1.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
2.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
3.
4 ft 6 in gauge railway
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The 4 ft 6 in track gauge, also called the Scotch gauge, was adopted by early 19th century railways mainly in the Lanarkshire area of Scotland. It differed from the gauge of 4 ft 8 in that was used on some lines in England. In the early 1840s standard gauge lines began to be constructed in Scotland, the gauge was outlawed in Great Britain by law in 1846. From 1903, tram lines of Tokyo adopted this gauge, a small number of early to mid-19th century passenger railways were built to 4 ft 6 in Scotch gauge including, Ardrossan and Johnstone Railway. Authorised on 20 July 1806 and opened on 6 November 1810, authorised on 17 May 1824 and opened on 1 October 1826. Incorporated on 19 May 1826 and opened on 8 August 1828, authorised on 26 May 1826 and opened in part on 4 July 1831. Incorporated on 26 May 1826 and ceremonially opened on 27 September 1831 for both passengers and goods, the engineers were Thomas Grainger and John Miller from Edinburgh. Incorporated on 21 June 1829 and partially opened on 21 March 1834, the engineers were Thomas Grainger and John Miller from Edinburgh. Incorporated on 3 July 1835 and opened on 31 August 1840, authorised on 21 July 1835 and opened on 3 April 1837 for both passengers and goods. Interestingly Robert Stephenson and Company built a Scotch gauge locomotive, the St. Rollox, for the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway, all the lines were later relaid in standard gauge. In addition to the lines, there were three railways, authorised between 1822 and 1835, that were built in the Dundee area, to a gauge of 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in. They were, The Dundee and Newtyle Railway, the Newtyle and Coupar Angus Railway. Grainger and Miller built another two lines in the same area to a gauge of 5 ft 6 in. Thomas Grainger is said to have chosen this gauge, since he regarded 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge as being too narrow and they were, The Dundee and Arbroath Railway. Incorporated on 19 May 1836 and opened in part in October 1838, incorporated on 19 May 1836 and opened in part on 24 November 1838. A few remnants of old lines remain, but are non functional with the exception of one example of the St Michaels Mount Tramway at St Michaels Mount in Cornwall and it is a partial underground railway that used to bring luggage up to the castle. It occasionally operates, but only for reasons and is not open to the general public. It is therefore believed to be Britains last functionally operational Scotch gauge railway, after the end of Scotch gauge in Britain, the gauge was revived in Japan
4.
Boston and Maine Corporation
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The Boston and Maine Corporation, known as the Boston and Maine Railroad, was a U. S. Class I railroad in northern New England and it became part of what is now the Pan Am Railways network in 1983. At the end of 1970 B&M operated 1,515 route-miles on 2,481 miles of track and that year it reported 2744 million ton-miles of revenue freight and 92 million passenger-miles. The Andover and Wilmington Railroad was incorporated March 15,1833, to build a branch from the Boston and Lowell Railroad at Wilmington, Massachusetts, north to Andover, the line opened to Andover on August 8,1836. The railroad opened in 1840 to Exeter, New Hampshire, and on January 1,1842, on February 23,1843, the B&M opened to Agamenticus, on the line of the Portland, Saco and Portsmouth Railroad in South Berwick. On January 28 of that year the B&M and Eastern Railroad came to an agreement to lease the PS&P as a joint line to Portland. The Boston and Maine Railroad Extension was incorporated March 16,1844, due to a dispute with the Boston and that company was merged into the main B&M on March 19,1845, and opened July 1, leading to the abandonment of the old connection to the B&L. In 1848 another original section was abandoned, as a new alignment was built from Wilmington north to North Andover, Massachusetts, in order to better serve Lawrence, a new alignment to Portland opened in 1873, splitting from the old route at South Berwick, Maine. The old route was later abandoned and this completed the B&M main line which would become known as the Western Route to distinguish it from the Eastern Route which also connected Boston and Portland. As the B&M grew, it gained control of former rivals, including, The Eastern Railroad was leased by the B&M on December 23,1883, and on May 9,1890. This provided a route to Maine, ending competition along the immediate route between Boston and Portland. Along with the Eastern, the B&M also acquired many branch lines, including the Conway Branch, the Saugus Branch, the South Reading Branch, and branches to Marblehead and Rockport, Massachusetts. The Worcester and Nashua Railroad was organized in 1845 and the Nashua and Rochester Railroad in 1847, the W&N leased the N&R in 1874, and the two companies merged into the Worcester, Nashua and Rochester Railroad in 1883. The B&M leased the line on January 1,1886 and this acquisition also included the continuation from Rochester to Portland, Maine, incorporated in 1846 as the York and Cumberland Railroad. It opened partially in 1851 and 1853, was reorganized as the Portland and Rochester Railroad in 1867 and it was again reorganized in 1881 and then operated in conjunction with the line to Worcester. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad to northwestern Vermont, and the Connecticut, additionally, the St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad, owned by the B&M through stock, was leased to the Maine Central Railroad by 1912. The Central Massachusetts Railroad stayed a part of the B&M, as did the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad. The Northern Railroad was leased to the Boston and Lowell in 1884, but that lease was cancelled and the Northern was on its own until 1890, the Northern owned a number of lines running west from Concord
5.
Haverhill, Massachusetts
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Haverhill is a city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 60,879 at the 2010 census, located on the Merrimack River, it began as a farming community of Puritans, largely from Newbury Plantation. The land was purchased from the Pentuckets on November 15,1642 for three pounds, ten shillings. Pentucket was renamed Haverhill and would evolve into an important industrial center, in the 18th and 19th century, Haverhill developed woolen mills, tanneries, shipping and shipbuilding. The town was for decades home to a significant shoe-making industry. By the end of 1913, one tenth of the shoes produced in the United States were made in Haverhill, the city was also known for the manufacture of hats. Haverhill has played a role in every era of American history, from the initial colonial settlement, to the French and Indian Wars. The town was founded in 1640 by settlers from Newbury, and was known as Pentucket. Settlers such as John Ward, Robert Clements, Tristram Coffin, Hugh Sheratt, William White, the land was purchased from native Indian chiefs Passaquo and Saggahew and permission was granted by Passaconaway, chief of the Pennacooks. Settlers, Thomas Hale, Henry Palmer, Thomas Davis, James Davis, first Court appointments, given to end small causes were given to Robert Clements, Henry Palmer, and Thomas Hale. At the same court, it was John Osgood and Thomas Hale that were appointed to lay the way from Haverhill to Andover. It is said that early settlers worshipped under a large oak tree. The town was renamed for the town of Haverhill, England, in deference to the birthplace of the settlements first pastor, the original Haverhill settlement was located around the corner of Water Street and Mill Street, near the Linwood Cemetery and Burying Ground. The home of the father, William White, still stands. Whites Corner was named for his family, as was the White Fund at Bostons Museum of Fine Arts, judge Nathaniel Saltonstall was chosen to preside over the Salem witch trials in the 17th century, however, he found the trials objectionable and recused himself. However, a number of women from Haverhill were accused of witchcraft, one of the initial group of settlers, Tristram Coffin, ran an inn. However, he grew disenchanted with the stance against his strong ales. Haverhill was for years a frontier town, and was occasionally subjected to Indian raids
6.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
