1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments
6.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
7.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
8.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
9.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
10.
1823
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As of the start of 1823, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 23 – In Paviland Cave on the Gower Peninsula of Wales, William Buckland inspects the Red Lady of Paviland, february 3 Jackson Male Academy, precursor of Union University, opens in Tennessee. Gioachino Rossinis Semiramide is first performed, february 10 – First worldwide carnival parade took place in Cologne, Prussia. February 11 – Carnival tragedy of 1823, About 110 boys are killed during a stampede at the Convent of the Minori Osservanti in Valletta, Malta. February 15 – First officially recognised gold find in Australia, by surveyor James McBrien at Fish River, near Bathurst, New South Wales, march 19 – Agustín de Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, abdicates thus ending the short-lived First Mexican Empire. April 13 – Eleven-year-old Franz Liszt gives a concert after which he is congratulated by Ludwig van Beethoven. June 5 – Raffles Institution established as the Singapore Institution by the founder of Singapore, july 10 – Gaols Act passed by Parliament of the United Kingdom, based on the prison reform campaign of Elizabeth Fry. July 15 – The Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome is almost completely destroyed by fire, september 10 – Simón Bolívar is named President of Peru. September 22 – Joseph Smith claimed in 1838 that on this day he had first come to the place where the plates were stored. September 23 – First Anglo-Burmese War, Burmese attack the British on Shapura, october 5 – Medical journal The Lancet is founded by Thomas Wakley in London. November – According to tradition, William Webb Ellis invents the sport of football at Rugby School in England. Beginning of the first Anglo-Ashanti war, Olbers paradox is described by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers. Work begins on the British Museum in London, designed by Robert Smirke, the Oxford Union is founded as a student debating society in England. Davis, American politician November 18 – Charles H
11.
1824
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As of the start of 1824, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 8 – After much controversy, Michael Faraday is finally elected as a member of the Royal Society with only one vote against him, january 22 – The Ashanti crush British forces in the Gold Coast, killing the British governor Sir Charles MacCarthy. January 24 – First issue of the radical quarterly founded by Jeremy Bentham, february 10 – Simón Bolívar is proclaimed dictator of Peru. February 21 – Chumash Revolt of 1824 begins against the Spanish presence in California, march 5 – First Anglo-Burmese War begins. March 7 – Florida State Capitol moves from St. Augustine, march 11 – The United States War Department creates the Bureau of Indian Affairs. March 17 – The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 is signed, may–July – King Kamehameha II of Hawaii and his Queen Consort Kamāmalu make a state visit to London, where they both die of smallpox. May 7 – Première of Beethovens Symphony No.9 at the Theater am Kärntnertor in Vienna, the deaf composer has to be turned around on the stage to witness the enthusiastic audience reaction. May 24 – The British take Rangoon, Burma in the First Anglo-Burmese War, june 16 – The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is established in Great Britain. September 16 – Charles X succeeds his brother Louis XVIII as King of France, october 4 – First Constitution of Mexico enacted, declaring the country to be a federal republic. October 10 – The Edinburgh Town Council founds the Edinburgh Municipal Fire Brigade, october 21 – Joseph Aspdin patents Portland cement. November 5 – Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the first technological university in the English-speaking world, is founded in Troy, november 19 – In the worst flood to date in Saint Petersburg, water rises 421 cm above normal and 200 lose their lives. November 30 – The first sod is turned in Ontario, for the first of four Welland Canals. December 3 – U. S. presidential election,1824, None of the four candidates for U. S. President gain a majority of the electoral votes, december 9 – Battle of Ayacucho, Peruvian forces defeat the Spanish. December 23 – Chief Pushmataha of the Choctaw Nation dies in Washington, december 24 – The First American Fraternity, Chi Phi, is founded at Princeton University. December 28 – Bathurst War comes to an end with the defeat of the Wiradjuri, the Montparnasse Cemetery is established in Paris, France. The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War, the name Australia, recommended by Matthew Flinders in 1804, is finally adopted as the official name of the country once known as New Holland. The Panoramagram is developed, creating the first volumetric display, the Fort Vancouver trading post is established on the lower Columbia River by the Hudsons Bay Company. The Colorado potato beetle is discovered by Thomas Say
12.
