlds longest for a bridge at this time. August 24 – A Constitutionalist insurrection breaks out at Oporto, Portugal, september 2 – The Daoguang Emperor succeeds the throne of the Qing Dynasty in China. September 15 – Revolution breaks out in Lisbon against John VI of Portugal, october 9 – Guayaquil declares independence from Spain
10.
1821
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As of the start of 1821, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 21 – Peter I Island in the Antarctic first sighted by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, January 28 – Alexander Island, the largest in Antarctica, is first discovered by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. February 9 – Columbian College of the District of Columbia is chartered by President Monroe, march 4 – James Monroe begins his second term as President of the United States. March 5 – President James Monroe is sworn in for his second term, may 5 – Emperor Napoleon dies in exile on Saint Helena of stomach cancer. May 26 – Establishment of the Peloponnesian Senate by the Greek rebels, june 14 – King Badi VII of Sennar surrenders his throne and realm to Ismail Pasha, general of the Ottoman Empire, ending the existence of that Sudanese kingdom. June 19 – The Filiki Eteria are decisively defeated by the Ottomans at Drăgășani, june 24 – Battle of Carabobo, Simón Bolívar wins Venezuelas independence from Spain. June 27 – The New Hampton School is founded in the United States state of New Hampshire, july 10 – The United States takes possession of its newly bought territory of Florida from Spain. July 19 – George IV is crowned king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, july 28 – Peru declares independence from Spain. August 10 – Missouri is admitted as the 24th U. S. state, august 19 – Navarino massacre, Greek rebels massacre 3,000 inhabitants of the city of Navarino. August 21 – Jarvis Island is discovered by the crew of the Eliza Frances, september 4 Chilean general José Miguel Carrera is executed by an Argentinian military tribunal in the city of Mendoza. The Ukase of 1821, Russia proclaims territorial sovereignty over Northwestern North America, september 7 – The Republic of Gran Colombia is established, with Simón Bolívar as the founding President and Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president. September 15 – Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, on October 29, the newly independent First Mexican Empire proposes that Guatemala should merge with it. September 18 – Amherst College is founded in Massachusetts, september 23 – Greek War of Independence, Siege of Tripolitsa ends when Greek rebels capture the city of Tripoli, Greece. November 16 – American Old West, The Santa Fe Trail is first used by William Becknell, november 28 – Panama declares independence from Spain, joining Gran Colombia. December 1 – The Dominican Republic declares independence from Spain and it would be invaded by Haiti in 1822. December 6 – The South Orkney Islands are discovered by George Powell, December 15 – The worlds first geographical society, the Société de géographie, is established in Paris. December 19 – The Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland begins to erupt, town of Al-Ubayyid established in Sudan. High-quality cotton is introduced in Egypt, January 8 James Longstreet, American Confederate general W. H. L. Wallace, American Civil War general January 16 – John C
11.
1822
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As of the start of 1822, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 7 – The first group of freed slaves from the United States arrive to the west coast of Africa, january 13 – The design of the modern-day flag of Greece is adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus for their naval flag. February 6 – Chinese junk Tek Sing sinks in the South China Sea with the loss of around 1600 people on board, february 9 – The invading Haitian forces led by Jean-Pierre Boyer arrive in Santo Domingo to overthrow the newly founded Dominican Republic. February 24 – The first Swaminarayan temple, Kalupur Swaminarayan Mandir at Ahmedabad in the British Raj, is inaugurated. March 31 – Greek War of Independence, Start of Chios massacre, may 24 – Battle of Pichincha, Simón Bolívar secures the independence of Quito. May 25 – Execution of Christos Palaskas and Alexis Noutsos by Odysseas Androutsos forces, may 26 –116 people die in the Grue Church fire, the biggest fire disaster in Norways history. June 6 – Alexis St. Martin accidentally shot in the stomach, july 3 – Charles Babbage publishes a proposal for a difference engine, a forerunner of the modern computer for calculating logarithms and trigonometric functions. Construction of a version will proceed under British Government sponsorship 1823–32. July 8 – The Chippewas turn over a tract of land in Ontario to the United Kingdom. July 13 – Greek War of Independence, Greeks defeat Ottoman forces at Thermopylae, july 26 – Guayaquil Conference, José de San Martín arrives in Guayaquil, Ecuador, to meet with Simón Bolívar. July 27 – Guayaquil Conference, Simón Bolívar and General José de San Martín meet in Guayaquil, july 31 – The last public whipping is carried out in Edinburgh. August 12 – St Davids College is founded in Wales by Thomas Burgess, August 15–29 – Visit of King George IV to Scotland. August 22 – The English ship Orion lands at Yerba Buena, now named San Francisco, september 7 – Brazilian independence, Brazil declares its independence from Portugal. September 16 George Canning is appointed British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, constituent Congress of Peru begins its first session. September 22 – Portugal approves its first Constitution, september 27 – Jean-François Champollion announces his success in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs using the Rosetta Stone in a letter to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in Paris. October 12 – Pedro I of Brazil is declared the constitutional Emperor of Brazil, October 31 – Emperor Agustín de Iturbide of the First Mexican Empire dissolves the countrys Congress of the Union and replaces it with a military junta. October–December – Congress of Verona, Russia, Austria and Prussia approve French intervention in Spain, November 9 – Action of 9 November 1822, USS Alligator engages three pirate schooners off Cuba as part of the West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States. November 13 Greek War of Independence, Nafplio falls to the Greek rebels, congregation of St. Basil founded in France
12.
1823
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As of the start of 1823, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 23 – In Paviland Cave on the Gower Peninsula of Wales, William Buckland inspects the Red Lady of Paviland, february 3 Jackson Male Academy, precursor of Union University, opens in Tennessee. Gioachino Rossinis Semiramide is first performed, february 10 – First worldwide carnival parade took place in Cologne, Prussia. February 11 – Carnival tragedy of 1823, About 110 boys are killed during a stampede at the Convent of the Minori Osservanti in Valletta, Malta. February 15 – First officially recognised gold find in Australia, by surveyor James McBrien at Fish River, near Bathurst, New South Wales, march 19 – Agustín de Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, abdicates thus ending the short-lived First Mexican Empire. April 13 – Eleven-year-old Franz Liszt gives a concert after which he is congratulated by Ludwig van Beethoven. June 5 – Raffles Institution established as the Singapore Institution by the founder of Singapore, july 10 – Gaols Act passed by Parliament of the United Kingdom, based on the prison reform campaign of Elizabeth Fry. July 15 – The Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome is almost completely destroyed by fire, september 10 – Simón Bolívar is named President of Peru. September 22 – Joseph Smith claimed in 1838 that on this day he had first come to the place where the plates were stored. September 23 – First Anglo-Burmese War, Burmese attack the British on Shapura, october 5 – Medical journal The Lancet is founded by Thomas Wakley in London. November – According to tradition, William Webb Ellis invents the sport of football at Rugby School in England. Beginning of the first Anglo-Ashanti war, Olbers paradox is described by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers. Work begins on the British Museum in London, designed by Robert Smirke, the Oxford Union is founded as a student debating society in England. Davis, American politician November 18 – Charles H
13.
