1.
1830 in art
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Events from the year 1830 in art. David Wilkie appointed Principal Painter in Ordinary to King William IV of the United Kingdom following the death of Sir Thomas Lawrence, clarkson Stanfields panorama The Military Pass of the Simplon is featured in a Christmas pantomime in London. Edward Lear commences publication of the lithographed Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, approximate beginning of the Barbizon school of painters. Agustín Esteve, Spanish portraitist and royal court painter Jean-Baptiste Giraud, French sculptor
2.
1830 in architecture
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The year 1830 in architecture involved some significant events. The Altes Museum in Berlin, designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, the Glyptothek museum in Munich, designed by Leo von Klenze, is completed. The Museo Correr, a museum in Venice, Italy, is established, the Yorkshire Museum in York, England is completed. The Wellington Arch in London, designed by Decimus Burton, is completed in its original position, st Marys Church, Bramall Lane, Sheffield, England, designed by Joseph Potter, is consecrated. Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened in England
3.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
4.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
5.
Mauritius
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Mauritius, officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about 2,000 kilometres off the southeast coast of the African continent. The country includes the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, and the outer islands, the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues form part of the Mascarene Islands, along with nearby Réunion, a French overseas department. The area of the country is 2,040 km², the capital and largest city is Port Louis. Mauritius was a British colonial possession from 1810 to 1968, the year of its independence, the government uses English as the main language. The sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between Mauritius and the United Kingdom, the UK excised the archipelago from Mauritian territory in 1965, three years prior to Mauritian independence. The UK gradually depopulated the archipelagos indigenous population and leased its biggest island, Diego Garcia, access to the archipelago is prohibited to casual tourists, the media, and its former inhabitants. Mauritius also claims sovereignty over Tromelin Island from France, the people of Mauritius are multiethnic, multi-religious, multicultural and multilingual. The islands government is modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system. Along with the other Mascarene Islands, Mauritius is known for its flora and fauna. The island is known as the only known home of the dodo. Mauritius is the country in Africa where Hinduism is the largest religion. The first historical evidence of the existence of an island now known as Mauritius is on a map produced by the Italian cartographer Alberto Cantino in 1502. From this, it appears that Mauritius was first named Dina Arobi around 975 by Arab sailors, in 1507 Portuguese sailors visited the uninhabited island. The island appears with a Portuguese name Cirne on early Portuguese maps, another Portuguese sailor, Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, gave the name Mascarenes to the Archipelago. In 1598 a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand van Warwyck landed at Grand Port and named the island Mauritius, in honour of Prince Maurice van Nassau, later the island became a French colony and was renamed Isle de France. On 3 December 1810 the French surrendered the island to Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, under British rule, the islands name reverted to Mauritius /məˈrɪʃəs/. Mauritius is also known as Maurice and Île Maurice in French. The island of Mauritius was uninhabited before its first recorded visit during the Middle Ages by Arab sailors, in 1507 Portuguese sailors came to the uninhabited island and established a visiting base
6.
Wilhelm Beer
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Wilhelm Wolff Beer was a banker and astronomer from Berlin, Prussia, and the half-brother of Giacomo Meyerbeer. Beers fame derives from his hobby, astronomy and he built a private observatory with a 9.5 cm refractor in Tiergarten, Berlin. Together with Johann Heinrich Mädler he produced the first exact map of the Moon in 1834-1836, both remained the best descriptions of the Moon for many decades. In 1830, Beer and Mädler created the first globe of the planet Mars. In 1840 they made a map of Mars and calculated its period to be 24 h 37 min 22.7 s. In addition to his hobby of astronomy, he helped with the establishment of a system in Prussia. In his last decade of life, he worked as a writer, in 1849 he was elected as an MP for the first chamber of the Prussian parliament. The crater Beer on Mars is named in Wilhelm Beers honor and lies near Mädler
7.
