1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
6.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
7.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
8.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
9.
1830
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As of the start of 1830, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. It is known in European history as a tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland. January 11 – LaGrange College began operation, becoming the first publicly chartered college in Alabama, february 3 – The London Protocol establishes the full independence and sovereignty of Greece from the Ottoman Empire as the final result of the Greek War of Independence. March 12 – Craig vs. March 26 – The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, March 28 – The Java War ends. April 6 – Joseph Smith and five others organize the Church of Christ, may 13 – Ecuador separates from Gran Colombia. May 28 – The United States Congress passes the Indian Removal Act, june 26 – William IV succeeds his brother George IV as King of the United Kingdom. July 5 – France invades Algeria, July 17 – Barthélemy Thimonnier is granted a patent for a sewing machine in France, it chains stitches at 200/minute. July 18 – Uruguay adopts its first constitution, July 20 – Greece grants citizenship to Jews. July 27 – France, The July Revolution begins, august 9 – France, Louis Philippe becomes King of the French. August 13 – France, Duc de Broglie becomes Prime Minister, august 25 – The Belgian Revolution begins. August 31 – Edwin Beard Budding is granted a patent for the invention of the lawn mower, september 15 – The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens, the worlds first intercity passenger railway operated solely by steam locomotives. September 27 – The Belgian Revolution ends by liberating Brussels from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, october 4 – The Provisional Government in Brussels declares the creation of the independent state of Belgium, in revolt against the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. October – Start of the Regeneration in Switzerland, more liberal constitutions adopted in most cantons, november 2 – France, Jacques Laffitte succeeds the Duc de Broglie as Prime Minister. November 8 – Ferdinand II becomes King of the Two Sicilies, november 22 – The Whig Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey succeeds Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. November 29 – The Polish insurrection begins in Warsaw against Russian rule, december 5 – Hector Berliozs most famous work, Symphonie fantastique, has its world premiere in Paris. December 20 – The independence of Belgium is recognized by the Great Powers,10,000 chests of opium are sold in China. Austins of Derry established in Northern Ireland, until closure in 2016, it was the worlds oldest independent department store. January 7 – Albert Bierstadt, German-American painter January 21 – Liu Kunyi, Chinese general January 23 – Gaston Alexandre Auguste, Marquis de Galliffet, French general January 31 – James G
10.
1831
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As of the start of 1831, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing The Liberator, a newspaper, in Boston. February–March – Revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States are put down by Austrian troops, February 2 – Pope Gregory XVI succeeds Pope Pius VIII as the 254th pope. February 5 – Dutch naval lieutenant Jan van Speyk blows up his own gunboat in Amsterdam rather than strike his colours on the demand of supporters of the Belgian Revolution. February 7 – Belgian Constitution of 1831 approved by the National Congress February 14 – Battle of Debre Abbay, Ras Marye of Yejju marches into Tigray and defeats, February 20 – Battle of Olszynka Grochowska, Polish rebel forces divide a Russian army. March 10 – The French Foreign Legion is founded, march 16 – The Hunchback of Notre-Dame is first published by Victor Hugo. March 29 – The Bosnian Uprising against the Ottoman Empire begins, april 7 – Pedro I abdicates as Emperor of Brazil in favor of his 5-year-old son Pedro II, who will reign for almost 59 years. April 18 – University of Alabama founded, april 27 – Charles Albert becomes king of Sardinia after the death of King Charles Felix. May 26 – Battle of Ostrołęka, The Poles fight another indecisive battle, may–June – Merthyr Rising, Coal miners and others riot in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales for improved working conditions. June 1 – British Royal Navy officer James Clark Ross locates the position of the North Magnetic Pole on the Boothia Peninsula, C. July 15 – The volcanic island of Graham Island briefly emerges in the Mediterranean. July 21 – Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is inaugurated as first King of the Belgians in Brussels, august 2 – The Dutch Ten Days Campaign against Belgium is halted by a French army. August 7 – American Baptist minister William Miller preaches his first sermon on the Second Advent of Christ in Dresden, New York, august 21 – United States, Nat Turners slave rebellion breaks out in Southampton County, Virginia. September 6–September 8 – Battle of Warsaw, The Russians take the Polish capital, september 8 – The coronation of King William IV of the United Kingdom who succeeded his brother George IV. He would reign until 1837 October 9 – Ioannis Kapodistrias, the Greek head of state, October 29 – The Bristol Riots of 1831 took place, in response to the UK parliaments decision not to reform the vote, causing delays to the building of the Clifton Suspension Bridge. November 7 – Slave trading is forbidden in Brazil, november 22 – After a bloody battle with the military causing 600 casualties, rebellious silk workers seize Lyon, France, beginning the First Canut Revolt. December 27 – Charles Darwin embarks on his voyage aboard HMS Beagle. December 27 – The Christmas Rebellion begins in Jamaica with the setting afire of the Kensington House in St James Parish, at its peak, more than 20,000 people will be involved, and more than 500 people will be killed. December 31 – Gramercy Park is deeded to New York City, the Sydney Morning Herald newspaper is first published
11.
1832
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As of the start of 1832, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society, more than 300 of the slave rebels will be publicly hanged for their part in the destruction. February 9 – The Florida Legislative Council grants a city charter for Jacksonville, february 12 Ecuador annexes the Galápagos Islands. A cholera epidemic in London claims at least 3,000 victims and it spreads to France and North America later in the year. February 28 – Charles Darwin and the crew of HMS Beagle arrive at South America for the first time, march 24 – In Hiram, Ohio, a group of men beat, tar and feather Mormon leader Joseph Smith. April 6 – United States, The Black Hawk War begins, may 7 – The Treaty of London creates an independent Kingdom of Greece. Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria, is chosen King, thus begins the history of modern Greece. May 11 – Greece is recognized as a nation, the Treaty of Constantinople ends the Greek War of Independence in July. May 10 – The Egyptians, aided by Maronites, seize Acre from the Ottoman Empire after a 7-month siege, may 24 – Francois Arban, early French balloonist makes his 1st ascent. May 30 Germany, Hambacher Fest, a demonstration for civil liberties and national unity, canada, The Rideau Canal in eastern Ontario is opened. June 5–6 – France, June Rebellion, anti-monarchist riots, chiefly by students, June 7 – The Reform Act becomes law in the United Kingdom. July 2 – André-Michel Guerry presents his Essay on moral statistics of France, to the French Academy of Sciences, July 4 – Durham University is founded in the north of England by act of Parliament given royal assent by King William IV. July 9 – Commissioner of Indian Affairs post created within the United States Department of War, July 10 – United States Survey of the Coast revived. August 2 – Bad Axe Massacre ends the last major Native American rebellion east of the Mississippi in the U. S. August 17 – China ceases production of iron shuriken, August 27 – Black Hawk surrenders to the United States authorities, ending the Black Hawk War. The area ceded includes the entire northern one-sixth of the state of Mississippi, November 14 – Charles Carroll, the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence dies at his home in Maryland at age 95. November 21 – Wabash College, a small, private, liberal arts college for men, is founded. On December 10, U. S. President Andrew Jackson responds to the Nullification Crisis to by threatening to send the U. S. Army, December 3 – U. S. presidential election,1832, Andrew Jackson is re-elected president. December 4 – Battle of Antwerp, The last remaining Dutch enforcement, December 21 – Battle of Konya, The Egyptians defeat the main Ottoman army in central Anatolia
12.
