1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it
6.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
7.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
8.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
9.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
10.
1829
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As of the start of 1829, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 19 – August Klingemanns adaptation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Faust premieres in Braunschweig, february 27 – Battle of Tarqui took place. March 4 – Andrew Jackson is sworn in as President of the United States, march 22 – Greece receives autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in the London Protocol, signed by Russia, France and Britain, effectively ending the Greek War of Independence. Greece continues to seek full independence through diplomatic negotiations with the three Great Powers, march 31 – Pope Pius VIII succeeds Pope Leo XII as the 253rd pope. April–September – Felix Mendelssohn pays his first visit to Britain and this includes the first London performance of his concert overture to A Midsummer Nights Dream and his trip to Fingals Cave. April 1 – Vicente Guerrero becomes the president of Mexico, april 4 – The Mexican city of Cuautla, Morelos, is founded. April 13 – Passage of the Catholic Relief Act by Parliament of the United Kingdom granting a substantial measure of Catholic emancipation in Britain and Ireland. May 6 – The patent for an instrument called the accordion is applied for by Cyrill Demian May 15 – Joseph Smith claims to receive the Aaronic Priesthood from John the Baptist, june 1 – The Philadelphia Inquirer is founded as The Pennsylvania Inquirer. June 3 – The Swan River Colony is founded in Western Australia and this secures the western third of the Australian landmass for the British. June 5 – Slave trade, HMS Pickle captures the slave ship Voladora off the coast of Cuba. June 10 – The Oxford University Boat Club wins the first inter-university Boat Race, june 19 – Robert Peel establishes the Metropolitan Police Service in London, the first modern police force. The first officers, known by the nickname bobbies, go on patrol on September 29, july 2 – Russo-Turkish War, Russian Field-Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch launches the Transbalkan offensive, which brings the Russian army within 68 km of Istanbul. July 4 – George Shillibeer begins operating the first bus service in London, july 23 – In the United States, William Burt obtains the first patent for a form of typewriter, the typographer. August 8 – France, The Prince de Polignac succeeds the Vicomte de Martignac as Prime Minister of France, August 10 – First ascent of Finsteraarhorn, the highest summit of the Bernese Alps. August 12 – Mrs. Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship Sulphur, August 14 – * Kings College London is founded by Royal Charter under the patronage of King George IV and the Prime Minister, The Duke of Wellington. September 16 – Russo-Turkish War, The Treaty of Adrianople gains for Russia some territory at the mouth of the Danube, october 1 – South African College inaugurated in Cape Town. October 8 – Rail transport, Stephensons Rocket wins the Rainhill Trials, november 5 – Technical University of Denmark opens. November 30 – The original Welland Canal opens for a run with a ceremony at Port Dalhousie
11.
1830
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As of the start of 1830, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. It is known in European history as a tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland. January 11 – LaGrange College began operation, becoming the first publicly chartered college in Alabama, february 3 – The London Protocol establishes the full independence and sovereignty of Greece from the Ottoman Empire as the final result of the Greek War of Independence. March 12 – Craig vs. March 26 – The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, March 28 – The Java War ends. April 6 – Joseph Smith and five others organize the Church of Christ, may 13 – Ecuador separates from Gran Colombia. May 28 – The United States Congress passes the Indian Removal Act, june 26 – William IV succeeds his brother George IV as King of the United Kingdom. July 5 – France invades Algeria, July 17 – Barthélemy Thimonnier is granted a patent for a sewing machine in France, it chains stitches at 200/minute. July 18 – Uruguay adopts its first constitution, July 20 – Greece grants citizenship to Jews. July 27 – France, The July Revolution begins, august 9 – France, Louis Philippe becomes King of the French. August 13 – France, Duc de Broglie becomes Prime Minister, august 25 – The Belgian Revolution begins. August 31 – Edwin Beard Budding is granted a patent for the invention of the lawn mower, september 15 – The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens, the worlds first intercity passenger railway operated solely by steam locomotives. September 27 – The Belgian Revolution ends by liberating Brussels from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, october 4 – The Provisional Government in Brussels declares the creation of the independent state of Belgium, in revolt against the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. October – Start of the Regeneration in Switzerland, more liberal constitutions adopted in most cantons, november 2 – France, Jacques Laffitte succeeds the Duc de Broglie as Prime Minister. November 8 – Ferdinand II becomes King of the Two Sicilies, november 22 – The Whig Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey succeeds Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. November 29 – The Polish insurrection begins in Warsaw against Russian rule, december 5 – Hector Berliozs most famous work, Symphonie fantastique, has its world premiere in Paris. December 20 – The independence of Belgium is recognized by the Great Powers,10,000 chests of opium are sold in China. Austins of Derry established in Northern Ireland, until closure in 2016, it was the worlds oldest independent department store. January 7 – Albert Bierstadt, German-American painter January 21 – Liu Kunyi, Chinese general January 23 – Gaston Alexandre Auguste, Marquis de Galliffet, French general January 31 – James G
12.