1824
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As of the start of 1824, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 8 – After much controversy, Michael Faraday is finally elected as a member of the Royal Society with only one vote against him, january 22 – The Ashanti crush British forces in the Gold Coast, killing the British governor Sir Charles MacCarthy. January 24 – First issue of the radical quarterly founded by Jeremy Bentham, february 10 – Simón Bolívar is proclaimed dictator of Peru. February 21 – Chumash Revolt of 1824 begins against the Spanish presence in California, march 5 – First Anglo-Burmese War begins. March 7 – Florida State Capitol moves from St. Augustine, march 11 – The United States War Department creates the Bureau of Indian Affairs. March 17 – The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 is signed, may–July – King Kamehameha II of Hawaii and his Queen Consort Kamāmalu make a state visit to London, where they both die of smallpox. May 7 – Première of Beethovens Symphony No.9 at the Theater am Kärntnertor in Vienna, the deaf composer has to be turned around on the stage to witness the enthusiastic audience reaction. May 24 – The British take Rangoon, Burma in the First Anglo-Burmese War, june 16 – The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is established in Great Britain. September 16 – Charles X succeeds his brother Louis XVIII as King of France, october 4 – First Constitution of Mexico enacted, declaring the country to be a federal republic. October 10 – The Edinburgh Town Council founds the Edinburgh Municipal Fire Brigade, october 21 – Joseph Aspdin patents Portland cement. November 5 – Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the first technological university in the English-speaking world, is founded in Troy, november 19 – In the worst flood to date in Saint Petersburg, water rises 421 cm above normal and 200 lose their lives. November 30 – The first sod is turned in Ontario, for the first of four Welland Canals. December 3 – U. S. presidential election,1824, None of the four candidates for U. S. President gain a majority of the electoral votes, december 9 – Battle of Ayacucho, Peruvian forces defeat the Spanish. December 23 – Chief Pushmataha of the Choctaw Nation dies in Washington, december 24 – The First American Fraternity, Chi Phi, is founded at Princeton University. December 28 – Bathurst War comes to an end with the defeat of the Wiradjuri, the Montparnasse Cemetery is established in Paris, France. The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War, the name Australia, recommended by Matthew Flinders in 1804, is finally adopted as the official name of the country once known as New Holland. The Panoramagram is developed, creating the first volumetric display, the Fort Vancouver trading post is established on the lower Columbia River by the Hudsons Bay Company. The Colorado potato beetle is discovered by Thomas Say
14.
1825
–
As of the start of 1825, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies, february 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula that formed westernmost Denmark, becomes an island after a flood drowns its 1 km wide isthmus. February 9 – After no presidential candidate receives a majority of electoral votes, february 10 – Simón Bolívar gives up his title of dictator of Peru and takes the alternative title of El Libertador. February 12 – Second Treaty of Indian Springs, The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west. March 1 – The outbound British East Indiaman Kent is destroyed by fire in the Bay of Biscay with the loss of more than 80 lives, but over 550 are saved by passing ships. March 2 – Capture of the Anne, Roberto Cofresí, one of the last successful pirates in the Caribbean, is defeated by a naval force. March 4 – John Quincy Adams is sworn in as President of the United States, march 17 – Founding of insurance company The Norfolk & Dedham Group. July – Volcanic eruption of Mount Guntur in West Java, july 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later becomes the royal house of Greece, Denmark, july 18 – Uruguay secedes from Brazil. July 30 – Malden Island is discovered by George Byron, 7th Baron Byron, august 6 – Bolivia gains its independence from Spain as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar. August 18 – Scottish adventurer Gregor MacGregor issues a £300,000 loan with 2. 5% interest through the London bank of Thomas Jenkins & Company for the fictitious Central American republic of Poyais. His actions lead to the Panic of 1825, the first modern stock market crash, august 25 – Uruguay is declared independent of the Empire of Brazil by the Thirty-Three Orientals, a militant revolutionary group led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja. September – The Lady Margaret Boat Club is founded by 12 members of St Johns College, Cambridge, september 25 – General Hendrik Merkus de Kock lifts the siege of Jogjakarta, the first major action of the Java War. September 27 – The worlds first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, october 7 – The Miramichi Fire, a forest fire, breaks out in New Brunswick. October 21 – PS Comet II sinks off Gourock with the loss of 62 lives, october 26 – The Erie Canal opens, providing passage from Albany, New York to Buffalo and Lake Erie. December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I, december 26 – Some Imperial Russian Army officers stage the Decembrist Revolt against Nicholass accession in Saint Petersburg, but it is thoroughly suppressed by the government. The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London, hans Christian Ørsted reduces aluminium chloride to produce metallic aluminium. History of Brisbane, The Australian city of Brisbane is founded, a new Combination Act in the United Kingdom makes trade unions legal according to narrowly defined principles
15.
1826
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As of the start of 1826, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 15 – The French newspaper Le Figaro begins publication in Paris, january 30 – The Menai Suspension Bridge, built by engineer Thomas Telford, is opened between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales. February 8 – Unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia becomes the first President of Argentina, February 11 University College London is founded, under the name University of London. Swaminarayan writes the Shikshapatri, an important text within Swaminarayan Hinduism, February 13 – The American Temperance Society is founded. February 24 – Treaty of Yandabo ends First Anglo-Burmese War, Britain gains Assam, Manipur, Rakhine, march 1 – Chunee the elephant is put to death in London. After arsenic and shooting fail, he is killed with a sword, march 10 – João VI, King of Portugal and the former Emperor of Brazil, dies after a short illness that had started six day earlier after he had been served dinner while visiting Jerónimos Monastery. An investigative autopsy 174 years later discover that he had been killed by arsenic poisoning. King Joãos son, the Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, sails back to Portugal and briefly reigns as King Pedro IV before turning over the Portuguese throne to his daughter, april 1 – Samuel Morey patents an internal combustion engine. April 10 – Third Siege of Missolonghi ends with the massacre of thousands of the Greek defenders by the Ottoman besiegers, may 28 – Pedro I of Brazil abdicates as King of Portugal. June – Photography, Nicéphore Niépce makes a true photograph, june 14–15 – The Auspicious Incident, Mahmud II, sultan of Ottoman Empire, crushes the last mutiny of janissaries in Istanbul. June 21 – Greek War of Independence, Attempted Ottoman–Egyptian invasion of Mani begins, june 22 – The Pan-American Congress of Panama tries to unify the republics of the Americas. Early July – Ludwig van Beethoven puts the finishing touches on the String Quartet in C sharp Minor, Opus 131, July 4 – Former US Presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both die on the 50th Anniversary of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence. July 26 – The last auto-da-fé is held in Valencia, august – The town of Crawford Notch suffers a landslide. Those killed include the Willey family, after whom Mount Willey is named, august 10 – The first Cowes Regatta is held on the Isle of Wight in the UK. August 18 – Explorer Alexander Gordon Laing becomes the first European to reach Timbuktu, september 21 – Construction of the Rideau Canal begins in Canada. October 1 – Opening of the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway in Scotland, october 7 – The first train operates over the Granite Railway in Massachusetts. November 3 –The Paris Stock Exchange opens at the Palais de la Bourse, december 21 – Fredonian Rebellion, American settlers in Mexican Texas make the first attempt to secede from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Fredonia, which will survive for just over a month. December 25 The Eggnog Riot breaks out at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York during the morning hours
16.