1833
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As of the start of 1833, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic, february 6 – His Royal Highness Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria assumes the title His Majesty Othon the First, by the Grace of God, King of Greece, Prince of Bavaria. March 4 – Andrew Jackson is sworn in for his term as President of the United States. April 1 – General Antonio López de Santa Anna is elected President of Mexico by the legislatures of 16 of the 18 Mexican states. During his frequent absences from office to fight on the battlefield, Santa Anna turns the duties of government over to his vice president, may 6 Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber obtain permission to build an electromagnetic telegraph in Göttingen. In Alexandria, Virginia, an attack is made on US President Andrew Jackson, may 10 – Lê Văn Khôi revolt against Emperor Minh Mạng of Vietnam begins. May 25 – The Chilean Constitution of 1833 is promulgated, June 5 – Ada Lovelace is introduced to Charles Babbage by Mary Somerville. June 9 - Dubai gets independence from the United Kingdom June 29 – William Fraser Tolmie experiences an earthquake at Fort Nisqually and his journal entry records the first written eyewitness account of an earthquake in the Puget Sound region. July 5 – Liberal Wars – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, july 20 – A mob in Jackson County, Missouri destroys the printing office of the early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints containing what is now known as The Doctrine of Covenants. August 1 The British Parliament passes the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, King Williams College on the Isle of Man officially opens. August 3 – In Switzerland, troops of the city of Basel march on rebels in Liestal, august 12 – The city of Chicago is established at the estuary of the Chicago River by 350 settlers. August 18 – The Canadian ship SS Royal William sets out from Pictou, august 20 – Future United States President Benjamin Harrison is born in Ohio. August 26 – The Canton of Basel is partitioned by the Swiss Tagsatzung, august 29 – The British Parliament enacts the Factory Acts limiting child labour September 2 – Oberlin College founded in Oberlin, Ohio. September 29 – Three-year-old Isabella II becomes Queen of Spain, under the regency of her mother and her uncle Don Carlos, Conde de Molina challenges her claim, beginning the First Carlist War. October 20 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, writes his oft-quoted poem, november 12–November 13 – A very spectacular occurrence of the Leonid meteor shower is observed all over North America, and was the inspiration for the song Stars Fell on Alabama. November 25 – A major 8.7 earthquake strikes Sumatra, December – American Anti-Slavery Society founded. December 14 – Kaspar Hauser, a mysterious German youth, is stabbed, the dawn of biochemistry, The first enzyme, diastase, is discovered by Anselme Payen. Greece recaptures the Acropolis of Athens, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement
13.
1834
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As of the start of 1834, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Zollverein, Customs charges are abolished at borders within its member states, january 3 – The government of Mexico imprisons Stephen F. Austin in Mexico City. February – Robert Owen organizes the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in the United Kingdom, March 6 – York, Upper Canada, is incorporated as Toronto. March 11 – United States Survey of the Coast transferred to the Department of the Navy, March 14 – John Herschel discovers the open cluster of stars now known as NGC3603, observing from the Cape of Good Hope. March 28 – Andrew Jackson is censured by the United States Congress, March 19 – Founding of Cavendish Villa Football Club. April 10 – The LaLaurie mansion burns and Madame Marie Delphine LaLaurie flees to France, april 14 – The Whig Party is officially named by United States Senator Henry Clay. May 19 – Peasants Revolt in Egyptian-ruled Palestine opens, june 7 – Greek independence, General Theodoros Kolokotronis is sentenced to death for treason for resisting the rule of Otto of Greece. June 10 – British philosopher Thomas Carlyle moves to Cheyne Row in London, july 7 –10 – Anti-abolitionist riots in New York City. July 15 – The Spanish Inquisition, which began in the 15th century, is suppressed by royal decree, july 16 – William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne succeeds Earl Grey as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. July 24 – The Liberal Wars end in Portugal, july 29 – Office of Indian Affairs organized in the United States. August 1 – Slavery is abolished in the British Empire by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, august 11 –12 – Ursuline Convent riots, A convent of Ursuline nuns is burned near Boston. August 14 – The Poor Law Amendment Act in the United Kingdom states that no able-bodied British man can receive assistance unless he enters a workhouse, august 15 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there. September 13 – The Gleaner newspaper first published in Jamaica, october 16 – The Palace of Westminster is destroyed by fire. November 14 – William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne becomes the last Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be dismissed by the British monarch, king William IV temporarily appoints Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, to form a caretaker government. December 3 – The Zollverein institutes the first regular census in Germany, december 10 – Sir Robert Peel succeeds Lord Melbourne as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. December 11 – The Sixth Xhosa War is characterized by severe clashes between settlers and Bantu peoples in Cape Colony, Dutch-speaking settlers colonize the area north of Orange River. A pro-republic uprising fails in Piedmont, one of the activists is Giuseppe Garibaldi, the British East India Company monopoly on China trade ends. Medical School of Louisiana is founded, later to become Tulane University in New Orleans, Charles Babbage begins the conceptual design of the Analytical Engine, a mechanical forerunner of the modern computer
14.
1835
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As of the start of 1835, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 7 – HMS Beagle anchors off the Chonos Archipelago on her voyage with Charles Darwin on board as naturalist. January 8 – The United States public debt contracts to zero for the time in history. January 26 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg, in Lisbon, january 30 – An assassination is attempted against United States President Andrew Jackson in the United States Capitol. February 1 – Slavery is abolished in Mauritius, february 20 – Concepción, Chile, is destroyed by an earthquake. March 2 – Ferdinand becomes Emperor of Austria, march 23 – The Mexican Academy of Language is established. April 18 – Lord Melbourne succeeds Sir Robert Peel as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, may 5 Rail transport in Belgium, a railway is opened between Brussels and Mechelen, the first in continental Europe. Braulio Carrillo is sworn in as Head of State of Costa Rica, may 8 – Hans Christian Andersens Fairy Tales Told for Children. May 11 – Matua, High Priest of the Polynesian island of Mangareva, is baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, may 23 – The Mexican State of Aguascalientes is formed by decree of President Santa Anna. June 1 – Kingston Penitentiary in Kingston, Ontario opens, june 8 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. July – Bertelsmann is founded by Carl Bertelsmann as a printer and publisher in Prussia. July 14 – Organisation of the universal Catholic Apostolic Church, initially in the U. K, july 28 – In Paris, the assassination of King Louis Philippe I of France is attempted by Giuseppe Marco Fieschi using a home-made volley gun. Ten are killed but the King escapes with a minor wound, august – H. Fox Talbot exposes the worlds first known photographic negatives at Lacock Abbey in England. The New York Sun prints the first of six installments of the Great Moon Hoax, august 28 – St. Vincents Ecclesiastical Seminary, a predecessor of Castleknock College, is founded by the Vincentian community in Dublin, Ireland. August 30 – European settlers landing on the banks of the Yarra River in southeastern Australia found the city of Melbourne. September 7 – Charles Darwin arrives at the Galápagos Islands aboard HMS Beagle, september 19 – William Lloyd Garrison publishes Angelina Grimkés anti-slavery letter in The Liberator. September 20 – The Ragamuffin War begins in Rio Grande do Sul, October 3 – The Staedtler company is founded by J. S. Staedtler in Nuremberg, Germany. October 28 United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand, in the first major engagement of the Texas Revolution, Battle of Concepción, the Texian Army defeats the Mexicans
15.