1831
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As of the start of 1831, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing The Liberator, a newspaper, in Boston. February–March – Revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States are put down by Austrian troops, February 2 – Pope Gregory XVI succeeds Pope Pius VIII as the 254th pope. February 5 – Dutch naval lieutenant Jan van Speyk blows up his own gunboat in Amsterdam rather than strike his colours on the demand of supporters of the Belgian Revolution. February 7 – Belgian Constitution of 1831 approved by the National Congress February 14 – Battle of Debre Abbay, Ras Marye of Yejju marches into Tigray and defeats, February 20 – Battle of Olszynka Grochowska, Polish rebel forces divide a Russian army. March 10 – The French Foreign Legion is founded, march 16 – The Hunchback of Notre-Dame is first published by Victor Hugo. March 29 – The Bosnian Uprising against the Ottoman Empire begins, april 7 – Pedro I abdicates as Emperor of Brazil in favor of his 5-year-old son Pedro II, who will reign for almost 59 years. April 18 – University of Alabama founded, april 27 – Charles Albert becomes king of Sardinia after the death of King Charles Felix. May 26 – Battle of Ostrołęka, The Poles fight another indecisive battle, may–June – Merthyr Rising, Coal miners and others riot in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales for improved working conditions. June 1 – British Royal Navy officer James Clark Ross locates the position of the North Magnetic Pole on the Boothia Peninsula, C. July 15 – The volcanic island of Graham Island briefly emerges in the Mediterranean. July 21 – Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is inaugurated as first King of the Belgians in Brussels, august 2 – The Dutch Ten Days Campaign against Belgium is halted by a French army. August 7 – American Baptist minister William Miller preaches his first sermon on the Second Advent of Christ in Dresden, New York, august 21 – United States, Nat Turners slave rebellion breaks out in Southampton County, Virginia. September 6–September 8 – Battle of Warsaw, The Russians take the Polish capital, september 8 – The coronation of King William IV of the United Kingdom who succeeded his brother George IV. He would reign until 1837 October 9 – Ioannis Kapodistrias, the Greek head of state, October 29 – The Bristol Riots of 1831 took place, in response to the UK parliaments decision not to reform the vote, causing delays to the building of the Clifton Suspension Bridge. November 7 – Slave trading is forbidden in Brazil, november 22 – After a bloody battle with the military causing 600 casualties, rebellious silk workers seize Lyon, France, beginning the First Canut Revolt. December 27 – Charles Darwin embarks on his voyage aboard HMS Beagle. December 27 – The Christmas Rebellion begins in Jamaica with the setting afire of the Kensington House in St James Parish, at its peak, more than 20,000 people will be involved, and more than 500 people will be killed. December 31 – Gramercy Park is deeded to New York City, the Sydney Morning Herald newspaper is first published
13.