1825
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As of the start of 1825, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies, february 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula that formed westernmost Denmark, becomes an island after a flood drowns its 1 km wide isthmus. February 9 – After no presidential candidate receives a majority of electoral votes, february 10 – Simón Bolívar gives up his title of dictator of Peru and takes the alternative title of El Libertador. February 12 – Second Treaty of Indian Springs, The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west. March 1 – The outbound British East Indiaman Kent is destroyed by fire in the Bay of Biscay with the loss of more than 80 lives, but over 550 are saved by passing ships. March 2 – Capture of the Anne, Roberto Cofresí, one of the last successful pirates in the Caribbean, is defeated by a naval force. March 4 – John Quincy Adams is sworn in as President of the United States, march 17 – Founding of insurance company The Norfolk & Dedham Group. July – Volcanic eruption of Mount Guntur in West Java, july 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later becomes the royal house of Greece, Denmark, july 18 – Uruguay secedes from Brazil. July 30 – Malden Island is discovered by George Byron, 7th Baron Byron, august 6 – Bolivia gains its independence from Spain as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar. August 18 – Scottish adventurer Gregor MacGregor issues a £300,000 loan with 2. 5% interest through the London bank of Thomas Jenkins & Company for the fictitious Central American republic of Poyais. His actions lead to the Panic of 1825, the first modern stock market crash, august 25 – Uruguay is declared independent of the Empire of Brazil by the Thirty-Three Orientals, a militant revolutionary group led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja. September – The Lady Margaret Boat Club is founded by 12 members of St Johns College, Cambridge, september 25 – General Hendrik Merkus de Kock lifts the siege of Jogjakarta, the first major action of the Java War. September 27 – The worlds first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, october 7 – The Miramichi Fire, a forest fire, breaks out in New Brunswick. October 21 – PS Comet II sinks off Gourock with the loss of 62 lives, october 26 – The Erie Canal opens, providing passage from Albany, New York to Buffalo and Lake Erie. December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I, december 26 – Some Imperial Russian Army officers stage the Decembrist Revolt against Nicholass accession in Saint Petersburg, but it is thoroughly suppressed by the government. The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London, hans Christian Ørsted reduces aluminium chloride to produce metallic aluminium. History of Brisbane, The Australian city of Brisbane is founded, a new Combination Act in the United Kingdom makes trade unions legal according to narrowly defined principles
13.
1827
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As of the start of 1827, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place on Tasmania on the River Derwent at Hobart. January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, begins its first classes with 10 students, as the Furman Academy and Theological Institution, located at Edgefield, South Carolina. By the end of 2016, it would have 2,800 students at its campus in Greenville. February 20 – Battle of Ituzaingo, A force of the Brazilian Imperial Army meets Argentine–Uruguayan troops in combat, february 28 – The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad is incorporated, becoming the first railroad in United States offering commercial transportation of both people and freight. March 7 – Brazilian marines sail up the Rio Negro and attack the naval base of Carmen de Patagones, Argentina. March 7 – Shrigley Abduction, Ellen Turner, an heiress in Cheshire, England, is abducted by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. March 16 – Freedoms Journal, the first African-American owned and published newspaper in the United States, is founded in New York City by John Russwurm, march 26 – German composer Ludwig van Beethoven dies in Vienna after a prolonged illness. April 7–April 8 – Battle of Monte Santiago, A squadron of the Brazilian Imperial Navy defeats Argentine vessels in a naval engagement. April 10 – UK, George Canning succeeds Lord Liverpool as British Prime Minister, april 24 – Greek War of Independence – Battle of Phaleron, Ottoman troops defeat the Greek rebels. April 26–May 24 – The Royal Netherlands Navys British-built paddle steamer Curaçao makes the first Transatlantic Crossing by steam, april 29 – The Fly Whisk Incident in Ottoman Algeria, Hussein Dey slaps the French consul Pierre Deval on the face, eventually leading to Invasion of Algiers in 1830. May 21 – The Maryland Democratic Party is founded by supporters of Andrew Jackson in Baltimore, may 25 – Romanian inventor Petrache Poenaru receives a French patent for the invention of the first fountain pen with a replaceable ink cartridge. In 1829, the two begin a partnership and Daguerre will perfect Niépces photographic process to reproduce images more quickly. June 7 – Greek defenders in Athens surrender to Egyptian forces under the command of General Rashid Pasha, july 6 – Greek War of Independence, The Treaty of London between France, Britain, and Russia, demands that the Turks agree to an armistice in Greece. July 14 – The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu is founded in the Kingdom of Hawaii, august 31 – UK, Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, becomes Prime Minister of the UK, following the death of George Canning. September 4 – Finland, The Great Fire of Turku destroys 3/4 of the city, with many human casualties. September 20 – Petition for a grant for 215 acres on the north bank of Rio Grande just across from Paso del Norte is approved, first residence is built on what is present day El Paso. October 1 – Russo-Persian War, 1826-1828, The Russians under Ivan Paskevich storm Yerevan, october 20 – Greek War of Independence – Battle of Navarino, British, French, and Russian naval forces destroy the Turko-Egyptian fleet in Greece
14.