1836
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As of the start of 1836, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Prince Ferdinand Augustus Francis Anthony of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, january 5 – Davy Crockett arrives in Texas. January 12 – HMS Beagle with Charles Darwin onboard reaches Sydney, january 12 – Will County, Illinois, is formed. January 16 – Kane County, Illinois, is formed, january 18 – Dade County, Florida, is formed. January 8 – London and Greenwich Railway opens its first section, february 23 – The Battle of the Alamo begins with an American settler army surrounded by the Mexican Army under Santa Anna. February 25 – Samuel Colt receives a United States patent for the Colt revolver, march 1 Antonio García Gutiérrezs play El Trovador is performed for the first time in Madrid, Spain. Convention of 1836, Delegates from many Texas communities gather in Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas, march 2 – Convention of 1836, The Texas Declaration of Independence is signed by 60 delegates and the Republic of Texas is declared. March 6 – The Battle of the Alamo ends,182 Texan settler soldiers die in a struggle with approximately 5,000 Mexican soldiers. March 11 – Sultan Mahmud II abolishes the posts of Reis ül-Küttab and Kahya Bey and establishes the Ottoman ministries of Foreign Affairs, march 17 – Convention of 1836, Delegates adopt the Constitution of the Republic of Texas, modeled after the United States Constitution. It allows slavery, requires free blacks to petition Congress to live in the country, march 27 – United States Survey of the Coast returned to U. S. Treasury Department, renamed U. S. March – First monthly part of Charles Dickens The Pickwick Papers published in London, march 29 – Richard Wagners opera Das Liebesverbot is performed for the first time in Magdeburg. April 20 – The Wisconsin Territory is created, april 21 – Battle of San Jacinto, Mexican forces under General Antonio López de Santa Anna are defeated at San Jacinto, Texas. April 22 – Texas Revolution, Forces under Texas General Sam Houston capture Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna, may 4 – The Ancient Order of Hibernians, an Irish Catholic fraternal organization, is founded in New York City. May 7 – The settlement of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, is elevated to the status of villa by the government of Spain. May 15 – Francis Baily, during an eclipse of the Sun, may 19 – Fort Parker massacre, Among those captured by Native Americans is nine-year-old Cynthia Ann Parker, she later gives birth to a son named Quanah, who becomes the last chief of the Comanche. June 15 – Arkansas is the 25th state admitted into the United States of America, july 13 – The first numbered U. S. Patent 1 is granted, to John Ruggles for improvements to steam locomotive tires. July 20 – Charles Darwin climbs Green Hill on Ascension Island, july 21 – The Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad opens between St. John and La Prairie, Quebec, the first steam-worked passenger railroad in British North America
16.
1837
–
As of the start of 1837, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States, February – Charles Dickenss Oliver Twist begins publication in serial form in London. February 4 – Seminoles attack Fort Foster in Florida, February 25 – In Philadelphia, the Institute for Colored Youth is founded as the first institution for the higher education of black people in the United States. March 4 Martin Van Buren is sworn in as President of the United States, the city of Chicago is incorporated. April 12- The conglomerate of Procter & Gamble has its origins when British-born businessmen William Procter and James Gamble begin selling their first manufactured goods in Cincinnati, may – W. F. Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented a system of electrical telegraph. May 10 – The Panic of 1837 begins in New York City, june 5 – The city of Houston, is incorporated by the Republic of Texas. June 11 – The Broad Street Riot occurs in Boston, Massachusetts, june 20 – 18-year-old Queen Victoria accedes to the throne of the United Kingdom on the death of her uncle William IV without legitimate heirs. She will reign for more than 63 years, under Salic law, the Kingdom of Hanover passes to Williams brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, ending the personal union of Britain and Hanover which has persisted since 1714. July – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. July 13 – Queen Victoria moves from Kensington Palace into Buckingham Palace, August 16 – The Dutch sack the fortress of Bonjol, ending the Padri War. September – Battle of Aranzueque, Liberal victory for the loyal to Queen Isabel II of Spain. September 28 – Samuel Morse files a caveat for a patent for the telegraph, October 10 – October 13 – The French army besieges and captures Constantine in French Algeria. October 22 – Henry David Thoreau makes his first journal entry at the suggestion of Ralph Waldo Emerson, november 7 – American abolitionist and newspaper editor Elijah Lovejoy is killed by a pro-slavery mob, at his warehouse in Alton, Illinois. November 8 – Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, later Mount Holyoke College, is founded in South Hadley, november–December – In the Canadas, William Lyon Mackenzie leads the Upper Canada Rebellion and Louis-Joseph Papineau leads the Lower Canada Rebellion. December 17 – Fire in the Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, december 29 – The Caroline affair on the Niagara River, the basis for the Caroline test for anticipatory self-defence in international relations. At Le Mans, France, Father Basil Moreau, CSC, founds the Congregation of Holy Cross by joining the Brothers of St. Joseph, the 5th century BC Berlin Foundry Cup is acquired for the Antikensammlung Berlin in Germany. Sylvain Charles Valée and French troops capture Skikda, Algeria, January 2 – Mily Balakirev, Russian composer January 7 – Thomas Henry Ismay, English shipowner February 5 Dwight L. S. Lovejoy, American abolitionist undated - Mary Dixon Kies, the first recipient of a U. S. patent Chronicle of Events from August 1836 to September 1837, American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge
17.
1838
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As of the start of 1838, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 10 – A fire destroys Lloyds Coffee House and the Royal Exchange in London, january 11 – At Morristown, New Jersey, Samuel F. B. Morse, Alfred Vail and Leonard D. Gale give the first public demonstration of Morses new invention, january 21 – The first known report about the lowest temperature on Earth was made, indicating −60 °C in Yakutsk. Representatives William J. Graves of Kentucky and Jonathan Cilley of Maine face each other in a duel with rifles at 80 yards near Bladensburg, on the third try, Congressman Cilley is fatally wounded and bleeds to death. March 13 – A combination of rain and melting snow cause the Danube River to overflow its banks, washing away villages in western Hungary, more than 150 people are drowned and Europes nations come to Hungarys aid to prevent the spread of famine and disease. March 31 – The first installment of Nicholas Nickleby, the new novel by Charles Dickens, is released as the opener of a 20-part serial in the London magazine, The Spectator. April 4 –22 – The paddle steamer SS Sirius makes the crossing to New York from Cork, Ireland, in eighteen days. April 30 – Nicaragua declares independence from the Federal Republic of Central America, may The Peoples Charter is drawn up in the United Kingdom, demanding universal suffrage. Lord Durham and his entourage arrive in Upper Canada to investigate the cause of the 1837 rebellion in that province and this leads to Durham submitting the Durham Report to Britain. An insurrection breaks out in Tizimín, beginning the campaign for the independence of Yucatán from Mexico, may 26 – The people of the Cherokee Nation are forcibly relocated during the Trail of Tears in the United States. May 28 – Braulio Carrillo is sworn in as Head of State of Costa Rica, June 10 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek massacre. June 28 – Coronation of Queen Victoria takes place at Westminster Abbey in London, july 4 – In the United States, the Iowa Territory is formally established following the signing of a bill by President Martin Van Buren on June 12. In addition to Iowa, which become a state on December 28,1846. Robert Lucas, the former Governor of Ohio, takes office as the first Territorial Governor, august 1 – Former slaves in Jamaica are freed of their indentures. August 6 – The Polytechnic Institution, predecessor of the University of Westminster and Britains first polytechnic, opens in Regent Street, september 7 – Grace Darling and her father rescue thirteen survivors from the Forfarshire off the Farne Islands. October 1 – Supporters of Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, are victorious in the Battle of Maella during the First Carlist War, november 3 – The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce is founded. November 5 – Dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America, Honduras and Costa Rica follow the example of Nicaragua, november 16 – Austria-Hungary, Moravia, opening final section of Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway Rajhrad-Brno for exhibition use. December 16 – The Boers win a victory over the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River
18.