Charles Bell
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Sir Charles Bell KH FRS FRSE FRCSE MWS was a Scottish surgeon, anatomist, neurologist, and philosophical theologian. He is noted for discovering the difference between nerves and motor nerves in the spinal cord. He is also noted for describing Bells palsy and his three older brothers included John Bell, also a noted surgeon and writer, and the advocate George Joseph Bell. Charles Bell was born in Edinburgh on 12 November 1774, a son of the Rev William Bell, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, Bell grew up in Edinburgh, attending the High School and Edinburgh University, where he took his medical degree in 1798. He was a member of the Royal Medical Society as a student and he conducted his surgical training as assistant to his elder brother John Bell. He and his brother were artistically gifted, and together they taught anatomy, Bells career was characterized by the accumulation of quite extraordinary honours and achievements - and by acrimonious disputes unusual even by the standards of medicine during the Regency. Shortly after his graduation Bell was admitted to the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh and he and his brother published two additional volumes of their anatomical treatise in 1802 and 1804. Some aspects of his success, however, led to the opposition of local physicians. He then moved to London in 1804, where he set up a private surgery, from 1812 to 1825, together with his brother, Bell ran the Great Windmill Street School of Anatomy, which had been founded by the anatomist William Hunter. Bell was instrumental in the creation of the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, and became, in 1824, in 1829, the Windmill Street School of Anatomy was incorporated into the new Kings College London. Bell was invited to be its first professor of physiology, wishing to return to Scotland, he accepted in 1836 the position of Professor of Surgery at the University of Edinburgh. He was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1833, Bell died at Hallow Park near Worcester in the Midlands, while travelling from Edinburgh to London, in 1842. He is buried in Hallow Churchyard near Worcester, Bell was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 8 June 1807, on the nomination of Robert Jameson, William Wright and Thomas Macknight. He served as a Councillor of the RSE from 1836-9 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London on 16 November 1826, was knighted in 1831 and, like Sir Richard Owen, was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Charles Bell was a prolific author, after the failure of his application, Bell turned his attentions to the nervous system. Bell published detailed studies of the system in 1811, in his privately circulated book An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain. He described his experiments with animals and later emphasised how he was the first to distinguish between sensory and motor nerves and this essay is considered by many to be the founding stone of clinical neurology. Darwin detailed these opinions in his The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Bell was one of the first physicians to combine the scientific study of neuroanatomy with clinical practice
8.
William Jackson Hooker
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Sir William Jackson Hooker KH FRS FRSE FLS was an English systematic botanist and organiser, and botanical illustrator. He held the post of Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow University and he enjoyed the friendship and support of Sir Joseph Banks for his exploring, collecting and organising work. His son, Joseph Dalton Hooker, succeeded him to the Directorship of Kew Gardens and he was educated at Norwich School and afterwards took up as a recreation the study of natural history, especially ornithology and entomology. He subsequently confined his attention to botany, on the recommendation of Sir James Edward Smith, Hooker inherited enough money to be able to travel at his own expense. His first botanical expedition—at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks—was to Iceland, the specimens he collected, along with his notes and drawings, were destroyed by fire on the homeward voyage, an incident in which he nearly lost his life. His good memory, however, aided him to publish an account of the island, settling at Halesworth, Suffolk, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which became of worldwide renown among botanists. In 1816 the British Jungermanniae, his first scientific work, was published, in 1820 he accepted the regius professorship of botany in the University of Glasgow where he soon became popular as a lecturer, his style was both clear and ready. The following year he brought out the Flora Scotica, in which the method of arrangement of British plants was given with the artificial. He worked with the Glasgow botanist and lithographer Thomas Hopkirk to establish the Royal Botanic Institution of Glasgow and to lay out and develop the Glasgow Botanic Gardens. In 1815, he was made a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, Hooker succeeded in convincing the British government that botanists should be appointed to their expeditions. While his works were in progress his herbarium received large and valuable additions from all parts of the globe, and his position as a botanist was thus vastly improved. He was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order and a Knight Bachelor in 1836, under his direction the gardens expanded from 10 to 75 acres, with an arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum of economic botany was established. He was engaged on the Synopsis filicum with John Gilbert Baker when he contracted a throat infection then epidemic at Kew and he died in 1865 and is buried at St. Annes Church, Kew. He was succeeded at Kew Gardens by his son Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, K. Greville British Flora, of which several editions appeared, undertaken with Dr G. A. W. Arnott, &c. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hooker. Allen, Mea The Hookers of Kew 1795–1911, William Jackson Hooker at Find a Grave Correspondence to William Hooker as Director of The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is being made available online through the Directors Correspondence Project
9.