1827
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As of the start of 1827, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place on Tasmania on the River Derwent at Hobart. January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, begins its first classes with 10 students, as the Furman Academy and Theological Institution, located at Edgefield, South Carolina. By the end of 2016, it would have 2,800 students at its campus in Greenville. February 20 – Battle of Ituzaingo, A force of the Brazilian Imperial Army meets Argentine–Uruguayan troops in combat, february 28 – The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad is incorporated, becoming the first railroad in United States offering commercial transportation of both people and freight. March 7 – Brazilian marines sail up the Rio Negro and attack the naval base of Carmen de Patagones, Argentina. March 7 – Shrigley Abduction, Ellen Turner, an heiress in Cheshire, England, is abducted by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. March 16 – Freedoms Journal, the first African-American owned and published newspaper in the United States, is founded in New York City by John Russwurm, march 26 – German composer Ludwig van Beethoven dies in Vienna after a prolonged illness. April 7–April 8 – Battle of Monte Santiago, A squadron of the Brazilian Imperial Navy defeats Argentine vessels in a naval engagement. April 10 – UK, George Canning succeeds Lord Liverpool as British Prime Minister, april 24 – Greek War of Independence – Battle of Phaleron, Ottoman troops defeat the Greek rebels. April 26–May 24 – The Royal Netherlands Navys British-built paddle steamer Curaçao makes the first Transatlantic Crossing by steam, april 29 – The Fly Whisk Incident in Ottoman Algeria, Hussein Dey slaps the French consul Pierre Deval on the face, eventually leading to Invasion of Algiers in 1830. May 21 – The Maryland Democratic Party is founded by supporters of Andrew Jackson in Baltimore, may 25 – Romanian inventor Petrache Poenaru receives a French patent for the invention of the first fountain pen with a replaceable ink cartridge. In 1829, the two begin a partnership and Daguerre will perfect Niépces photographic process to reproduce images more quickly. June 7 – Greek defenders in Athens surrender to Egyptian forces under the command of General Rashid Pasha, july 6 – Greek War of Independence, The Treaty of London between France, Britain, and Russia, demands that the Turks agree to an armistice in Greece. July 14 – The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu is founded in the Kingdom of Hawaii, august 31 – UK, Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, becomes Prime Minister of the UK, following the death of George Canning. September 4 – Finland, The Great Fire of Turku destroys 3/4 of the city, with many human casualties. September 20 – Petition for a grant for 215 acres on the north bank of Rio Grande just across from Paso del Norte is approved, first residence is built on what is present day El Paso. October 1 – Russo-Persian War, 1826-1828, The Russians under Ivan Paskevich storm Yerevan, october 20 – Greek War of Independence – Battle of Navarino, British, French, and Russian naval forces destroy the Turko-Egyptian fleet in Greece
17.
1828
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As of the start of 1828, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle as Prime Minister of France, january 22 – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington succeeds Lord Goderich as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. February 19 – The Boston Society for Medical Improvement is established in the United States, by this and the Treaty of Gulistan it has now lost all its territories north of the Aras river, comprising modern day Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan and Armenia to Russia. Armenians from Persian Azerbaijan are to be resettled in the Caucasus. in such a manner as may render even the idea of reunion impracticable, april 11 – Bahía Blanca is founded. April 20 – French explorer René Caillié becomes the first non-Muslim to enter Timbuktu, april 26 – Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed between Brazil and Denmark, establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. May 26 – Supposedly feral child Kaspar Hauser is discovered in Nuremberg, june 3 – Gran Colombia–Peru War, President Simón Bolívar declares war on Peru. June 23 – King Miguel I of Portugal overthrows his niece Queen Maria II, july 4 – Lord William Bentinck arrives at Calcutta to begin his administration as the new Governor-General of India on behalf of King George IV of the United Kingdom. August 11 – William Corder is hanged at Bury St Edmunds, England, august 27 – South America, Brazil and Argentina recognize the independence of Uruguay. Simón Bolívar declares himself dictator of Gran Colombia, september 17 – A typhoon kills approximately 10,000 people in Kyūshū, Japan. September 29 – Russo-Turkish War, Varna is taken by the Russian army, november 11 – Greek War of Independence, the London Protocol entails the creation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, encompassing the Morea and the Cyclades. November 12 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. December 3 – U. S. presidential election, Andrew Jackson is elected President of the United States, december 30 – Publication of Franz Schuberts song cycle Winterreise is concluded posthumously. Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes urea, possibly discrediting a cornerstone of vitalism, Ányos Jedlik creates the worlds first electric motor. 32,000 Angolans are sold in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, foundation of the Office of the Institutions of Empress Maria in Russia
18.
1829
–
As of the start of 1829, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 19 – August Klingemanns adaptation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Faust premieres in Braunschweig, february 27 – Battle of Tarqui took place. March 4 – Andrew Jackson is sworn in as President of the United States, march 22 – Greece receives autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in the London Protocol, signed by Russia, France and Britain, effectively ending the Greek War of Independence. Greece continues to seek full independence through diplomatic negotiations with the three Great Powers, march 31 – Pope Pius VIII succeeds Pope Leo XII as the 253rd pope. April–September – Felix Mendelssohn pays his first visit to Britain and this includes the first London performance of his concert overture to A Midsummer Nights Dream and his trip to Fingals Cave. April 1 – Vicente Guerrero becomes the president of Mexico, april 4 – The Mexican city of Cuautla, Morelos, is founded. April 13 – Passage of the Catholic Relief Act by Parliament of the United Kingdom granting a substantial measure of Catholic emancipation in Britain and Ireland. May 6 – The patent for an instrument called the accordion is applied for by Cyrill Demian May 15 – Joseph Smith claims to receive the Aaronic Priesthood from John the Baptist, june 1 – The Philadelphia Inquirer is founded as The Pennsylvania Inquirer. June 3 – The Swan River Colony is founded in Western Australia and this secures the western third of the Australian landmass for the British. June 5 – Slave trade, HMS Pickle captures the slave ship Voladora off the coast of Cuba. June 10 – The Oxford University Boat Club wins the first inter-university Boat Race, june 19 – Robert Peel establishes the Metropolitan Police Service in London, the first modern police force. The first officers, known by the nickname bobbies, go on patrol on September 29, july 2 – Russo-Turkish War, Russian Field-Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch launches the Transbalkan offensive, which brings the Russian army within 68 km of Istanbul. July 4 – George Shillibeer begins operating the first bus service in London, july 23 – In the United States, William Burt obtains the first patent for a form of typewriter, the typographer. August 8 – France, The Prince de Polignac succeeds the Vicomte de Martignac as Prime Minister of France, August 10 – First ascent of Finsteraarhorn, the highest summit of the Bernese Alps. August 12 – Mrs. Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship Sulphur, August 14 – * Kings College London is founded by Royal Charter under the patronage of King George IV and the Prime Minister, The Duke of Wellington. September 16 – Russo-Turkish War, The Treaty of Adrianople gains for Russia some territory at the mouth of the Danube, october 1 – South African College inaugurated in Cape Town. October 8 – Rail transport, Stephensons Rocket wins the Rainhill Trials, november 5 – Technical University of Denmark opens. November 30 – The original Welland Canal opens for a run with a ceremony at Port Dalhousie
19.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
20.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
21.