1839
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As of the start of 1839, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – The first parallax measurement of the distance to Alpha Centauri is published by Thomas Henderson, january 2 – First photograph of the Moon taken by photographer Louis Daguerre. January 6 – Night of the Big Wind, Ireland is struck by the most damaging cyclone in 300 years, january 9 – The French Academy of Sciences announces the daguerreotype photography process. January 19 – The British East India Company captures Aden, january 20 – Battle of Yungay, Chile defeats the Peru–Bolivian Confederation, leading to the restoration of an independent Peru. January 29 – English naturalist Charles Darwin marries his cousin Emma Wedgwood, february 11 – The University of Missouri is established, becoming the first public university west of the Mississippi River. February 24 – William Otis receives a patent for the steam shovel, march 5 – Longwood University is founded in Farmville, Virginia. March 7 – Baltimore City College, the public high school in the United States, is established in Baltimore. March 9 – The Anti-Corn Law League is founded in Manchester, march 23 – The Boston Morning Post first records the use of OK. March 26 – The first Henley Royal Regatta is held on the River Thames in England, april 9 – The worlds first commercial electric telegraph line comes into operation alongside the Great Western Railway line in England, from London Paddington station to West Drayton. April 19 – The Treaty of London establishes Belgium as a kingdom with its independence, half of the Limburg province of Belgium is added to the Netherlands, giving rise to a Belgian Limburg and Dutch Limburg. May 7 – The Bedchamber Crisis begins in the United Kingdom after the Prime Minister, may 12 – Socialist activist Louis Auguste Blanqui and the Société des Saisons begin an uprising against the government of France. The insurrection is suppressed, but not before 50 people are killed and 190 wounded, may 23 – Turkish troops cross the Euphrates River and invade Syria, but are defeated in battle in June. June 3 – Destruction of opium at Humen begins, casus belli for Britain to open the 3-year First Opium War against Qing dynasty China, June 22 – Louis Daguerre receives a patent for his camera. July 1 Slaves aboard the Amistad rebel and capture the ship, abdülmecid I succeeds Mahmud II as Ottoman Emperor. July 23 – First Anglo-Afghan War – Battle of Ghazni, British forces capture the city of Ghazni. August 19 – The French government gives Louis Daguerre a pension, august 23 – British forces seize Hong Kong as a base, as it prepares to wage the First Opium War. September 9 – In the Great Fire of Mobile, Alabama hundreds of buildings are burned, october 3 – In the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a railway between Naples and Portici is inaugurated by King Ferdinand II of Bourbon as the first railway in the Italian Peninsula. October 15 – Abdelkader El Djezairi declares a jihad against the French, november 4 – The Newport Rising is the last large-scale armed rebellion against authority in mainland Britain
19.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
20.
Pitcairn Islands
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The four islands – Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno – are spread over several hundred miles of ocean and have a total land area of about 47 square kilometres. Only Pitcairn, the second-largest island that measures about 3.6 kilometres from east to west, is inhabited, the islands are inhabited mostly by descendants of nine Bounty mutineers and the Tahitians who accompanied them, an event that has been retold in many books and films. This history is apparent in the surnames of many of the islanders. With only about 50 permanent inhabitants, originating from four main families, although archaeologists believe that Polynesians were living on Pitcairn as late as the 15th century, the islands were uninhabited when they were rediscovered by Europeans. Ducie and Henderson Islands were discovered by Portuguese sailor Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailing for the Spanish Crown and he named them La Encarnación and San Juan Bautista, respectively. Pitcairn Island was sighted on 3 July 1767 by the crew of the British sloop HMS Swallow, the island was named after Midshipman Robert Pitcairn, a fifteen-year-old crew member who was the first to sight the island. Robert Pitcairn was a son of British Marine Major John Pitcairn, Carteret, who sailed without the newly invented marine chronometer, charted the island at 25°2′S 133°21′W, and although the latitude was reasonably accurate, the longitude was incorrect by about 3°. This made Pitcairn difficult to find, as highlighted by the failure of Captain James Cook to locate the island in July 1773. In 1790, nine of the mutineers from the Bounty, along with the native Tahitian men and women who were with them, settled on Pitcairn Islands, the wreck is still visible underwater in Bounty Bay, discovered in 1957 by National Geographic explorer Luis Marden. Although the settlers survived by farming and fishing, the period of settlement was marked by serious tensions among them. Alcoholism, murder, disease and other ills took the lives of most mutineers, John Adams and Ned Young turned to the scriptures, using the ships Bible as their guide for a new and peaceful society. Young eventually died of an asthmatic infection, after the rediscovery of Pitcairn, John Adams was granted amnesty for his part in the mutiny. Ducie Island was rediscovered in 1791 by Royal Navy Captain Edwards aboard HMS Pandora and he named it after Francis Reynolds-Moreton, 3rd Baron Ducie, also a captain in the Royal Navy. A second ship appeared in 1801, but made no attempt to communicate with them, a third came sufficiently near to see their house, but did not try to send a boat on shore. Finally, the American sealing ship Topaz under Mayhew Folger became the first to visit the island, a report of Folgers discovery was forwarded to the Admiralty, mentioning the mutineers and giving a more precise location of the island, 25°2′S 130°0′W. However this was not known to Sir Thomas Staines, who commanded a Royal Navy flotilla of two ships found the island at 25°4′S 130°25′W on 17 September 1814. Staines sent a party ashore and wrote a report for the Admiralty. Henderson Island was rediscovered on 17 January 1819 by British Captain James Henderson of the British East India Company ship Hercules, Captain Henry King, sailing on the Elizabeth, landed on 2 March to find the kings colours already flying
21.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
22.
Lin Zexu
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Lin Zexu, courtesy name Yuanfu, was a Chinese scholar-official of the Qing dynasty best known for his role in the First Opium War of 1839–42. He was from Fuzhou, Fujian Province, Lins forceful opposition to the opium trade was a primary catalyst for the First Opium War. The Daoguang Emperor endorsed the hardline policies advocated by Lin, Lin was born in Houguan towards the end of the Qianlong Emperors reign. His father, Lin Binri, served as an official under the Qing government and he was the second son in the family. As a child, he was already unusually brilliant, in 1811, he obtained the position of a jinshi in the imperial examination, and in the same year he gained admission to the Hanlin Academy. He rose rapidly through various grades of provincial service and he opposed the opening of China but felt the need of a better knowledge of foreigners, which drove him to collect material for a geography of the world. He later gave this material to Wei Yuan, who published the Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms in 1843 and he became Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei in 1837, where he launched a suppression campaign against the trading of opium. In March 1839, Lin arrived in Guangdong Province to take measures that would eliminate the opium trade and he was a formidable bureaucrat known for his competence and high moral standards, with an imperial commission from the Daoguang Emperor to halt the illegal importation of opium by the British. Upon arrival, he made changes within a matter of months and he arrested more than 1,700 Chinese opium dealers and confiscated over 70,000 opium pipes. He initially attempted to get companies to forfeit their opium stores in exchange for tea. Lin resorted to using force in the western merchants enclave, a month and a half later, the merchants gave up nearly 1.2 million kg of opium. Beginning 3 June 1839,500 workers laboured for 23 days to destroy it, mixing the opium with lime and salt, Lin composed an elegy apologising to the gods of the sea for polluting their realm. 26 June is now the International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in honour of Lins work, in 1839, Lin also wrote an extraordinary memorial to Queen Victoria in the form of an open letter published in Canton, urging her to end the opium trade. He argued that China was providing Britain with valuable commodities such as tea, porcelain, spices and silk, with Britain sending only poison in return. Lin appears to have been unaware that opium was not banned in the Middle East, Europe and the Americas and he accused the barbarians of coveting profit and lacking morality. His memorial expressed a desire that the Queen would act in accordance with decent feeling and he wrote, We find that your country is sixty or seventy thousand li from China. Yet there are ships that strive to come here for trade for the purpose of making a great profit. The wealth of China is used to profit the barbarians and that is to say, the great profit made by barbarians is all taken from the rightful share of China
23.