HMS Beagle
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HMS Beagle was a Cherokee-class 10-gun brig-sloop of the Royal Navy, one of more than 100 ships of this class. The vessel, constructed at a cost of £7,803, was launched on 11 May 1820 from the Woolwich Dockyard on the River Thames, there was no immediate need for Beagle so she lay in ordinary, moored afloat but without masts or rigging. She was then adapted as a barque and took part in three survey expeditions. The Cherokee-class of 10-gun brig-sloops was designed by Sir Henry Peake in 1807, the Beagles keel was laid in June 1818, construction cost £7,803, and the ship was launched on 11 May 1820. In July of that year she took part in a review on the River Thames. Captain Pringle Stokes was appointed captain of Beagle on 7 September 1825, on 27 September 1825 Beagle docked at Woolwich to be repaired and fitted out for her new duties. Her guns were reduced from ten cannon to six and a mizzen mast was added to improve her handling, Beagle set sail from Plymouth on 22 May 1826 on her first voyage, under the command of Captain Stokes. Faced with the difficult part of the survey in the desolate waters of Tierra del Fuego. At Port Famine on the Strait of Magellan he locked himself in his cabin for 14 days, then after getting over-excited and talking of preparing for the next cruise, shot himself on 2 August 1828. Following four days of delirium Stokes recovered slightly, but then his condition deteriorated, Captain Parker King then replaced Stokes with the First Lieutenant of the Beagle, Lieutenant W. G. Skyring as commander, and both ships sailed to Montevideo. On 13 October King sailed the Adventure to Rio de Janeiro for refitting, when the Beagle arrived, Otway put the ship under the command of his aide, Flag Lieutenant Robert FitzRoy. The 23-year-old aristocrat FitzRoy proved an able commander and meticulous surveyor, in one incident a group of Fuegians stole a ships boat, and FitzRoy took their families on board as hostages. Eventually he held two men, a girl and a boy, who was given the name of Jemmy Button, during this survey, the Beagle Channel was identified and named after the ship. A kind uncle heard of this and contacted the Admiralty, soon afterwards FitzRoy heard that he was to be appointed commander of HMS Chanticleer to go to Tierra del Fuego, but due to her poor condition Beagle was substituted for the voyage. FitzRoy was re-appointed as commander on 27 June 1831 and the Beagle was commissioned on 4 July 1831 under his command, with Lieutenants John Clements Wickham, Beagle was immediately taken into dock at Devonport for extensive rebuilding and refitting. As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper-deck raised considerably, the Cherokee-class ships had the reputation of being coffin brigs, which handled badly and were prone to sinking. Additional sheathing added to the hull added about seven tons to her burthen, the ship was one of the first to be fitted with the lightning conductor invented by William Snow Harris. To reduce magnetic interference with the instruments, FitzRoy proposed replacing the iron guns with brass guns
10.
Hydrography
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The origins of hydrography lay in the making of charts to aid navigation, by individual mariners as they navigated into new waters. These were usually the property, even closely held secrets. National organizations, particularly navies, realized that the collection, systematization and distribution of this gave it great organizational. Thus were born dedicated national hydrographic organizations for the collection, organization, publication and distribution of hydrography incorporated into charts, prior to the establishment of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, Royal Navy captains were responsible for the provision of their own charts. In practice this meant that ships often sailed with inadequate information for safe navigation, and that when new areas were surveyed, the Admiralty appointed Alexander Dalrymple as Hydrographer in 1795, with a remit to gather and distribute charts to HM Ships. Within a year existing charts from the two centuries had been collated, and the first catalogue published. The first chart produced under the direction of the Admiralty, was a chart of Quiberon Bay in Brittany, under Captain Thomas Hurd the department received its first professional guidelines and the first catalogues were published and made available to the public and to other nations as well. In 1829, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, as Hydrographer, developed the eponymous Scale, and introduced the first official tide tables in 1833, the word hydrography comes from the Ancient Greek ὕδωρ, water and γράφω, to write. The science of oceanography is, in part, an outgrowth of classical hydrography, in many respects the data are interchangeable, but marine hydrographic data will be particularly directed toward marine navigation and safety of that navigation. Marine resource exploration and exploitation is a significant application of hydrography, hydrographical measurements include the tidal, current and wave information of physical oceanography. Bottom measurements also include collection of the nature of the bottom as it pertains to effective anchoring, unlike oceanography, hydrography will include shore features, natural and manmade, that aid in navigation. Hydrography, mostly for reasons of safety, adopted a number of conventions that have affected its portrayal of the data on nautical charts, the former are the mariners tools to avoid accident. The latter are best representations of the seabed, as in a topographic map, for scientific. Trends in hydrographic practice since c, 2003–2005 have led to a narrowing of this difference, with many more hydrographic offices maintaining best observed databases, and then making navigationally safe products as required. This has been coupled with a preference for multi-use surveys, so that the data collected for nautical charting purposes can also be used for bathymetric portrayal. For instance, if there is an area that can not be reached because it is surrounded by shallow water. The color filled areas that show different ranges of water are not the equivalent of contours on a topographic map since they are often drawn seaward of the actual shallowest depth portrayed. A bathymetric chart does show marine topology accurately, details covering the above limitations can be found in Part 1 of Bowditchs American Practical Navigator
11.