1828
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As of the start of 1828, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle as Prime Minister of France, january 22 – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington succeeds Lord Goderich as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. February 19 – The Boston Society for Medical Improvement is established in the United States, by this and the Treaty of Gulistan it has now lost all its territories north of the Aras river, comprising modern day Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan and Armenia to Russia. Armenians from Persian Azerbaijan are to be resettled in the Caucasus. in such a manner as may render even the idea of reunion impracticable, april 11 – Bahía Blanca is founded. April 20 – French explorer René Caillié becomes the first non-Muslim to enter Timbuktu, april 26 – Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed between Brazil and Denmark, establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. May 26 – Supposedly feral child Kaspar Hauser is discovered in Nuremberg, june 3 – Gran Colombia–Peru War, President Simón Bolívar declares war on Peru. June 23 – King Miguel I of Portugal overthrows his niece Queen Maria II, july 4 – Lord William Bentinck arrives at Calcutta to begin his administration as the new Governor-General of India on behalf of King George IV of the United Kingdom. August 11 – William Corder is hanged at Bury St Edmunds, England, august 27 – South America, Brazil and Argentina recognize the independence of Uruguay. Simón Bolívar declares himself dictator of Gran Colombia, september 17 – A typhoon kills approximately 10,000 people in Kyūshū, Japan. September 29 – Russo-Turkish War, Varna is taken by the Russian army, november 11 – Greek War of Independence, the London Protocol entails the creation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, encompassing the Morea and the Cyclades. November 12 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. December 3 – U. S. presidential election, Andrew Jackson is elected President of the United States, december 30 – Publication of Franz Schuberts song cycle Winterreise is concluded posthumously. Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes urea, possibly discrediting a cornerstone of vitalism, Ányos Jedlik creates the worlds first electric motor. 32,000 Angolans are sold in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, foundation of the Office of the Institutions of Empress Maria in Russia
15.
1829
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As of the start of 1829, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 19 – August Klingemanns adaptation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Faust premieres in Braunschweig, february 27 – Battle of Tarqui took place. March 4 – Andrew Jackson is sworn in as President of the United States, march 22 – Greece receives autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in the London Protocol, signed by Russia, France and Britain, effectively ending the Greek War of Independence. Greece continues to seek full independence through diplomatic negotiations with the three Great Powers, march 31 – Pope Pius VIII succeeds Pope Leo XII as the 253rd pope. April–September – Felix Mendelssohn pays his first visit to Britain and this includes the first London performance of his concert overture to A Midsummer Nights Dream and his trip to Fingals Cave. April 1 – Vicente Guerrero becomes the president of Mexico, april 4 – The Mexican city of Cuautla, Morelos, is founded. April 13 – Passage of the Catholic Relief Act by Parliament of the United Kingdom granting a substantial measure of Catholic emancipation in Britain and Ireland. May 6 – The patent for an instrument called the accordion is applied for by Cyrill Demian May 15 – Joseph Smith claims to receive the Aaronic Priesthood from John the Baptist, june 1 – The Philadelphia Inquirer is founded as The Pennsylvania Inquirer. June 3 – The Swan River Colony is founded in Western Australia and this secures the western third of the Australian landmass for the British. June 5 – Slave trade, HMS Pickle captures the slave ship Voladora off the coast of Cuba. June 10 – The Oxford University Boat Club wins the first inter-university Boat Race, june 19 – Robert Peel establishes the Metropolitan Police Service in London, the first modern police force. The first officers, known by the nickname bobbies, go on patrol on September 29, july 2 – Russo-Turkish War, Russian Field-Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch launches the Transbalkan offensive, which brings the Russian army within 68 km of Istanbul. July 4 – George Shillibeer begins operating the first bus service in London, july 23 – In the United States, William Burt obtains the first patent for a form of typewriter, the typographer. August 8 – France, The Prince de Polignac succeeds the Vicomte de Martignac as Prime Minister of France, August 10 – First ascent of Finsteraarhorn, the highest summit of the Bernese Alps. August 12 – Mrs. Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship Sulphur, August 14 – * Kings College London is founded by Royal Charter under the patronage of King George IV and the Prime Minister, The Duke of Wellington. September 16 – Russo-Turkish War, The Treaty of Adrianople gains for Russia some territory at the mouth of the Danube, october 1 – South African College inaugurated in Cape Town. October 8 – Rail transport, Stephensons Rocket wins the Rainhill Trials, november 5 – Technical University of Denmark opens. November 30 – The original Welland Canal opens for a run with a ceremony at Port Dalhousie
16.