1833
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As of the start of 1833, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic, february 6 – His Royal Highness Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria assumes the title His Majesty Othon the First, by the Grace of God, King of Greece, Prince of Bavaria. March 4 – Andrew Jackson is sworn in for his term as President of the United States. April 1 – General Antonio López de Santa Anna is elected President of Mexico by the legislatures of 16 of the 18 Mexican states. During his frequent absences from office to fight on the battlefield, Santa Anna turns the duties of government over to his vice president, may 6 Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber obtain permission to build an electromagnetic telegraph in Göttingen. In Alexandria, Virginia, an attack is made on US President Andrew Jackson, may 10 – Lê Văn Khôi revolt against Emperor Minh Mạng of Vietnam begins. May 25 – The Chilean Constitution of 1833 is promulgated, June 5 – Ada Lovelace is introduced to Charles Babbage by Mary Somerville. June 9 - Dubai gets independence from the United Kingdom June 29 – William Fraser Tolmie experiences an earthquake at Fort Nisqually and his journal entry records the first written eyewitness account of an earthquake in the Puget Sound region. July 5 – Liberal Wars – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, july 20 – A mob in Jackson County, Missouri destroys the printing office of the early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints containing what is now known as The Doctrine of Covenants. August 1 The British Parliament passes the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, King Williams College on the Isle of Man officially opens. August 3 – In Switzerland, troops of the city of Basel march on rebels in Liestal, august 12 – The city of Chicago is established at the estuary of the Chicago River by 350 settlers. August 18 – The Canadian ship SS Royal William sets out from Pictou, august 20 – Future United States President Benjamin Harrison is born in Ohio. August 26 – The Canton of Basel is partitioned by the Swiss Tagsatzung, august 29 – The British Parliament enacts the Factory Acts limiting child labour September 2 – Oberlin College founded in Oberlin, Ohio. September 29 – Three-year-old Isabella II becomes Queen of Spain, under the regency of her mother and her uncle Don Carlos, Conde de Molina challenges her claim, beginning the First Carlist War. October 20 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, writes his oft-quoted poem, november 12–November 13 – A very spectacular occurrence of the Leonid meteor shower is observed all over North America, and was the inspiration for the song Stars Fell on Alabama. November 25 – A major 8.7 earthquake strikes Sumatra, December – American Anti-Slavery Society founded. December 14 – Kaspar Hauser, a mysterious German youth, is stabbed, the dawn of biochemistry, The first enzyme, diastase, is discovered by Anselme Payen. Greece recaptures the Acropolis of Athens, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement
14.
1834
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As of the start of 1834, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Zollverein, Customs charges are abolished at borders within its member states, january 3 – The government of Mexico imprisons Stephen F. Austin in Mexico City. February – Robert Owen organizes the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in the United Kingdom, March 6 – York, Upper Canada, is incorporated as Toronto. March 11 – United States Survey of the Coast transferred to the Department of the Navy, March 14 – John Herschel discovers the open cluster of stars now known as NGC3603, observing from the Cape of Good Hope. March 28 – Andrew Jackson is censured by the United States Congress, March 19 – Founding of Cavendish Villa Football Club. April 10 – The LaLaurie mansion burns and Madame Marie Delphine LaLaurie flees to France, april 14 – The Whig Party is officially named by United States Senator Henry Clay. May 19 – Peasants Revolt in Egyptian-ruled Palestine opens, june 7 – Greek independence, General Theodoros Kolokotronis is sentenced to death for treason for resisting the rule of Otto of Greece. June 10 – British philosopher Thomas Carlyle moves to Cheyne Row in London, july 7 –10 – Anti-abolitionist riots in New York City. July 15 – The Spanish Inquisition, which began in the 15th century, is suppressed by royal decree, july 16 – William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne succeeds Earl Grey as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. July 24 – The Liberal Wars end in Portugal, july 29 – Office of Indian Affairs organized in the United States. August 1 – Slavery is abolished in the British Empire by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, august 11 –12 – Ursuline Convent riots, A convent of Ursuline nuns is burned near Boston. August 14 – The Poor Law Amendment Act in the United Kingdom states that no able-bodied British man can receive assistance unless he enters a workhouse, august 15 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there. September 13 – The Gleaner newspaper first published in Jamaica, october 16 – The Palace of Westminster is destroyed by fire. November 14 – William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne becomes the last Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be dismissed by the British monarch, king William IV temporarily appoints Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, to form a caretaker government. December 3 – The Zollverein institutes the first regular census in Germany, december 10 – Sir Robert Peel succeeds Lord Melbourne as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. December 11 – The Sixth Xhosa War is characterized by severe clashes between settlers and Bantu peoples in Cape Colony, Dutch-speaking settlers colonize the area north of Orange River. A pro-republic uprising fails in Piedmont, one of the activists is Giuseppe Garibaldi, the British East India Company monopoly on China trade ends. Medical School of Louisiana is founded, later to become Tulane University in New Orleans, Charles Babbage begins the conceptual design of the Analytical Engine, a mechanical forerunner of the modern computer
15.