Patagonia
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Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes. Patagonia has two coasts, a western one towards the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one towards the Atlantic Ocean, the Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia, most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, the hypothesis was accepted and published in the New Review of Spanish Philology in the 2011 article. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water, towards the Andes, the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant. It is characteristic of the flora of the western coast, and consist principally of southern beech and conifers. Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta, the Senguerr. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting, best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, to the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia, Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice-streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass, víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far-travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been associated with remains of Dinosauria. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a number of cetaceans has been discovered. At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries, Chile and Argentina, both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions, Provinces and departments in Argentina, and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being a unitary state Chiles first level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces, Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government-appointed intendants
12.
Tierra del Fuego
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Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, with an area of 48,100 km2. Tierra del Fuego is divided between Chile and Argentina, with the controlling the eastern half of the main island. The southernmost extent of the archipelago is at about latitude 55 S, the earliest known human settlement in Tierra del Fuego dates to around 8,000 B. C. Europeans first explored the islands during Ferdinand Magellans expedition of 1520, Tierra del Fuego, today, petroleum extraction dominates economic activity in the north of Tierra del Fuego, while tourism, manufacturing, and Antarctic logistics are important in the south. The earliest human settlement occurred around 8,000 B. C, the Yaghan were some of the earliest known humans to settle in Tierra del Fuego. Archeological sites with characteristics of their culture have found at locations such as Navarino Island. The name Tierra del Fuego derives from the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the Spanish Crown and he believed he was seeing the many fires of the Yaghan, which were visible from the sea, and that the Indians were waiting in the forests to ambush his armada. In 1525 Francisco de Hoces was the first to speculate that Tierra del Fuego was one or more islands rather than part of what was then called Terra Australis, francis Drake in 1578 and a Dutch VOC expedition in 1616 learned more about the geography. The latter expedition named Cape Horn, on his first voyage with the HMS Beagle in 1830, Robert FitzRoy picked up four native Fuegians, including Jemmy Button and brought them to England. The surviving three were taken to London to meet the King and Queen and were, for a time and they returned to Tierra del Fuego in the Beagle with FitzRoy and Charles Darwin, who made extensive notes about his visit to the islands. During the second half of the 19th century, the archipelago began to come under Chilean, both countries sought to claim the whole archipelago based on de jure Spanish colonial titles. Salesian Catholic missions were established in Río Grande and Dawson Island, anglican missions were established by British colonists at Keppel Island in the Falklands in 1855 and in 1870 at Ushuaia on the main island, which continued to operate through the 19th century. Thomas Bridges learned the language and compiled a 30, 000-word Yaghan grammar and it was published in the 20th century and considered an important ethnological work. An 1879 Chilean expedition led by Ramón Serrano Montaner reported large amounts of gold in the streams. This prompted massive immigration to the island between 1883 and 1909. Numerous Argentines, Chileans and Croatians settled in the main island, julius Popper, a Romanian explorer, was one of the most successful entrepreneurs in the region. Granted rights by the Argentine government to exploit any gold deposits he found in Tierra del Fuego, despite the missionaries efforts, many natives died
13.