Daoguang Emperor
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The Daoguang Emperor was the eighth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the sixth Qing emperor to rule over China, from 1820 to 1850. His reign was marked by disaster and internal rebellion, that is, by the First Opium War. The Daoguang Emperor was born in the Forbidden City, Beijing and it was later changed to Minning when he became emperor, The first character of his private name was changed from Mian to Min to avoid the relatively common character Mian. Mianning was the son of Yongyan, the 15th son of the Qianlong Emperor. In 1796, Yongyan was enthroned as the Jiaqing Emperor, after which he made Lady Hitara his empress consort, Mianning was favoured by his grandfather, the Qianlong Emperor. He frequently accompanied his grandfather on hunting trips, on one such trip, at the age of nine, Mianning successfully hunted a deer, which greatly amused the Qianlong Emperor. In 1813, while he was still a prince, Mianning also played a role in repelling and killing White Lotus invaders who stormed the Forbidden City. This action earned him important merit in securing his claim to the later on. In September 1820, at the age of 38, Mianning inherited the throne after the Jiaqing Emperor died suddenly of unknown causes and he became the first Qing emperor who was the eldest legitimate son of his father. Now known as the Daoguang Emperor, he inherited an empire with Westerners encroaching upon the borders of China. The Daoguang Emperor had been ruling for six years when the heir to the Khojas, Jahangir Khoja. By the end of 1826, the former Qing cities of Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, after a friend betrayed him in March 1827, Khoja was sent to Beijing in an iron litter and subsequently executed, while the Qing Empire regained control of their lost territory. During the Daoguang Emperors reign, China experienced major problems with opium, Opium had started to trickle into China during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, but was limited to approximately 200 chests annually. By the time of the Qianlong era, this amount had increased to 1,000 chests,4,000 chests by the Jiaqing era and more than 30,000 chests during the Daoguang era. The Daoguang Emperor issued many imperial edicts banning opium in the 1820s and 1830s, which were carried out by Lin Zexu, Lin Zexus efforts to halt the spread of opium in China led directly to the First Opium War. With the development of the First Opium War, Lin Zexu was made a scapegoat, meanwhile, in the Himalayas, the Sikh Empire attempted an occupation of Tibet but was defeated in the Sino-Sikh war. On the coasts, technologically and militarily inferior to the European powers, in 1811, a clause sentencing Europeans to death for spreading Catholicism had been added to the statute called Prohibitions Concerning Sorcerers and Sorceresses in the Great Qing Code. The Daoguang Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi to the descendants of Ran Qiu, the Daoguang Emperor died on 25 February 1850 at the Old Summer Palace,8 km/5 miles northwest of Beijing
24.
First Opium War
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European silver flowed into China when the Canton System, instituted in the mid-18th century, confined the sea trade to Canton and to the Chinese merchants of the Thirteen Factories. The British East India Company had a monopoly of British trade. The British East India Company began to auction opium grown on its plantations in India to independent foreign traders in exchange for silver, the opium was then transported to the Chinese coast and sold to local middlemen who retailed the drug inside China. This reverse flow of silver and the numbers of opium addicts alarmed Chinese officials. In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalise and tax opium, Lin confiscated around 20,000 chests of opium without offering compensation, blockaded trade, and confined foreign merchants to their quarters. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade, in China, the war is considered the beginning of modern Chinese history. Direct maritime trade between Europe and China began in 1557 when the Portuguese leased an outpost at Macau, after the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, the exchange of goods between China and western Europe accelerated dramatically. From 1565, the annual Manila Galleon brought in enormous amounts of silver to the Asian trade network, from 1700–1842, Guangzhou came to dominate maritime trade with China, and this period became known as the Canton System. Official British trade was conducted through the auspices of the British East India Company, the British East India Company gradually came to dominate Sino-European trade from its position in India. From the inception of the Canton System in 1757, trade in goods from China was extremely lucrative for European, however, foreign traders were only permitted to do business through a body of Chinese merchants known as the Cohong and were restricted to Canton. Foreigners could only live in one of the Thirteen Factories, near Shameen Island, while silk and porcelain drove trade through their popularity in the west, an insatiable demand for tea existed in Britain. However, only silver was accepted in payment by China, which resulted in a trade deficit. From the mid-17th century around 28 million kilograms of silver were received by China, principally from European powers, Britain had been on the gold standard since the 18th century, so it had to purchase silver from continental Europe and Mexico to supply the Chinese appetite for silver. Attempts by a British embassy, a Dutch mission, Russias Golovkin in 1805, by 1817, the British realized they could reduce the trade deficit as well as turn the Indian colony profitable by counter-trading in narcotic Indian opium. Opium was produced in traditionally cotton-growing regions of India under British East India Company monopoly, both areas had been hard hit by the introduction of factory-produced cotton cloth, which used cotton grown in Egypt. The opium was auctioned in Calcutta on the condition that it be shipped by British traders to China, Opium as a medicinal ingredient was documented in texts as early as the Tang dynasty but its recreational use was limited and there were laws against its abuse. British sales of opium began in 1781, and sales increased fivefold between 1821 and 1837, by 1820, just when the Qing treasury needed to finance the suppression of rebellions, the flow of silver had reversed, Chinese merchants were now exporting it to pay for opium. The imperial court debated whether or how to end the opium trade, Napier was instructed to obey Chinese regulations, communicate directly with Chinese authorities, superintend trade pertaining to the contraband trade of opium, and to survey Chinas coastline
25.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
26.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
27.
Guangzhou
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Guangzhou, traditionally romanised as Canton, is the capital and most populous city of the province of Guangdong in southern China. Guangzhou is currently, the third city in mainland China, behind Beijing and Shanghai, holds sub-provincial administrative status. In 2015 the citys area was estimated to have a population of 13,501,100. Some estimates place the population of the area of the Pearl River Delta Mega City as high as 44 million without the Hong Kong SAR and 54 million including it. Guangzhou is ranked as a Beta+ Global city, in recent years, there has been a rapidly increasing number of foreign residents and illegal immigrants from Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, as well as from Africa. This has led to it being dubbed the Capital of the Third World, the migrant population from other provinces of China in Guangzhou was 40 percent of the citys total population in 2008. Long the only Chinese port accessible to foreign traders, the city fell to the British during the First Opium War. No longer enjoying a monopoly after the war, it lost trade to ports such as Hong Kong and Shanghai. In modern commerce, Guangzhou is best known for its annual Canton Fair, for the three consecutive years 2013–2015, Forbes ranked Guangzhou as the best commercial city on the Chinese mainland. Guǎngzhōu is the pinyin romanisation of the Chinese name 廣州, which was simplified in mainland China to 广州 in the 1950s, before acquiring its current name, the town was known as Panyu, a name still borne by one of Guangzhous districts. The origin of the name is uncertain, with 11 various explanations being offered. The city has sometimes been known as Guangzhou Fu or Guangfu after its status as the capital of a commandery. From this latter name, Guangzhou was known to medieval Persians such as Al-Masudi, under the Southern Han, the city was renamed Xingwang. Under the Qing, it was known to its inhabitants as simply The Provincial Capital. The Chinese abbreviation for Guangzhou is 穗, after its nickname Rice City, the former name City of the Immortals came from the same story. The more recent City of Flowers is usually taken as a reference to the areas greenery. The English name Canton derived from Portuguese Cantão or Cidade de Cantão, although it originally and chiefly applied to the walled city, it was also used in English in reference to Guangdong generally. It was adopted as the Postal Map Romanization of Guangzhou and remained in use until the gradual adoption of pinyin
28.