Padri War
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The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra, Indonesia between the Padris and the Adats. Padris were Muslim clerics from Sumatra who, inspired by Wahabism and after returning from Hajj, wanted to impose sharia in Minangkabau country in West Sumatra, Adats comprised the Minangkabau nobility and traditional chiefs. The latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821, adat, as customary law is called in Indonesia, includes indigenous, pre-Islamic religious practices and social traditions in local custom. In the 1820s, the Dutch had yet to consolidate their possessions in some parts of the Dutch East Indies after re-acquiring it from the British and this was especially true on the island of Sumatra, where some areas would not come under Dutch rule until the 20th century. Between 1821–1824, skirmishes broke out throughout the region, ended only by the Masang Treaty, the war cooled down during the next six years, as the Dutch faced larger-scale uprisings in Java. The conflict broke out again in the 1830s with the Dutch gaining early victories, soon after, the war centred on Bonjol, the fortified last stronghold of the Padris. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out, with the victory, the Dutch tightened their hold on West Sumatra. Yet there was a legacy for the native Minangs, after the war. This helped promulgating the new view of adat basandi syara, syara basandi Kitabullah, Tuanku Imam Bonjol, leader in the Padri movement Dobbin, Christine. Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy, Central Sumatra, 1784-1847, a History of Modern Indonesia since c. Tarling, Nicholas, The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. II The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 1992
22.
West Sumatra
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West Sumatra is a province of Indonesia. It lies on the west coast of the island of Sumatra, the latest official estimate for January 2014 shows a population of 5,098,790. West Sumatra is sub-divided into 12 regencies and seven cities and it has relatively more cities than other provinces in Indonesia, except Java province. It borders the provinces of North Sumatra to the north, Riau and Jambi to the east and it includes the Mentawai Islands off the coast. The history of West Sumatra is related to the history of the Minangkabau people, archaeological evidence indicates that the area surrounding the Limapuluh Koto regency forms the first area inhabited by the Minangkabau. Limapuluh Koto regency covers a number of rivers which meet at the eastern part of the Sumatran coastline. The Minangkabau ancestors were believed to have arrived via this route and they sailed from Asia via the South China Sea, crossing the Malacca Strait and later settled along the Kampar, Siak and Indragiri rivers. Some lived and developed their culture and traits around the Limapuluh Koto regency, the first westerner to reach West Sumatra was the French explorer Jean Parmentier in 1529. However, the westerners who came for economic and political reasons were the Dutch, the Dutch commercial fleet was seen along the southern coast of West Sumatra between 1595 and 1598. Apart from the Dutch, other European nationalities also came to the such as the Portuguese. The integration with migrants in the ensuing periods introduced cultural changes and their settlement area gradually became diminished and eventually they spread to other parts of West Sumatra. A portion of them went to the Agam regency while others went to the now Tanah Datar regency, from those areas onward, further spread of the population occurred north of the Agam regency, in particular, the Lubuk Sikaping. Most of them settled in the area such as the coastline and some in the southern parts in Solok, Selayo. The history of the West Sumatra Province became more accessible at the time of the rule by Adityawarman and this ruler left considerable amount of evidence of himself, although he did not proclaim that he was the Minangkabau King. Adityawarman ruled Pagaruyung, a region believed by the Minangkabau to be the center of its culture, Adityawarman was the most important figure in Minangkabau history. Apart from introducing a government system by a monarch, he also contributed significantly to the Minangkabau world. His most important contribution was the spread of Buddhism and this religion had a very strong influence in the Minangkabau life. The evidence of such influence found in West Sumatra today includes names such as Saruaso, Pariangan, Padang Barhalo, Candi, Biaro, Sumpur, since the death of Adityawarman in the middle of the 17th century the history of West Sumatra seems more complex
23.
Java War
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The Java War or Diponegoro War was fought in central Java from 1825 to 1830, between the colonial Dutch Empire and native Javanese rebels. It started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro, a member of the Javanese aristocracy who had previously cooperated with the Dutch. The rebel forces were held up by a siege at Yogyakarta and this allowed the Dutch to raise and ship in new troops. The rebels adopted guerilla tactics and held out against Dutch forces for several years, the war ended in Dutch victory when Diponegoro was invited to a peace conference, then betrayed and captured. Prompted by the cost of the war, the Dutch colonial authorities implemented major reforms throughout the Dutch East Indies to ensure the colonies were profitable, the proximate cause was the Dutch decision to build a road across a piece of Diponegoros property that contained his parents tomb. Amongst other causes was a sense of resentment felt by members of the Javanese aristocratic families at Dutch measures intended to restrict the renting out of land at high prices. Diponegoros rival to the throne, his half brother, Hamengkubuwono IV. Among Diponegoros followers, the war has been described as a jihad both against the Dutch and the murtad or apostate Javanese, the forces of Prince Diponegoro were successful in the early stages of the war, taking control of the middle of Java and besieging Yogyakarta. The Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially indecisive, as the Java war became prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops. The Dutch colonial army, however, was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi. The Dutch commander, General de Kock, raised the siege of Yogyakarta on 25 September 1825, Prince Diponegoro then began an extensive guerrilla war. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 of them Dutch. The rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch controlled territory near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire and he was captured through treachery and exiled to Manado and then to Makassar, where he died in 1855. The policy brought the Dutch and their native allies enormous wealth through the export of cash crops and it brought the Netherlands back from the brink of bankruptcy, and made the Dutch East Indies a self-sufficient and profitable colony. Babad Dipanagara, an account of the outbreak of the Java War, MC Ricklefs, A History of modern Indonesia since 1300, 2nd ed,1993, pp. 116–17. Sagimun M. D. Pangeran Dipanegara, pahlawan nasional, Proyek Biografi Pahlawan Nasional, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,1976
24.
Rebellion
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Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the resistance against the orders of an established authority. The term comes from the Latin verb rebellō, I renew war (from re- + bellō, the rebel is the individual that partakes in rebellion or rebellious activities, particularly when armed. Thus, the rebellion also refers to the ensemble of rebels in a state of revolt. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation, Rebellion can be individual or collective, peaceful or violent In political terms, rebellion and revolt are often distinguished by their different aims. If rebellion generally seeks to evade an oppressive power, a revolt seeks to overthrow and destroy that power, the goal of rebellion is resistance while a revolt seeks a revolution. As power shifts relative to the adversary, or power shifts within a mixed coalition, or positions harden or soften on either side. The following theories broadly build on the Marxist interpretation of rebellion and they explore the causes of rebellion from a wide lens perspective. Marx writes about the structure of society that must be elucidated through an examination of the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers. The mismatch, between one mode of production, between the forces and the social ownership of the production, is at the origin of the revolution. The inner imbalance within these modes of production is derived from the modes of organization, such as capitalism within feudalism. The dynamics engineered by these class frictions help class consciousness root itself in the collective imaginary, for example, the development of the bourgeoisie class went from oppressed merchant class to urban independence, eventually gaining enough power to represent the state as a whole. Social movements, thus, are determined by a set of circumstances. The proletariat must also, according to Marx, go through the process of self-determination which can only be achieved by friction against the bourgeoisie. In Marxs theory revolutions are the locomotives of history, it is because rebellion has for ultimate goal to overthrow the ruling class and its antiquated mode of production. Later, rebellion attempts to replace it with a new system of political economy, one that is suited to the new ruling class. The cycle of rebellion, thus, replaces one mode of production by another through the constant class friction, in his book Why Men Rebel, Ted Gurr looks at the roots of political violence itself applied to a rebellion framework. He defines political violence as, all collective attacks within a political community against the political regime, the concept represents a set of events, a common property of which is the actual or threatened use of violence
25.