Charles Lyell
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Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, FRS was a British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. Principles of Geology also challenged theories popularized by Georges Cuvier, which were the most accepted and circulated ideas about geology in England at the time and he also coined the currently-used names for geological eras, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. He incorrectly conjectured that icebergs may be the emphasis behind the transport of glacial erratics, Lyell was one of the first to believe that the world is older than 300 million years, on the basis of its geological anomalies. He was a friend of Charles Darwin, and contributed significantly to Darwins thinking on the processes involved in evolution. He helped to arrange the publication in 1858 of papers by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace on natural selection. He later published evidence from geology of the man had existed on Earth. Lyell was born 14 November 1797 in Scotland about 15 miles north of Dundee in Kinnordy and he was the eldest of ten children. Lyells father, also named Charles Lyell, was a lawyer and botanist of minor repute, the house/place of his birth is located in the north-west of the Central Lowlands in the valley of the Highland Boundary Fault. Round the house, in the valley, is farmland. His familys second home was in a different geological and ecological area, he spent much of his childhood at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest. Lyell entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1816, and attended William Bucklands lectures and he graduated BA second class in classics, December 1819, and M. A.1821. After graduation he took up law as a profession, entering Lincolns Inn in 1820 and he completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. In 1821 he attended Robert Jamesons lectures in Edinburgh, and visited Gideon Mantell at Lewes, in 1823 he was elected joint secretary of the Geological Society. As his eyesight began to deteriorate, he turned to geology as a full-time profession and his first paper, On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire, was presented in 1822. In 1832, Lyell married Mary Horner in Bonn, daughter of Leonard Horner, the new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area. During the 1840s, Lyell travelled to the United States and Canada, after the Great Chicago Fire, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found the Chicago Public Library. In 1866, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Lyells wife died in 1873, and two years later Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition of Principles and he is buried in Westminster Abbey
14.
Principles of Geology
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Lyell used geology throughout as a basis to strengthen his argument for Uniformitarianism. He used geological proof to determine that the Earth was older than 6,000 years, the book shows that the processes that are occurring in the present are the same processes that occurred in the past. The book was influential, not least on the young graduate Charles Darwin, published in three volumes in 1830–33, the book established Lyells credentials as an important geological theorist and popularised the doctrine of uniformitarianism. The book is notable for being one of the first to use the term evolution in the context of biological speciation, while in South America, Darwin received Volume 2, which rejected the idea of organic evolution, proposing Centres of Creation to explain diversity and territory of species. Vol 1, Jan.1830 - Vol 2, Jan.1832 - Vol 3, May 1833 2nd edition, London, Vol 1,1832 - Vol 2, Jan.1833 3rd edition,4 vols. May 1834 4th edition,3 vols, Vol 1 - Vol 2 - Vol 3 5th edition,4 vols. Vol 1 - Vol 2 - Vol 3 - Vol 4 6th edition,3 vols, june 1840 7th edition,1 vol. Feb.1847 8th edition,1 vol, may 1850 9th edition,1 vol.1853 10th edition,2 vols. Vol 1 - Vol 2 Principles of Geology - full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library
15.
Thomas Southwood Smith
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Southwood Smith was an English physician and sanitary reformer. Smiths life up to 1812 remains poorly documented and he was born at Martock, Somerset, into a Baptist family, his parents being William Smith and Caroline Southwood. In 1802 he was sent to the Baptist Academy in Bristol and he married in 1808, but his wife Anne died in 1812, leaving him two daughters. In this period Smiths contact with William Blake at Crewkerne was significant, another friend, and Unitarian convert from Baptism who became a physician, was Benjamin Spencer. In June 1813 he began a course of fortnightly evening lectures on universal restoration, also in 1813 he founded the Scottish Unitarian Association, with James Yates. In 1816 he took his M. D. degree, and began to practice at Yeovil, Somerset, also becoming minister at a chapel in that town, in 1824 Smith was appointed physician to the London Fever Hospital. The following year he began to write papers on public health and his post gave him the opportunity to study diseases of poverty. In the late 1830s, with Neil Arnott and James Phillips Kay, in 1842 he was one of the founders of an early housing association, the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes. Smith was an ally on public health matters with Edwin Chadwick. From 1848 to 1854 they worked together at the Central Board of Health. But the appointment of Lord Seymour made their work difficult, despite the support of Anthony Ashley-Cooper. Smith was frequently consulted in fever epidemics and on sanitary matters by public