Hong Kong
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Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour, literally means Little Hong Kong)—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
29.
Treaty of Nanking
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The Treaty of Nanking or Nanjing was a peace treaty which ended the First Opium War between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. It was the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties on the ground that Britain had no obligations in return. In the wake of Chinas military defeat, with British warships poised to attack Nanking, representatives from the British, on 29 August 1842, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Qiying, Yilibu, and Niu Jian signed the treaty. It consisted of thirteen articles and was ratified by Queen Victoria, a copy of the treaty is kept by the British government while another copy is kept by the Taiwanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs at the National Palace Museum in Taipei. The fundamental purpose of the treaty was to change the framework of foreign trade imposed by the Canton System, under Article V, the treaty abolished the former monopoly of the Cohong and their Thirteen Factories in Canton. Four additional Treaty ports opened for foreign trade alongside Canton, Amoy, Foochowfoo, Ningpo and Shanghai, Britain also gained the right to send consuls to the Treaty Ports, which were given the right to communicate directly with local Chinese officials. The treaty stipulated that trade in the treaty ports should be subject to fixed tariffs, the Qing government undertook to release all British prisoners of war and to give a general amnesty to all Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war. British troops would remain in Gulangyu and Zhaobaoshan until the Qing government had paid reparations in full, in 1841, a rough outline for a treaty was sent for the guidance of Plenipotentiary Charles Elliot. It had a blank after the words the cession of the islands of, Pottinger sent this old draft treaty on shore, with the letter s struck out of islands and the words Hong Kong placed after it. Mr. Pottinger was later appointed the first governor of Hong Kong, in 1860, the colony was extended with the Kowloon peninsula and in 1898, the Second Convention of Peking further expanded the colony with the 99-year lease of the New Territories. On 3 October 1843, the parties concluded the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue at the Bocca Tigris outside Canton, nevertheless, the treaties of 1842–43 left several unsettled issues. In particular they did not resolve the status of the opium trade, the opium trade was later legalised in the Treaties of Tianjin, which China concluded after the Second Opium War. The Nanking Treaty ended the old Canton System and created a new framework for Chinas foreign relations, from the Chinese perspective, the most injurious terms were the fixed trade tariff, extraterritoriality, and the most favoured nation provisions. These were conceded partly out of expediency and partly because Qing officials did not yet know of international law or understand the long term consequences, although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished until 1943
30.
Charles W. King
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In July 1837, Charles W. King set off with the seven Japanese aboard an American merchant ship called the SS Morrison, on which he sailed to Uraga at the entrance of Edo Bay. The ship had been disarmed to signify its peaceful intentions, King anchored at a safe distance, out of range of the shore batteries. Men from several small fishing ships boarded the SS Morrison, and sake, by daybreak, however, cannons had been brought closer to the seaside, and they were again fired at the ship. Hundreds of small boats, each with a cannon at the front, also started to surround. The Morrison sailed away, with little damage, King then sailed to Kagoshima in Kyūshū. The first day he met some officials there, who took two of the castaways into custody, the following day, a fisherman came alongside and warned the sailors to leave immediately. As the ship was setting its sails, the Japanese opened fire from cannons they had moved to the proximity of the ship during the night, King decided to abandon the mission and returned to Canton with the remaining castaways. King was outraged by the Japanese response, and upon his return to the United States in 1839 wrote a book about his adventure, in 1845, a resolution was introduced to the United States Congress to open Japan to trade. Although the resolution was never passed, the United States government sent an expedition under James Biddle with two armed ships, to induce Japan to negotiate. Kings visit to Japan was briefly depicted during the episode of the 2008 NHK Taiga drama Atsuhime. A History of Japan, 1582-1941, Internal and External Worlds, ISBN 0-521-82155-X, ISBN 0-521-52918-2 Sewall, John S. The Logbook of the Captains Clerk, Adventures in the China Seas, Bangor, Maine, Chas H. Glass & Co
31.
Morrison incident
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The Morrison incident of 1837 occurred when the American merchant ship, Morrison headed by Charles W. King, was driven away from sakoku Japan by cannon fire. This was carried out in accordance with the Japanese Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels of 1825, in addition to its commercial aims, the ship was attempting to repatriate seven shipwrecked Japanese citizens who had been picked up in Macau. It also carried Christian missionaries such as Samuel Wells Williams, the nature of the ships mission became known one year after the event, and this resulted in increased criticism of the Edict. Among the Japanese castaways was Yamamoto Otokichi, who known for his role in bridging the cultural gap between Japan and rest of the world
32.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
33.
Java War
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The Java War or Diponegoro War was fought in central Java from 1825 to 1830, between the colonial Dutch Empire and native Javanese rebels. It started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro, a member of the Javanese aristocracy who had previously cooperated with the Dutch. The rebel forces were held up by a siege at Yogyakarta and this allowed the Dutch to raise and ship in new troops. The rebels adopted guerilla tactics and held out against Dutch forces for several years, the war ended in Dutch victory when Diponegoro was invited to a peace conference, then betrayed and captured. Prompted by the cost of the war, the Dutch colonial authorities implemented major reforms throughout the Dutch East Indies to ensure the colonies were profitable, the proximate cause was the Dutch decision to build a road across a piece of Diponegoros property that contained his parents tomb. Amongst other causes was a sense of resentment felt by members of the Javanese aristocratic families at Dutch measures intended to restrict the renting out of land at high prices. Diponegoros rival to the throne, his half brother, Hamengkubuwono IV. Among Diponegoros followers, the war has been described as a jihad both against the Dutch and the murtad or apostate Javanese, the forces of Prince Diponegoro were successful in the early stages of the war, taking control of the middle of Java and besieging Yogyakarta. The Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially indecisive, as the Java war became prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops. The Dutch colonial army, however, was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi. The Dutch commander, General de Kock, raised the siege of Yogyakarta on 25 September 1825, Prince Diponegoro then began an extensive guerrilla war. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 of them Dutch. The rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch controlled territory near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire and he was captured through treachery and exiled to Manado and then to Makassar, where he died in 1855. The policy brought the Dutch and their native allies enormous wealth through the export of cash crops and it brought the Netherlands back from the brink of bankruptcy, and made the Dutch East Indies a self-sufficient and profitable colony. Babad Dipanagara, an account of the outbreak of the Java War, MC Ricklefs, A History of modern Indonesia since 1300, 2nd ed,1993, pp. 116–17. Sagimun M. D. Pangeran Dipanegara, pahlawan nasional, Proyek Biografi Pahlawan Nasional, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,1976
34.