1835
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As of the start of 1835, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 7 – HMS Beagle anchors off the Chonos Archipelago on her voyage with Charles Darwin on board as naturalist. January 8 – The United States public debt contracts to zero for the time in history. January 26 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg, in Lisbon, january 30 – An assassination is attempted against United States President Andrew Jackson in the United States Capitol. February 1 – Slavery is abolished in Mauritius, february 20 – Concepción, Chile, is destroyed by an earthquake. March 2 – Ferdinand becomes Emperor of Austria, march 23 – The Mexican Academy of Language is established. April 18 – Lord Melbourne succeeds Sir Robert Peel as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, may 5 Rail transport in Belgium, a railway is opened between Brussels and Mechelen, the first in continental Europe. Braulio Carrillo is sworn in as Head of State of Costa Rica, may 8 – Hans Christian Andersens Fairy Tales Told for Children. May 11 – Matua, High Priest of the Polynesian island of Mangareva, is baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, may 23 – The Mexican State of Aguascalientes is formed by decree of President Santa Anna. June 1 – Kingston Penitentiary in Kingston, Ontario opens, june 8 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. July – Bertelsmann is founded by Carl Bertelsmann as a printer and publisher in Prussia. July 14 – Organisation of the universal Catholic Apostolic Church, initially in the U. K, july 28 – In Paris, the assassination of King Louis Philippe I of France is attempted by Giuseppe Marco Fieschi using a home-made volley gun. Ten are killed but the King escapes with a minor wound, august – H. Fox Talbot exposes the worlds first known photographic negatives at Lacock Abbey in England. The New York Sun prints the first of six installments of the Great Moon Hoax, august 28 – St. Vincents Ecclesiastical Seminary, a predecessor of Castleknock College, is founded by the Vincentian community in Dublin, Ireland. August 30 – European settlers landing on the banks of the Yarra River in southeastern Australia found the city of Melbourne. September 7 – Charles Darwin arrives at the Galápagos Islands aboard HMS Beagle, september 19 – William Lloyd Garrison publishes Angelina Grimkés anti-slavery letter in The Liberator. September 20 – The Ragamuffin War begins in Rio Grande do Sul, October 3 – The Staedtler company is founded by J. S. Staedtler in Nuremberg, Germany. October 28 United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand, in the first major engagement of the Texas Revolution, Battle of Concepción, the Texian Army defeats the Mexicans
16.
1832 in architecture
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The year 1832 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. January - Theatre Royal, Wexford, Ireland Church of Our Saviour, Qaqortoq, cutlers Hall, Sheffield, England, designed by Samuel Worth and Benjamin Broomhead Taylor. Drapers Hall, Coventry, England, designed by Thomas Rickman, surgeons Hall, Edinburgh, Scotland, designed by William Henry Playfair. Replacement Old City Gaol, Bristol, England, designed by Richard Shackleton Pope, osgoode Hall, Toronto for The Law Society of Upper Canada, designed by John Ewart and W. W. Baldwin. Royal City of Dublin Hospital, Ireland, designed by Albert E. Murray, cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Gibraltar. Maderup Mølle, Funen, Denmark Théâtre des Folies-Dramatiques, Paris, the Mount, Sheffield, England, designed by William Flockton. Staines Bridge, designed by George Rennie, marlow Bridge, designed by William Tierney Clark. Bridge Real Ferdinando sul Garigliano, designed by Luigi Giura, George IV Bridge in Edinburgh, designed by Thomas Hamilton. St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, New York City, USA Stirling New Bridge in Scotland, designed by Robert Stevenson, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Jean-Arnoud Léveil
17.
1832 in France
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Events from the year 1832 in France. Monarch – Louis Philippe I5 June - Anti-monarchist June Rebellion briefly breaks out in Paris,4 December - Siege of Antwerp, the last remaining Dutch enforcement, the citadel, is under French attack. 23 December - Siege of Antwerp ended,4 March - Jean-François Champollion, classical scholar, philologist and orientalist. 13 April - Jean-Baptiste Jacques Augustin, painter,23 April - François-Nicolas Delaistre, sculptor. 13 May - Georges Cuvier, naturalist and zoologist,16 May - Casimir Pierre Périer, statesman. 26 May - François-Louis Perne, composer and musicographer,31 May - Évariste Galois, mathematician. 1 June - Jean Maximilien Lamarque, statesman,4 June - Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, sinologist. 5 June - All the men who died at the barricades during the June rebellion 22 July - Napoleon II of France,17 August - Pierre Yrieix Daumesnil, soldier. 24 August - Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, physicist and military engineer,9 September - Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen, general. 15 November - Jean-Baptiste Say, economist and businessman
18.