Diponegoro
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Diponegoro, also known as Dipanegara, was a Javanese prince who opposed the Dutch colonial rule. He played an important role in the Java War, in 1830, the Dutch exiled him to Makassar. Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro was passed over for the succession to the throne in favor of his half brother, Hamengkubuwono IV. Being a devout Muslim, Diponegoro was alarmed by the relaxing of religious observance at his brothers court. In 1821, famine and plague spread in Java, Hamengkubuwono IV died, leaving only an infant son as heir. When the year-old boy was appointed as Sultan Hamengkubuwono V, there was a dispute over his guardianship, Diponegoro was again passed over, though he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of disasters and political upheavals finally erupted into full-scale rebellion. Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the Ratu Adil, the Just Ruler predicted in the Pralembang Jayabaya, the beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoros guerrilla warfare. Ambushes were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops, the Dutch finally committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgency. De Kock developed a strategy of fortified camps and mobile forces, heavily-fortified and well-defended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoros troops while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitively lost the initiative and he was put in a position, first in Ungaran, then in the palace of the Resident in Semarang. Many troops and leaders were defeated or deserted, in 1830 Diponegoros military was as good as beaten and negotiations were started. Diponegoro demanded to have a state under a sultan and wanted to become the Muslim leader for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate under a flag of truce and he accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to other measures. The Dutch exiled him to Makassar, today Diponegoro is a National Hero of Indonesia, and Kodam IV/Diponegoro, the Central Java Military Region, is named after him. The Indonesian Navy has named two ships after him, the first of these was the lead ship Diponegoro, a corvette purchased from the Netherlands
26.
Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
27.
Magelang
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Magelang is one of six cities in Central Java, each of which is governed by a mayor rather than a bupati. It is located in the middle of the Magelang Regency, between Mount Merbabu and Mount Sumbing in Central Java Province, Indonesia, Magelang is located 43 km north of Yogyakarta,15 km north of Mungkid and 75 km south of Semarang, the capital of Central Java. Magelang City is a city which is located in a fertile agricultural area. The western border is Progo River and the Eastern Boones Elo River, the city is divided into three districts and several sub-districts. Magelang was then known as a village called Mantyasih, which is now known as Meteseh, there are three stele of historical importance in Magelang, namely Poh, Gilikan and Mantyasih, all of which are written on a plate of copper. Poh and Mantyasih were written under the rule of King Balitung of Mataram Kingdom, in those stele, the villages of Mantyasih and Glanggang were mentioned. They became Meteseh and Magelang respectively, the village Mantyasih was made by the king as tax-free village which was led by a patih. Also mentioned are Mount Susundara and Mount Wukir Sumbing which is now known as Mount Sindoro, when Britain colonised Magelang in the eighteenth century, Magelang became the seat of the government and was made to the same level as a regency with Mas Ngabehi Danukromo as its first leader. Mas Ngabehi Danukromo built Alun-Alun, bupati residence and a mosque, Magelang became the capital of Karesidenan Kedu in 1818. After the Dutch defeated the British, Magelang was made as the central of economy because its strategic location, the Dutch government built drinking water tower in 1918 which provides the city with water. The roads were remade using asphalt, the city has historically been a military post, dating back to the Dutch East Indies colonial era. It subsequently acted as a stronghold for Indonesian pro-independence movements against the Dutch government during the resistance period. Currently, it is a host of two landmarks, The National Military Academy, and the only military-associated school, Taruna Nusantara. After the independence of Indonesia, Magelang became kotapraja and then kotamadya, the composition of demography based on its religion and belief, Magelang people has varied and different belief and religion. Majority of Magelang citizen are Muslim, but there are minority groups such as Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, as of February 2010, Magelang has a total population of 118,227. Magelangs population was 58,311 men and 59,916 women, Magelang is the closest major town to Borobudur, a ninth-century Buddhist monument located about 40 km north west of Yogyakarta. The Canggal Temple, also located in the Magelang regency, has a Sanskrit transcription bearing the name of the first Mataram Kingdom ruler, there is white water rafting on the Elo River, located in the district of Magelang. Elo river disgorges from Mount Merbabu, Mount Telomoyo and Mount Ungaran, the river is ideal for white water rafting because the characters of flow and flooding are relatively stable, so it is relatively safe to be forded in both the dry and rainy seasons
28.
British Malaya
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The term British Malaya loosely describes a set of states on the Malay Peninsula and the island of Singapore that were brought under British control between the 18th and the 20th centuries. Before the formation of Malayan Union in 1946, the territories were not placed under a unified administration. Instead, British Malaya comprised the Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States, under British rule, Malaya was one of the most profitable territories of the Empire, being the worlds largest producer of tin and later rubber. The Malayan Union was dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya in 1948, on 16 September 1963, the federation, along with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore, formed into a larger federation of Malaysia. The British first became involved with Malay politics formally in 1771, the British colonised Singapore in 1819 and were in complete control of the state at that time. In the mid-18th century, British firms could be found trading in the Malay Peninsula, Light was also a captain in the service of the East India Company. The Sultan faced multiple external threats during this period, Siam, which was at war with Burma and which saw Kedah as its vassal state, frequently demanded that Kedah send reinforcements. Kedah, in cases, was a reluctant ally to Siam. Through negotiation between the Sultan and Light, the Sultan agreed to allow the firm to build a trading post and to operate in Kedah, Light conveyed this message to his superiors in India. The British, however, decided against the proposal, two years later, Sultan Muhammad Jiwa died and was succeeded by Sultan Abdullah Mahrum Shah. The new Sultan offered Light the island of Penang in return for assistance for Kedah. Light informed the East India Company of the Sultans offer, the Company, however, ordered Light to take over Penang and gave him no guarantee of the military aid that the Sultan had asked for earlier. Light later took over Penang and assured the Sultan of military assistance, soon the Company made up its mind and told Light that they would not give any military aid to Kedah. In June 1788, Light informed the Sultan of the Companys decision, feeling cheated, the Sultan ordered Light to leave Penang, but Light refused. Lights refusal caused the Sultan to strengthen Kedahs military forces and to fortify Prai, recognising this threat, the British moved in and razed the fort in Prai. The British thereby forced the Sultan to sign an agreement that gave the British the right to occupy Penang, in return, on 1 May 1791 the Union Flag was officially raised in Penang for the first time. In 1800, Kedah ceded Prai to the British and the Sultan received an increase of 4,000 pesos in his annual rent, Penang was later named Prince of Wales Island, while Perai was renamed Province Wellesley. In 1821, Siam invaded Kedah, sacked the capital of Alor Star, before the late 19th century, the British largely practised a non-interventionist policy
29.