Mongkut
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During his reign, the pressure of Western expansionism was felt for the first time in Siam. Mongkut embraced Western innovations and initiated the modernization of his country, Mongkut was also known for his appointing his brother, Prince Chutamani, as Second King, crowned in 1851 as King Pinklao. Mongkut himself assured the country that Pinklao should be respected with equal honor to himself, Mongkuts reign was also the time when the power of the House of Bunnag reached its zenith and became the most powerful noble family of Siam. Mongkut was the son of Prince Isarasundhorn, son of Phutthayotfa Chulalok. Mongkut was born in the Old Palace in 1804, where the first son had died shortly after birth in 1801 and he was followed by Prince Chutamani in 1808. In 1809, Prince Isarasundhorn was crowned as Buddha Loetla Nabhalai The royal family moved to the Grand Palace. Thenceforth until their own accessions as kings, the brothers were called Chao Fa Yai, in 1824, Mongkut became a Buddhist monk, following a Siamese tradition that men aged 20 should become monks for a time. The same year, his father died, by tradition, Mongkut should have been crowned the next king, but the nobility instead chose the influential Prince Jessadabodindra, son of a royal concubine rather than a queen. Perceiving the throne was irredeemable and to political intrigues, Mongkut retained his monastic status. Vajirayan became one of the members of the family who devoted their life to religion. He travelled around the country as a monk and saw the relaxation of the rules of Pali Canon among the Siamese monks he met, in 1829, at Phetchaburi, he met a monk named Buddhawangso, who strictly followed the canon. Vajirayan admired Buddhawangso for his obedience to the canon, and was inspired to pursue religious reforms, in 1833, he began a reform movement reinforcing the canon law that evolved into the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, or Thammayut sect. In 1836, Vajirayan arrived at Wat Bowonniwet in what is now Bangkoks central district, but was then the city proper, during this time, he discovered Western knowledge, studying Latin, English, and astronomy with missionaries and sailors. Vicar Pallegoix of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bangkok lived nearby, Vajirayan admired Christian morals and achievements as presented by the vicar, but could make nothing of Christian doctrine. It was then he made the comment later attributed to him as king, What you teach people to do is admirable, but what you teach them to believe is foolish. King Mongkut would later be noted for his excellent command of English, although it is said that his brother, Vice-King Pinklao. Chulalongkorn also persuaded his fathers 47th child, Vajirañana, to enter the order, accounts vary about Nangklaos intentions regarding the succession. It is recorded that Nangklao verbally dismissed the royal princes from succession for various reasons, Prince Mongkut was dismissed for encouraging monks to dress in the Mon style
35.
Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
36.
Dhammayuttika Nikaya
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Dhammayuttika Nikaya or Thammayut is an order of Theravada Buddhist bhikkhus in Thailand, Cambodia and Burma with significant branches in the Western world. Its name is derived from Pali dhamma + yutti + ka, Dhammayuttika Nikaya began in 1833 as a reform movement led by Mongkut, son of King Rama II of Siam. It remained a reform movement until passage of the Sangha Act of 1902, Prince Mongkut was a bhikkhu for 27 years before becoming king of Thailand. The then 20-year-old prince entered monastic life in 1824, over the course of his early meditation training, Mongkut was frustrated that his teachers could not relate the meditation techniques they were teaching to the original teachings of the Buddha. Also, he noticed what he saw as serious discrepancies between the vinaya and the practices of Thai bhikkhus. There are several rules in the Theravada monastic code by which a monk is defeated - he is no longer a monk if he continues to wear robes and is treated as one. Every ordination ceremony in Theravada Buddhism is performed by ten monks to guard against the possibility of the ordination being rendered invalid by having a defeated monk as preceptor, despite this, Mongkut was concerned that the areas lineages of regional traditions were broken. He made every effort to commission a phalanx of monks in Thailand with the highest probability of an unbroken lineage back to the Buddha. Mongkut eventually found a lineage among the Mon people in Thailand that had a stronger practice and he reordained in this group and began a reform movement that would become the Thammayut order. In founding the Thammayut order, Mongkut made an effort to remove all non-Buddhist, folk religious, additionally, Thammayut bhikkhus are expected to eat only one meal a day and the meal was to be gathered during a traditional alms round. Since his brother Rama III complained about his involvement with an ethnic minority, in 1836, Mongkut became the first abbot of the new Wat Bowonniwet Vihara, and it would become the administrative center of the Thammayut order to the present day. Soon after that, Mongkut had other monks who were close to him reordain in this lineage of Mon bhikkhus, among these were Mongkuts son Vajirañāṇavarorasa and Somdet Phra Wannarat Thap, a grade Nine Pali scholar. It wasnt until Vajirañāṇavarorasa took control of a new phase of reforms in 1892 that the administrative Thammayut hierarchy would begin to form a cohesive vision. Officially Pusso Saa was the sangharaja, however, he was only a figurehead, Thanissaro notes though that in the early twentieth century, Ajahn Muns kammaṭṭhāna lineage formed a distinct camp within the Thammayut order which was at odds with Vajirañāṇavarorasas reforms. Maha Pan became the first Sangharaja of the Dhammayuttika lineage, residing at Wat Botum, the Cambodian order benefited from royal patronage but was also sometimes regarded with suspicion due to its ties to the Thai monarchy. Between 1981 and 1991, the Dhammayuttika Nikaya was combined with the Cambodian Mohanikay in a unified system established under Vietnamese domination. In 1991, King Norodom Sihanouk returned from exile and appointed the first new Dhammayuttika Sangharaja in ten years, the Dhammayuttika continues to exist in Cambodia, though its monks constitute a very small minority. The Dhammayutti Mahayin Gaing has its origins as a late nineteenth-century Mon reform tradition traces its lineage to the Thai Thammayut order, nikāya Maha Nikaya Supreme Patriarch of Cambodia Buswell, Robert, Lopez, Donald S
37.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
38.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
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Padri War
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The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra, Indonesia between the Padris and the Adats. Padris were Muslim clerics from Sumatra who, inspired by Wahabism and after returning from Hajj, wanted to impose sharia in Minangkabau country in West Sumatra, Adats comprised the Minangkabau nobility and traditional chiefs. The latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821, adat, as customary law is called in Indonesia, includes indigenous, pre-Islamic religious practices and social traditions in local custom. In the 1820s, the Dutch had yet to consolidate their possessions in some parts of the Dutch East Indies after re-acquiring it from the British and this was especially true on the island of Sumatra, where some areas would not come under Dutch rule until the 20th century. Between 1821–1824, skirmishes broke out throughout the region, ended only by the Masang Treaty, the war cooled down during the next six years, as the Dutch faced larger-scale uprisings in Java. The conflict broke out again in the 1830s with the Dutch gaining early victories, soon after, the war centred on Bonjol, the fortified last stronghold of the Padris. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out, with the victory, the Dutch tightened their hold on West Sumatra. Yet there was a legacy for the native Minangs, after the war. This helped promulgating the new view of adat basandi syara, syara basandi Kitabullah, Tuanku Imam Bonjol, leader in the Padri movement Dobbin, Christine. Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy, Central Sumatra, 1784-1847, a History of Modern Indonesia since c. Tarling, Nicholas, The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. II The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 1992
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West Sumatra