authorities and his reports on quarantine, cholera, yellow fever, and on the results of sanitary improvement were of international importance. Smith died in Florence in 1861 and is interred there in the English Cemetery of Florence, his tombstone and his daughter Emily, who died in 1872, is buried beside him. Southwood Smith was a utilitarian, and a close friend of Jeremy Bentham. He had a particular interest in applying his philosophical beliefs to the field of medical research, on 9 June 1832, Southwood Smith carried out the highly controversial public dissection of Jeremy Bentham at the Webb Street School of Anatomy in London. Smiths lobbying helped lead to the 1832 Anatomy Act, the legislation allowed the state to seize unclaimed corpses from workhouses. While this act is credited with ending the practice of grave robbery, in 1830 Smith published A Treatise on Fever, which became a standard authority on the subject. In this book he established a connection between the impoverishment of the poor and epidemic fever
16.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
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John Ruggles
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John Ruggles was an American politician from the U. S. state of Maine. He served in several important state legislative and judicial positions before serving in the U. S. Senate, Ruggles was born in Westborough, Massachusetts. He attended public school there and in 1813 graduated from Brown University in Providence, Ruggles studied law, and after being admitted to the bar in 1815 he began practicing in Skowhegan, Maine. Two years later, Ruggles moved to Thomaston, in 1823, Ruggles was elected to the Maine House of Representatives. He served in the House until 1831, and was speaker and he resigned from the state house to replace Samuel E. Smith as a justice of the supreme judicial court of Maine, serving until 1834. The state legislature elected Ruggles as a Democratic-Republican to the U. S. Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Peleg Sprague. He was later elected for the term beginning March 4,1835. He was a candidate for reelection in 1840. During his tenure in Congress, Ruggles had served as chairman of the Committee on Patents and Patent Office, and in 1836 framed the bill for the reorganization of the United States Patent Office. He was known for his interest in inventions and patents, Ruggles also was an inventor and the patent-holder of U. S. Patent 1, issued July 13,1836 and his invention was a type of train wheel designed to reduce the adverse effects of the weather on the track. Note that this was not the first patent ever from the USPTO, the patents were destroyed by fire and afterwards called the X-Patents. Ruggles received the first patent granted under the new system, Samuel Hopkins received the first X-Patent, in retirement, Ruggles resumed the practice of law in Thomaston. There he made several inventions and was well known as a political writer. Ruggles was wealthy, he and his wife Margaret George Ruggles had children and he died in 1874 a few months before reaching age 85. He is interred in the Elm Grove Cemetery, Patent Office 1836 fire Patent Office 1877 fire Ruggles, John. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
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Rack railway
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A rack railway is a steep grade railway with a toothed rack rail, usually between the running rails. The trains are fitted with one or more cog wheels or pinions that mesh with this rack rail and this allows the trains to operate on steep grades above around 7 to 10%, which is the maximum for friction-based rail. Most rack railways are mountain railways, although a few are transit railways or tramways built to overcome a steep gradient in an urban environment. The first cog railway was the Middleton Railway between Middleton and Leeds in West Yorkshire, England, UK, where the first commercially successful steam locomotive, Salamanca and this used a rack and pinion system designed and patented in 1811 by John Blenkinsop. The first mountain cog railway was the Mount Washington Cog Railway in the US state of New Hampshire, the track was completed to reach the summit of Mount Washington in 1869. The first mountain railway in continental Europe was the Vitznau-Rigi-Bahn on Mount Rigi in Switzerland. A number of different rack systems have been developed, today, the majority of rack railways use the Abt system. Blenkinsops system remained in use for 25 years on the Middleton Railway, Rack systems place the rack rail halfway between the running rails, with the exception of some early Morgan rack installations. The first successful rack railway in the US was the Mount Washington Cog Railway, the first public trial of the Marsh rack on Mount Washington was made on August 29,1866, when only one quarter of a mile of track had been completed. The Mount Washington railway opened to the public on August 14,1868, the Riggenbach rack system was invented by Niklaus Riggenbach working at about the same time as, but independently from Marsh. Riggenbach was granted a French patent in 1863 based on a model which he used to interest potential Swiss backers. During this time, the Swiss Consul to the United States visited Marshs Mount Washington Cog Railway, eager to boost tourism in Switzerland, the government commissioned Riggenbach to build a rack railway up Rigi Mountain. Following the construction of a locomotive and test track in a quarry near Bern. The Riggenbach system is similar in design to the Marsh system and it uses a ladder rack, formed of steel plates or channels connected by round or square rods at regular intervals. The Riggenbach system suffers from the problem that its fixed ladder rack is more complex, following the success of the Vitznau-Rigi-Bahn, Riggenbach established the Maschinenfabrik der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Bergbahnen - a company that produced rack locomotives to his design. The Strub rack system was invented by Emil Strub in 1896 and it uses a rolled flat-bottom rail with rack teeth machined into the head approximately 100 mm apart. Safety jaws fitted to the locomotive engage with the underside of the head to prevent derailments, strubs US Patent, granted in 1898, also includes details of how the rack rail is integrated with the mechanism of a turnout. The best-known use of the Strub system is on the Jungfraubahn in Switzerland and it is the simplest rack system to maintain and has become increasingly popular