1826 in architecture
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The year 1826 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. January 30 - The Menai Suspension Bridge over the Menai Strait in Wales, december 17 - Helsinki Old Church, designed by Carl Ludvig Engel. The Bank of England in London, designed by Sir John Soane, cumberland Terrace in London, designed by John Nash and John Thompson. Alexander Nevsky Memorial Church in Potsdam, an early example of Byzantine Revival architecture designed by Vasily Stasov
17.
1826 in France
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Events from the year 1826 in France. Monarch – Charles X15 January - The newspaper Le Figaro begins publication in Paris, June - Photography, Nicéphore Niépce makes a true photograph, View from the Window at Le Gras. The Hachette publishing business in Paris is established by Louis Christophe François Hachette, the second novel by Victor Hugo, Bug-Jargal, is published. 6 April - Gustave Moreau, painter,5 May - Eugénie de Montijo, wife of Napoléon III. 18 May - Emile-Justin Menier, pharmaceutical manufacturer, chocolatier,29 June - Charles Ernest Beulé, archaeologist and politician. 24 October - Léopold Victor Delisle, bibliophile and historian,3 January - Louis Gabriel Suchet, Marshal of France. 2 February - Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, lawyer, politician, epicure,8 October - Marie-Guillemine Benoist, painter. 5 November - Élie Halévy, Hebrew poet and author
18.
1826 in Norway
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The following details notable events from the year 1826 in Norway. Key domestic issues include maintaining the countrys extensive social safety net with an aging population, see also, Norway December – The paddle steamer SS Constitutionen, the first steam ship of Norway, arrives. The ship was built in England for the State of Norway,2 May - Wincentz Thurmann Ihlen, engineer and industrialist Christen Christensen, military officer and politician Fritz Trampe Flood, merchant Jens Erichstrup, politician
19.
1826 in the United States
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Events from the year 1826 in the United States. February 13 – The American Temperance Society is founded in Boston, july 4 – Both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams die. September 3 – The USS Vincennes, commanded by William Finch, December 21 – Fredonian Rebellion, American settlers in Mexican Texas make the first attempt to secede from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Fredonia, which will survive for just over a month. December 25 – The Eggnog Riot breaks out at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York during the morning hours. Sing Sing prison first opened on the Hudson River, January 5 – Samuel L. M. Barlow I, lawyer January 26 – Julia Grant, born Julia Boggs Dent, First Lady as wife of Ulysses S. Grant, 18th President of the U. S. January 27 – Richard Taylor, Confederate general February 9 – John A. Logan, senator from Illinois from 1871 to 1877 February 22 – Samuel J. R. McMillan, U. S. Senator from Minnesota from 1875 to 1887 March 4 – Theodore Judah, stockbridge, U. S. Breckinridge, Second Lady of the United States September 4 – Willard Warner, U. S. Senator from Alabama from 1868 to 1871 October 7 – William B, bate, 23rd Governor of Tennessee from 1883 to 1887 and U. S. Senator from Tennessee from 1887 to 1905 October 20 – James Z. George, senator from Mississippi from 1881 to 1897 October 31 – Joseph Roswell Hawley, U. S. Senator from Connecticut from 1881 to 1905 December 3 – George B, mcClellan, soldier, civil engineer, railroad executive, and politician December 7 – Edmund G. Ross, U. S. Senator from Kansas from 1866 to 1871 January 24 – Henry H. Chambers, senator from Alabama from 1825 to 1826 February 7 – Thomas Todd, Associate Justice of the U. S
20.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
21.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
22.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
23.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
24.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
25.
George IV of the United Kingdom
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George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle
26.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
27.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
28.
Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
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