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West Sumatra is a province of Indonesia. It lies on the west coast of the island of Sumatra, the latest official estimate for January 2014 shows a population of 5,098,790. West Sumatra is sub-divided into 12 regencies and seven cities and it has relatively more cities than other provinces in Indonesia, except Java province. It borders the provinces of North Sumatra to the north, Riau and Jambi to the east and it includes the Mentawai Islands off the coast. The history of West Sumatra is related to the history of the Minangkabau people, archaeological evidence indicates that the area surrounding the Limapuluh Koto regency forms the first area inhabited by the Minangkabau. Limapuluh Koto regency covers a number of rivers which meet at the eastern part of the Sumatran coastline. The Minangkabau ancestors were believed to have arrived via this route and they sailed from Asia via the South China Sea, crossing the Malacca Strait and later settled along the Kampar, Siak and Indragiri rivers. Some lived and developed their culture and traits around the Limapuluh Koto regency, the first westerner to reach West Sumatra was the French explorer Jean Parmentier in 1529. However, the westerners who came for economic and political reasons were the Dutch, the Dutch commercial fleet was seen along the southern coast of West Sumatra between 1595 and 1598. Apart from the Dutch, other European nationalities also came to the such as the Portuguese. The integration with migrants in the ensuing periods introduced cultural changes and their settlement area gradually became diminished and eventually they spread to other parts of West Sumatra. A portion of them went to the Agam regency while others went to the now Tanah Datar regency, from those areas onward, further spread of the population occurred north of the Agam regency, in particular, the Lubuk Sikaping. Most of them settled in the area such as the coastline and some in the southern parts in Solok, Selayo. The history of the West Sumatra Province became more accessible at the time of the rule by Adityawarman and this ruler left considerable amount of evidence of himself, although he did not proclaim that he was the Minangkabau King. Adityawarman ruled Pagaruyung, a region believed by the Minangkabau to be the center of its culture, Adityawarman was the most important figure in Minangkabau history. Apart from introducing a government system by a monarch, he also contributed significantly to the Minangkabau world. His most important contribution was the spread of Buddhism and this religion had a very strong influence in the Minangkabau life. The evidence of such influence found in West Sumatra today includes names such as Saruaso, Pariangan, Padang Barhalo, Candi, Biaro, Sumpur, since the death of Adityawarman in the middle of the 17th century the history of West Sumatra seems more complex
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Royal Netherlands East Indies Army
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The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army was the military force maintained by the Netherlands in its colony of the Netherlands East Indies, in areas that are now part of Indonesia. The KNILs air arm was the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force, elements of the Royal Netherlands Navy were also stationed in the Netherlands East Indies. The KNIL was formed by decree on 10 March 1830. It was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army, but a military arm specifically formed for service in the Netherlands East Indies. Its establishment coincided with the Dutch drive to expand colonial rule from the 17th century area of control to the far larger territories comprising the Dutch East Indies seventy years later. In 1894, Lombok and Karangasem were annexed in response to reports of the local Balinese aristocracy oppressing the native Sasak people, Bali was finally taken under full control with the Dutch intervention in Bali and the final Dutch intervention in Bali. In the nineteenth and early centuries, the KNIL prosecuted the conquest of the Indonesian archipelago. Once the archipelago was considered pacified the KNIL was mainly involved with military policing tasks, in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of Home Guard for European conscripts older than 32. No large-scale armed threat to Dutch rule existed until World War II, Dutch forces in the Netherlands East Indies were severely weakened by the defeat and occupation of the Netherlands itself, by Nazi Germany, in 1940. The KNIL was cut off from external Dutch assistance, except by Royal Netherlands Navy units, the KNIL, hastily and inadequately, attempted to transform into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from foreign invasion. By December 1941, Dutch forces in Indonesia numbered around 85,000 personnel, regular troops comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 enlisted soldiers, the remainder were made up of locally organised militia, territorial guard units and civilian auxiliaries. The KNIL air force, Militaire Luchtvaart KNIL numbered 389 planes of all types, the Royal Netherlands Navy Air Service, or MLD, also had significant forces in the NEI. During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42, most of the KNIL, most European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as POWs. 25% of the POWs did not survive their internment, a handful of soldiers, mostly indigenous personnel, mounted guerilla campaigns against the Japanese. These were usually unknown to, and unassisted by, the Allies until the end of the war, during early 1942, some KNIL personnel escaped to Australia. Some indigenous personnel were interned in Australia under suspicion of sympathies with the Japanese, the remainder began a long process of re-grouping. In late 1942, an attempt to land in East Timor. Four “Netherlands East Indies” squadrons were formed from ML-KNIL personnel, under the auspices of the Royal Australian Air Force, KNIL infantry forces, were augmented by recruitment among Dutch expatriates around the world and by colonial troops from as far away as the Dutch West Indies
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Tuanku Imam Bonjol
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Tuanku Imam Bonjol, also known as Muhammad Syahab, Peto Syarif, and Malim Basa, was one of the most popular leaders of the Padri movement in Central Sumatra. He was declared a National Hero of Indonesia, tuanku Imam Bonjol was born in Bonjol, Pasaman, West Sumatra. His family came from Sungai Rimbang, Suliki, Limapuluh Koto and his parents name were Bayanuddin and Hamatun. He was immersed in Islamic studies as he grew up, studying first from his father and later various other Muslim theologians. After founding the state of Bonjol, Syarif became involved in the Adat-Paderi controversy as a Paderi leader and it also opposed the powerful role of women in the matrilineal Minangkabau culture. The Adat, or traditionalist, position was that local custom that pre-dated the arrival of Islam should also be respected and followed, feeling their leadership position threatened, the traditionalists appealed to the Dutch for help in their struggle against the Paderis. At first, the Dutch were not able to win militarily against the Paderis because their resources were stretched thin by the Diponegoro resistance in Java, in 1824, the Dutch signed the Masang Agreement ending hostilities with the state of Bonjol. Subsequently, however, once the Diponegoro resistance was suppressed, the Dutch attacked the state of Pandai Sikat in an effort to gain control of West Sumatra. Despite valiant fighting by the Indonesians, the power of the Dutch military eventually prevailed. Syarif was captured in 1832 but escaped after three months to continue the struggle from his fortress in Bonjol. After three years of siege, the Dutch finally managed to sack Bonjol on 16 August 1837, through a negotiation ruse, the Dutch again captured Syarif and exiled him, first to Cianjur in West Java, then to Ambon, and later to Manado in Sulawesi. He died on 6 November 1864, at the age of 92 and is buried in Sulawesi, the site of his grave is marked by a Minangkabau house. History of Indonesia Padri War Bio Imam Bonjol at Ensiklopedi Tokoh Indonesia http, //www. minahasa. net/en/history-imambonjol. html
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Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
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Northland Region
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The Northland Region is the northernmost of New Zealands 16 local government regions. New Zealanders often call it the Far North, or, because of its mild climate, the main population centre is the city of Whangarei and the largest town is Kerikeri. The Northland Region occupies the northern 80% of the 330 kilometre-long Northland Peninsula and it is bounded to the west by the Tasman Sea, and to the east by the Pacific Ocean. The land is predominantly rolling hill country, farming and forestry occupy over half of the land, and are two of the regions main industries. Although many of the kauri forests were felled during the 19th century. New Zealands largest tree, Tane Mahuta, stands in the Waipoua Forest south of the Hokianga Harbour, the western coast is dominated by several long straight beaches, the most famous of which is the inaccurately named 88 kilometre-long stretch of Ninety Mile Beach in the regions far north. The slightly longer Ripiro Beach lies further south, two large inlets are also located on this coast, the massive Kaipara Harbour in the south, which Northland shares with the Auckland Region, and the convoluted inlets of the Hokianga Harbour. The east coast is rugged, and is dotted with bays. Numerous islands dot this coast, notably the Cavalli Islands, the Hen and Chickens Islands, Aorangaia Island, the northernmost points of the North Island mainland lie at the top of Northland. These include several points often confused in the mind as being the countrys northernmost points, Cape Maria van Diemen, Spirits Bay, Cape Reinga. The northernmost point of the North Island is actually the Surville Cliffs, close to North Cape, Cape Reinga and Spirits Bay do, however, have a symbolic part to play as the end of the country. In Māori mythology, it is here that the souls of the dead depart on their journey to the afterlife. Northland is New Zealands least urbanised region, with 50% of the population of 171,400 living in urban areas, Whangarei is the largest urban area, with a population of 56,400. The regions population is concentrated along the east coast. During the five-year period up to 2006, Northland recorded a growth of 6.0 percent. Northland includes one of the fastest growing towns in New Zealand, Mangawhai, the region of Northland has a sub-tropical oceanic climate with warm humid summers and mild wet winters. Due to its latitude and low elevation, Northland has the countrys highest average annual temperature, however, as with other parts of New Zealand, climate conditions are variable. In summer, temperatures range from 22 °C to 26 °C, in winter, maximum temperatures vary between 14 °C and 20 °C
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Texas Declaration of Independence. Wikisource.