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Edwin Beard Budding
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Edwin Beard Budding, an engineer from Stroud, England, was the English inventor of the lawnmower and adjustable spanner. Buddings mower was designed primarily to cut the lawn on sports grounds and extensive gardens, as an alternative to the scythe. It took ten years and further innovations to create a machine that could be worked by animals. The first machine produced was 19 inches in width with a made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind with motive power coming from the land roller which drove gears to transfer the drive to the knives on the cutting cylinder. There was another roller placed in between the cylinder and the land roller which was adjustable to alter the height of cut. On cutting, the clippings were hurled forward into a tray like box. It was soon realized, however, that an extra handle was needed in front of the machine which could be used to pull it along. Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regents Park Zoological Gardens in London, Budding realised that a similar device could be used to cut grass if the mechanism was mounted in a wheeled frame to make the blades rotate close to the lawns surface. Budding went into partnership with an engineer, John Ferrabee. Examples of the early Budding type mowers can be seen in Stroud Museum, Budding is also credited with the invention of the screw adjustable spanner in 1842
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Lawn mower
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A lawn mower is a machine utilizing one or more revolving blades to cut a grass surface to an even height. The most common source for lawn mowers is a small internal combustion engine. Smaller mowers often lack any form of propulsion, requiring power to move over a surface, walk-behind mowers are self-propelled, requiring a human only to walk behind. Larger lawn mowers are usually either self-propelled walk-behind types, or more often, are ride-on mowers, equipped so the operator can ride on the mower, a robotic lawn mower is designed to operate either entirely on its own, or less commonly by an operator by remote control. Two main styles of blades are used in lawn mowers, there are several types of mowers, each suited to a particular scale and purpose. The smallest types, unpowered push mowers, are suitable for residential lawns and gardens. Electrical or piston engine-powered push-mowers are used for residential lawns. The largest multi-gang mowers are mounted on tractors and are designed for large expanses of grass such as courses and municipal parks. The first lawn mower was invented by Edwin Budding in 1830 in Thrupp, just outside Stroud, in Gloucestershire, England. Buddings mower was designed primarily to cut the grass on sports grounds and extensive gardens, as an alternative to the scythe. Buddings first machine was 19 inches wide with a made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind, cast-iron gear wheels transmitted power from the rear roller to the cutting cylinder, allowing the rear roller to drive the knives on the cutting cylinder, the ratio was 16,1. Another roller placed between the cylinder and the main or land roller could be raised or lowered to alter the height of cut. The grass clippings were hurled forward into a tray-like box and it was soon realized, however, that an extra handle was needed in front to help pull the machine along. Overall, these machines were similar to modern mowers. Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regents Park Zoological Gardens in London and his machine was the catalyst for the preparation of modern-style sporting ovals, playing fields, grass courts, etc. This led to the codification of rules for many sports, including for football, lawn bowls, lawn tennis. It took ten years and further innovations to create a machine that could be drawn by animals
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Aeneas Coffey
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Aeneas Coffey was an Irish inventor, and distiller. Coffey was born in Calais, France in 1780 to Irish parents and was educated at Trinity College and he entered the excise service around 1799–1800 as a gauger. He married Susanna Logie in 1808, and they had a son, also named Aeneas, customs and Excise Officer According to British customs and excise records, he was a remarkable man with widespread interests and multiple talents who rose quickly through the excise service ranks. He was appointed sub-commissioner of Inland Excise and Taxes for the district of Drogheda in 1813 and he was appointed Surveyor of Excise for Clonmel and Wicklow in 1815. In 1816 he was promoted to the same post at Cork, by 1818 he was Acting Inspector General of Excise for the whole of Ireland and within 2 years was eventually promoted to Inspector General of Excise in