1832 in the United States
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Events from the year 1832 in the United States. President, Andrew Jackson Vice President, John C, march 3 - In Worcester v. Georgia, the United States Supreme Court holds that Cherokee Indians are entitled to federal protection from the actions of state governments. March 24 - In Hiram, Ohio a group of men beat, tar, april 6 - The Black Hawk War begins. May 9,1832 - Lafayette College classes begin, may 21–23 -1832 Democratic National Convention held in Baltimore. July 10 - President Andrew Jackson vetoes a bill that would re-charter the Second Bank of the United States, july 24 - Benjamin Bonneville leads the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains using the South Pass. July–August - The 1829–51 cholera pandemic reaches the Northeastern seaboard, beginning with New York City, august 27 - Black Hawk surrenders to the authorities, ending the Black Hawk War. October 8 - Washington Irving and Henry Leavitt Ellsworth arrive at Fort Gibson and they leave the fort on October 10, with a small company of Rangers who escort them to the camp of Captain Jesse Bean who is waiting for them near the Arkansas River. October 19 – Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity is founded at Hamilton College, november 2–December 5 - Andrew Jackson defeats Henry Clay in the U. S. presidential election. November 14 – Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last surviving signatory of the Declaration of Independence dies at his home in Maryland at age 95, november 24 – Ordinance of Nullification is passed. December 3 – U. S. presidential election,1832, december - Skull and Bones secret society of Yale University established. December 28 - John C. Calhoun becomes the first Vice President of the United States to resign, george Catlin starts to live among the Sioux in the Dakota Territory. Nullification Crisis Wills Eye Hospital funded by a bequest January 1 – Charles N. Felton, January 13 – Horatio Alger, Jr. American Unitarian minister and author February 3 – Abram Williams, United States Senator from California from 1886 till 1887, February 6 – John Brown Gordon, United States Senator from Georgia from 1873 till 1880 and from 1891 till 1897. February 18 – Nathaniel P. Hill, United States Senator from Colorado from 1879 till 1885, april 10 – Alexander McDonald, United States Senator from Arkansas from 1868 till 1871. April 19 – Lucretia Garfield, wife of James A. Garfield, First Lady of the United States, June 11 Augustus Hill Garland, United States Senator from Arkansas from 1885 till 1889. Lucy Pickens, socialite, known during and after her lifetime as the Queen of the Confederacy September 10 – Randall L. Gibson, United States Senator from Louisiana from 1883 till 1892
19.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
20.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
21.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
22.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
23.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
24.
William IV of the United Kingdom
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William IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. The third son of George III and younger brother and successor to George IV, he was the last king, William served in the Royal Navy in his youth and was, both during his reign and afterwards, nicknamed the Sailor King. He served in North America and the Caribbean, in 1789, he was created Duke of Clarence and St Andrews. Since his two brothers died without leaving legitimate issue, he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old. Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, through his brother, the Viceroy of Hanover, he granted his German kingdom a short-lived liberal constitution. William was succeeded in the United Kingdom by his niece, Victoria, William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 at Buckingham House, the third child and son of King George III and Queen Charlotte. He had two brothers, George and Frederick, and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber of St Jamess Palace on 20 September 1765 and his godparents were his paternal uncles, the Duke of Gloucester and Prince Henry, and his paternal aunt, Princess Augusta, then hereditary duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He spent most of his life in Richmond and at Kew Palace. At the age of thirteen, he joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman and his experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen, though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ships by a tutor. He did his share of the cooking and got arrested with his shipmates after a brawl in Gibraltar. He served in New York during the American War of Independence, I am fully persuaded, that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral. The plot did not come to fruition, the British heard of it and assigned guards to William and he became a lieutenant in 1785 and captain of HMS Pegasus the following year. The two were friends, and dined together almost nightly. At Nelsons wedding, William insisted on giving the bride away and he was given command of the frigate HMS Andromeda in 1788, and was promoted to rear-admiral in command of HMS Valiant the following year. William sought to be made a duke like his brothers, and to receive a similar parliamentary grant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to stand for the House of Commons for the constituency of Totnes in Devon, Williams political record was inconsistent and, like many politicians of the time, cannot be certainly ascribed to a single party. William ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790, the following year he spoke in favour of the war, expecting a command after his change of heart, none came
25.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
26.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
27.
Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
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