Siamese invasion of Kedah
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The Siamese invasion of Kedah was a military operation mounted by the Kingdom of Siam against the Sultanate of Kedah in November 1821, in the area of what is now northern Malaysia. In return the Sultanate received payment, and some form of assurances of help against the expansionist ambitions of the Siamese kingdom. In 1772 a Company mission came to Kedah under Edward Monckton, the Burmese–Siamese War had required of the Sultanate measures taken purely for expediency, including acknowledgement of Burmese overlordship, as well as the traditional Siamese overlordship. The Burmese had been campaigning in particular in Petani to the north of Kedah, the Companys commitment to defensive arrangements appeared shallow to the Sultanate, and an attempt was made in 1791 to repossess the Island, which was successfully resisted by Light. From a position of strength Light, who was not authorised by the Company to guarantee the defence of Kedah, the Siamese forces of King Rama II achieved a rapid victory against those of Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II. The campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control, the Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control. By 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion, the Burney Treaty of 1826 allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail
30.
Rattanakosin Kingdom
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The Rattanakosin Kingdom is the fourth and present traditional centre of power in the History of Thailand. It was founded in 1782 with the establishment of Bangkok as the capital city, the maximum zone of influence of the Rattanakosin Kingdom included the vassal states of Cambodia, Laos, Burmese Shan States, and some Malay kingdoms. The kingdom was founded by King Rama I of the Chakri Dynasty, the first half of this period was characterised by the consolidation of the kingdoms power and was punctuated by periodic conflicts with Burma, Vietnam and Laos. The second period was one of engagements with the powers of Britain. Internally the kingdom developed into a modern centralised nation state with borders defined by its interactions with Western powers, significant economic and social progress was made, marked by an increase in foreign trade, the abolition of slavery and the expansion of formal education to the emerging middle class. However, the failure to implement substantial political reforms culminated in the 1932 revolution and this article covers events up until 1932, for subsequent history, see History of Thailand. In 1767, after dominating southeast Asia for almost 400 years, despite its complete defeat and occupation by Burma, Siam made a rapid recovery. The resistance to Burmese rule was led by a noble of Chinese descent, Taksin, in 1768 he was crowned as King Taksin. He rapidly re-united the central Thai heartlands under his rule, and he then marched south and re-established Siamese rule over the Malay Peninsula as far south as Penang and Terengganu. Having secured his base in Siam, Taksin attacked the Burmese in the north in 1774 and captured Chiang Mai in 1776, permanently uniting Siam and Lanna. Taksins leading general in this campaign was Thong Duang, known by the title Chaophraya or Lord Chakri was himself a descendent of Mon people. In 1778 Chakri led a Siamese army which captured Vientiane, also Luang Phrabang, a northern Lao kingdom submitted, despite these successes, by 1779 Taksin was in political trouble at home. He seems to have developed a mania, alienating the powerful Buddhist monkhood by claiming to be a sotapanna or divine figure. He was also in troubles with the officials, Chinese merchants. The foreign observers began to speculate that he would soon be overthrown, in 1782 Taksin sent his armies under Chakri, the future Rama I of Rattanakosin, to invade Cambodia, but while they were away a rebellion broke out in the area around the capital. The rebels, who had popular support, offered the throne to General Chakri. Chakri who was on war duty marched back from Cambodia and deposed Taksin, Chakri ruled under the name Ramathibodi, but is now generally known as King Rama I, first king of the later known Chakri dynasty. One of his first decisions was to move the capital across the river to the village of Bang Makok, which soon became the city of Bangkok
31.
Rama II of Siam
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Phra Phutthaloetla Naphalai or Rama II was the second monarch of Siam under the House of Chakri, ruling from 1809 to 1824. In 1809, Itsarasunthon succeeded his father Rama I, the founder of Chakri dynasty and his reign was largely peaceful, devoid of major conflicts. His reign was known as the Golden Age of Rattanakosin Literature as Loetlanaphalai was patron to a number of poets in his court, the most notable poet in his employ was the illustrious Sunthorn Phu, the author of Phra Aphai Mani. Chim was born in 1767 during the in Amphoe Amphawa, Samut Songkram, Chim was a son of Luang Yokkrabat of Ratchaburi and Nak of Samut Sakorn, as his father and mother was then known. They would later become King Rama I and Queen Amarindra, respectively, in 1767, Ayutthaya fell to Burmese invaders. His father, Phraya Ratchaburi, joined Phraya Wachira Prakarns forces to recapture the city, under King Taksin, Chims father rose rapidly to high rank as a military leader and was assigned with the campaigns to subjugate Laos and Cambodia. In 1782, his father crowned himself King of Siam and Chim himself was raised to the title of Prince Itsarasunthon of Siam, Loetlanaphalai, with his concubine Chao Chom Manda Riam, fathered Prince Tub in 1787. Prince Itsarasunthon then had an affair with his own cousin. In 1801, Rama I then found out that Princess Bunrod had been pregnant for four months, Itsarasunthon, however begged his father to forgive him and the princess was reinstated and became his consort through the negotiation by Concubine Waen. Unfortunately, the baby died just after its birth, with Princess Bunrod, Loetlanaphalai also fathered Prince Mongkut and Prince Chutamani. As the eldest surviving son of Rama I, Prince Itsarasunthon succeeded to throne when Buddha Yotfa Chulaloke died in 1809. No royal naming system was established at the time Rama II was crowned and he was later named by his son Nangklao as Loetlanaphalai and by the Rama convention, called Rama II. His consort, Princess Bunrod, was raised to Queen Sri Suriyendra, as soon as Loetlanaphalai ascended the throne, Prince Kshatranichit, the surviving son of Taksin, rebelled as pretender to the throne. Loetlanaphalais son, Prince Tub effectively crushed the rebellion, proving himself to be competent, Loetlanaphalai sent his brother Maha Senanurak the Front Palace to recapture Thalang, which had been razed to the ground. This Thalang campaign was the last invasion by the Burmese into Siamese territory and it was said that during Rama IIs reign, if one could write a refined piece of poetry, then one would be able to become a royal favorite, as Loetlanaphalai himself was a poet. The reign was a renaissance after the massive wars that plague the First Reign, particularly in the fields of arts. Poets employed by Rama II included Sunthorn Phu the drunken writer and his sons, Prince Jessadabodindra and Prince Poramanuchit, were encouraged to excel in poetry. Prince Poramanuchit later became a Sangharaj and was known for his religious works
32.