Dublin, Ireland. He was a strong, determined upholder of the law, and he survived many nasty skirmishes with illegal distillers and smugglers, particularly in the north and west of Ireland where moonshining was most rife. On several occasions he proposed to the government simple, pragmatic solutions to rules, not all of his ideas were accepted. His 1822 report was solidly backed by the Irish distillers and he believed in making it viable to distill legally, and illegal distilling might largely disappear. He assisted the government in the drafting of the 1823 Excise Act which made it easier to distil legally and it sanctioned the distilling of whiskey in return for a licence fee of £10, and a set payment per gallon of proof spirit. It also provided for the appointment of a single Board of Excise, under Treasury control, for the whole of the United Kingdom, replacing the separate Excise boards for England, Scotland and Ireland. The 1823 Excise Act also provided for not more than four assistant commissioners of excise to transact current business in Scotland and Ireland, Aeneas Coffey resigned from government excise service at his own request in 1824. This was how Coffey became familiar with a still design differing from the copper pot alembic still commonly used in Ireland. It was that last point that captured Coffey’s imagination, Coffey made his own modifications to existing column still designs, so as to allow a greater portion of the vapors to re-circulate into the still instead of moving into the receiver with the spirit. The result was efficient, producing a lighter spirit at higher alcohol content. Coffey patented his design in 1830, and it became the basis for every column still used ever since and his column still became widely popular in Scotland and the rest of the world outside Ireland where it is known as the Coffey still or Patent Still. Modern versions of the Coffey Still can achieve much higher alcohol concentrations – approaching 95. 6% alcohol, as alcohol forms an azeotrope with water at this concentration, it is impossible to achieve higher purity alcohol by distillation alone. The development of the Coffey Still made distillation of his own whiskey much more economical, later Years Nothing is known of the final years and last resting place of Aeneas Coffey. His only son, also called Aeneas Coffey, emigrated to South Africa, Aeneas Coffey junior married but his wife died childless
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Column still
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A column still, also called a continuous still, patent still or Coffey still, is a variety of still consisting of two columns. Sir Anthony Perrier was operator of the Spring Lane distillery in Cork and this meant small portions of fermented wash received the greatest amount of heat, thereby increasing the amount of potable alcohol that was collected. In 1828, Perriers invention inspired a Scotsman, Robert Stein and he called it a patent still. It was first used at the Cameron Bridge Grain Distillery in Fife, despite numerous presentations in the British Isles and in Europe, he never got the financial support needed to get his project off the ground and into the distilleries. However, a demonstration of Steins still observed by a Dublin excise tax collector yielded the greatest result, the design was to be improved and patented by an Irishman, Aeneas Coffey. Educated at Dublins Trinity College, Coffey had ample opportunities to all manner of still designs because he had worked for a quarter of a century as an excise tax collector. He knew how much could be produced in a period of time. He also knew that the new continuous stills had a flaw, to obtain a higher proof spirit, receiving vessels had to be changed so multiple distillations could take place. Coffey opened the Dock Distillery on Grand Canal Street in Dublin, the main feature of his operation was a customised still of his own design—or rather Stein’s design with a minor modification. Coffey inserted two pipes into Stein’s column still that allowed a portion of the vapours to re-circulate into the still instead of flowing into the receiver with the spirit. This eliminated the need for multi-distillation and produced a spirit with a higher proof, in 1830, he was granted Patent #5974 for his design, a two-column continuous still. Nearly every liquor producer in Europe and the Americas embraced Coffeys new continuous column still and he closed Dock Distillery four years later and devoted all of his time to building and installing stills in distilleries owned by others. At the time, Irish distillers were the dominant force in global whiskey production, unfortunately for Coffey, his invention was shunned by the Irish who considered the whiskey produced from his still as bland and tasteless. They decided to persevere with their famous pot still whiskey and Coffey was forced to look overseas, the first column in a column still has steam rising and wash descending through several levels. The second column carries the alcohol from the wash, where it circulates until it can condense at the required strength, column stills behave like a series of single pot stills, formed in a long vertical tube. The tube is filled with either porous packing or bubble plates, the rising vapor, which is low in alcohol, starts to condense in the cooler, higher level of the column. The temperature of each successively higher stage is lower than the previous stage. Whereas a single pot still charged with wine might yield a vapor enriched to 40–50% alcohol, a column still can achieve a vapor alcohol content of 96%, further enrichment is only possible by absorbing the remaining water using other means, such as hydrophilic chemicals or azeotropic distillation