Kedah Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Kedah may be the earliest sultanate on the Malay Peninsula and is supposedly one of the oldest Sultanates in the world, allegedly founded in 1136. The information regarding the formation of this sultanate and the history before, the Kedah Annals were written in the eighteenth century, over a millennium after the formation of the Kedah Kingdom. It describes the first king of Kedah as arriving on the shores of Kedah as a result of an attack by a gigantic beast. It states that the nation was founded by the offspring of Alexander the Great, the Kedah Annals also provide us with very unreliable information regarding the sultans of Kedah. This claim also contradicts the fact that the Buddhist Srivijaya kingdom was in direct control of Kedah at the time that Sultan Mudzafar Shah I allegedly converted the region to a sultanate. Kedah Kingdom was founded by Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron around 630 CE, around 170 CE a group of native refugees of Hindu faith arrived at Kedah, joining them soon were peoples from nearby islands and from the northern Mon-Khmer region. Ancient Kedah covered the areas of Kuala Bahang, Kuala Bara, Kuala Pila and Merpah, and the inhabitants of Kedah appointed Tun Derma Dewa and Tun Perkasa as their village chiefs. In 630 CE, Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron in Persia was defeated in battle and escaped to Sri Lanka, the inhabitants of Kedah found him to be a valiant and intelligent person, and they made him the king of Kedah. In 634 CE, a new kingdom was formed in Kedah consisting of Persian royalty and native Malay of Hindu faith and he ruled the northern region of Malay Peninsula from 1136 to 1179. According to the Kedah Annals, the first king of Kedah was Maharaja Derbar Raja I, according to tradition, the founding of the Kedah kingdom occurred around 630 CE, replacing the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka. It is said to have founded by Durbaraja I, a Hindu who originated from Gemeron in Persia. The Hindu dynasty ended when the ninth king Durbaraja II, styled Phra Ong Mahawangsa by the Siamese, the following is a list of kings of Kadaram, nine in total. Each used the Hindu title of maharaja, the exact dates of each kings reign are not known. The beginning of the use of the sultan in Kedah is attributed to a visit by a Muslim scholar from Yemen, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jaafar Quamiri. The audience resulted in the conversion to Islam. He adopted the name Mudzafar Shah and established the sultanate of Kedah, source for the list of sultans is the Kedah State Public Library. The Nobat musical instruments of Nagara and Nepiri were introduced to Kedah by Maharaja Derbar Raja, the instrument is also called semambu. The band is led by the king, and it consists of drums, a gong, a flute, today, Nobat is a Royal orchestra, played only during royal ceremonies such as inaugurations, weddings, and funerals
33.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
34.
Penang Island
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Penang Island, the most populous island city in Malaysia, is situated in the state of Penang. With a population of 738,500, it is the second largest city in Malaysia by population, while Greater Penang and its capital, George Town, is one of the oldest cities in Malaysia and has been inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2008. Founded by Captain Francis Light of the British East India Company in 1786, Penang Island, together with Singapore and Malacca, the island was governed under the Straits Settlements, which became a British crown colony in 1867. The island was subjugated by the Empire of Japan during World War II, shortly before Malaya gained independence from the British in 1957, George Town was declared a city by Queen Elizabeth II, the first in the countrys modern history. Penang Island has also developed into the Silicon Valley of the East since the 1970s, under British rule, Penang Island had grown into an entrepôt and a centre of spice production in Southeast Asia. In addition, George Town was also ranked as Malaysias most liveable city, furthermore, Penang Island is the financial centre of northern Malaysia, with numerous international banks based in George Town. The Penang International Airport is one of the busiest in Malaysia, with links to regional cities such as Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Bangkok, Taipei. The Port of Penang still serves as the harbour within the north of Malaysia. Penang Island is connected to the rest of Peninsular Malaysia by the Penang Bridge, the Second Penang Bridge, the state of Penang is named after Penang Island, which was, in turn, named after the areca nut palm, also known as pinang in Malay. To this day, the island has also known as the Pearl of the Orient. The early Malays called the island Pulau Ka-Satu because it was the largest island encountered on the trading sea-route between Lingga and Kedah, the Siamese, then the overlord of the Kedah Sultanate, referred to the island as Koh Maak, meaning areca nut palm island. In the 15th century, the island was referred to as Bīnláng Yù in the drawings used by Admiral Zheng He of Ming China. The 16th-century Portuguese historian Emanuel Godinho de Eredia also referred to the island as Pulo Pinaom, Penang Island was discovered as early as the 15th century, when Chinese sailors under Admiral Zheng He mapped the island as Bīnláng Yù in the Nautical Charts of Zheng He. At the time, Ming China was launching naval expeditions that would eventually sail all the way to Africa, the first Englishman to reach Penang Island was actually Sir James Lancaster, a navigator and privateer who commanded the Edward Bonadventure. He landed at Batu Ferringhi in June 1592 and remained on the island until September and he only sailed home to England in May 1594. In the early 18th century, ethnic Minangkabaus from Sumatra opened up a settlement on Penang Island, Haji Muhammad Salleh, known as Nakhoda Intan, anchored at Batu Uban and built a mosque for his seaside settlement in 1734. Later, the Arabs arrived and settled mainly at Jelutong, intermarriages between the Arabs and the Minangkabau later gave rise to Arab-Minangkabau admixture who are described as Malay as they have assimilated into the local Malay community. However, it is Captain Francis Light who is honoured as the father of Penang
35.
Straits Settlements
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The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the controlled by the British East India Company. The colony was dissolved in 1946 as part of the British reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of the Second World War, the Straits Settlements originally consisted of the four individual settlements of Malacca, Dinding, Penang and Singapore. The Penang territory included Penang Island, formerly known as Prince of Wales Island, christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were also included. The island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, was incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore separated in 1965, the Cocos Islands were transferred to Australian control in 1955. Christmas Island was transferred in 1958 and their administration was combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. This resulted in the exchange of the British settlement of Bencoolen for the Dutch colony of Malacca, the Settlements were largely Chinese in population, with a tiny but important European minority. Their capital was moved from Penang to Singapore in 1832 and their scattered nature proved to be difficult and, after the company lost its monopoly in the china trade in 1833, expensive to administer. During their control by the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, the years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. As there was little or no vernacular press in the Settlements, such an act seemed irrelevant, earlier, on 4 February 1867, Letters Patent had granted the Settlements a colonial constitution. Penang and Malacca were administered, directly under the governor, by resident councillors, the Dindings, which included Pangkor Island as well as the towns of Lumut, and Sitiawan, were ceded by Perak to the British government under the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain in 1800 by the Sultan of Kedah, on its northern and eastern border, the boundary with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam in 1867. It was administered by an officer, with some assistants. About a tenth of the area was covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of rice were grown by the Malay inhabitants, the governor of the Straits Settlements was also High Commissioner for the Federated Malay States on the peninsula, for British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo. Since the administration of the colony of Labuan, which for a period was vested in the British North Borneo Company, was resumed by the British government he was governor of Labuan. During World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya and the Straits Settlements by landing on Kelantan on 8 December 1941, on 16 December Penang became the first Straits Settlement to fall into Japanese hands
36.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
37.
Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
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Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
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French Protectorate of Laos
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The French protectorate of Laos was a French protectorate forming part of the French Colonial Empire in Southeast Asia. It consisted of much of the territory of the kingdom of Lan Xang and was part of French Indochina from 1893 until it was granted self-rule within the French Union in 1946. The Franco-Lao Treaty of 1953 establishing Laos as an independent member of the French Union, under the Geneva Conference following Frances withdrawal from Indochina after the First Indochina War, Laos was granted independence in 1954. In 1885, a French consulate was established in Luang Prabang, by the end of 1886, Auguste Pavie was named vice-consul to Luang Prabang and was in charge of expeditions occurring in Laotian territory, with the possibility of turning Laos into a French territory. In 1888, Chinese forces known as the Black Flags declared war on Siam, Pavie and French forces later intervened and evacuated the Lao royal family to safety. Additional French troops from Hanoi later arrived to expel the Black Flags from Luang Prabang, following his return to the city, King Oun Kham requested a French protectorate over his kingdom. Pavie later sent Oun Khams request to the French government in Paris, the bill designating Luang Prabang a protectorate of France was signed on 27 March 1889 between both sides despite a Siamese protest. The kingdom was forced to recognise French control over the side of the Mekong River. Pavie continued to support French expeditions in Laotian territory and gave the territory its name of Laos. In January 1896, France and the United Kingdom signed an accord recognising the border between French Laos and British Burma, in 1898, Laos was fully integrated into the French Indochina union that was created in 1887 by unifying French possessions in Vietnam and Cambodia. A colonial governor was installed in Vientiane and Laos was reorganised from two provinces to ten provinces. The royal seat at Luang Prabang was still seen as the ruler of the province and a royal court still remained. The remaining nine provinces were ruled under the French government in Vientiane, with each province having a resident governor. To financially support the government, taxes were introduced and imposed on the population. In 1904, a treaty with Siam forced the kingdom to also surrender lands on the side of the Mekong River. These lands now form the province of Sainyabuli and the half of Champasak Province. In 1905, the present border between Laos and Cambodia was established after Siam ceded Preah Vihear Province to the French. Officially, the Kingdom of Luang Phrabāng remained a protectorate with internal autonomy, King Sisavang Vong, who became King of Luang Phrabāng in 1904, remained conspicuously loyal to the French through his 55-year reign
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Vientiane
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Vientiane is the capital and largest city of Laos, on the banks of the Mekong River near the border with Thailand. Vientiane became the capital in 1563 due to fears of a Burmese invasion, Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic centre of Laos. The estimated population of the city is 760,000, the city hosted the 25th Southeast Asian Games in December 2009 celebrating the 50 years of Southeast Asian Games. The name of the city is derived from Pali, the language of Theravada Buddhism. The romanised spelling Vientiane is of French origin, and reflects the difficulty the French had in pronouncing the sound in the Lao language. A common English-based spelling is Viangchan, or occasionally Wiangchan, Thattaradtha founded a city called Maha Thani Si Phan Phao on the western banks of the Mekong River, this city was said to have later become todays Udon Thani, Thailand. One day, a seven-headed Naga told Thattaradtha to start a new city on the east bank of the river opposite Maha Thani Si Phan Phao, the prince called this city Chanthabuly Si Sattanakhanahud, which was said to be the predecessor of modern Vientiane. Contrary to the Phra Lak Phra Lam, most historians believe Vientiane was an early Khmer settlement centered around a Hindu temple, in 1354, when Fa Ngum founded the kingdom of Lan Xang. Viangchan became an important administrative city, even though it was not made the capital, King Setthathirath officially established it as the capital of Lan Xang in 1563, to avoid Burmese invasion. When Lan Xang fell apart in 1707, it became an independent Kingdom of Vientiane, in 1779, it was conquered by the Siamese general Phraya Chakri and made a vassal of Siam. When King Anouvong raised a rebellion, it was obliterated by Siamese armies in 1827. The city was burned to the ground and was looted of nearly all Laotian artifacts, including Buddha statues, Viangchan was in great disrepair, depopulated and disappearing into the forest, when the French arrived. It eventually passed to French rule in 1893 and it became the capital of the French protectorate of Laos in 1899. The French rebuilt the city and rebuilt or repaired Buddhist temples such as Pha That Luang, Haw Phra Kaew, during World War II, Viangchan fell with little resistance and was occupied by Japanese forces, under the command of Sako Masanori. On 9 March 1945 French paratroopers arrived, and reoccupied the city on 24 April 1945, as the Laotian Civil War broke out between the Royal Lao Government and the Pathet Lao, Vientiane became unstable. In August 1960, Kong Le seized the capital and insisted that Souvanna Phouma become prime minister, in mid-December, Phoumi Nosavan then seized the capital, overthrew the Phouma Government, and installed Boun Oum as prime minister. In mid-1975, Pathet Lao troops moved towards the city and Americans began evacuating the capital, on 23 August 1975, a contingent of 50 Pathet Lao women symbolically liberated the city. The next day, an Insurgency in Laos began in the jungle, with the Pathet Lao fighting factions of Hmong, Vientiane was the host of the incident-free 2009 Southeast Asian Games
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Isan
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Isan consists of 20 provinces in the northeastern region of Thailand. To the west it is separated from northern and central Thailand by the Phetchabun Mountains, since the beginning of the 20th century, northeastern Thailand has been generally known as Isan, while in official contexts the term phak tawan-ok-chiang-nuea may be used. The term Isan was derived from Isanapura, the capital of the Chenla Kingdom, the majority Lao-speaking population of the region distinguish themselves not only from the Lao of Laos but also from the central Thai by calling themselves khon Isan or Thai Isan in general. The main language is Isan, which is a dialect of the Lao language, currently written with the Thai alphabet, Isan belongs to the Chiang Saeng and Lao–Phutai language groups, which along with Thai are members of the Tai languages of the Tai–Kadai language family. Thai is also spoken by almost everyone and is the used in education. Khmer, the language of Cambodia, is spoken in areas along the Cambodian border, Buriram, Surin. Several Thai prime ministers have come from the region, prominent aspects of Isan culture include mor lam, an indigenous folk music, muay Thai boxing, cock fighting, and celebratory processions. Isan food, in which rice and chili peppers are prominent, is distinct from central Thai cuisine. Sticky rice is a staple of cuisine and it accompanies most meals. Isan has a number of important Bronze Age sites, with art in the form of cliff paintings, artifacts. Iron and bronze tools such as found at Ban Chiang may predate similar tools from Mesopotamia. The region later came under the influence of the Dvaravati culture, the latter built dozens of prasats throughout Isan. The most significant are at Phimai Historical Park and Phanom Rung Historical Park, preah Vihear Temple was also considered to be in Isan, until the International Court of Justice in 1962 ruled that it belonged to Cambodia. After the Khmer Empire began to decline in the 13th century, Isan was dominated by the Lao Lan Xang kingdom, due to a scarcity of information from the periods known as the dark ages of Cambodia, the plateau seems to have been largely depopulated. There were few if any lines of demarcation, for prior to the 19th century introduction of modern mapping, the region was increasingly settled by both Lao and Thai emigrants. Thailand held sway from the 17th century, and carried out forced population transfers from the more populous left bank of the Mekong to the bank in the 18th and 19th centuries. This became more severe following the Lao rebellion for independence of 1826–9. In the wake the Franco-Siamese War of 1893, the treaty with France
