1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
6.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
7.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
8.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
9.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
10.
1841
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As of the start of 1841, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 20 – Charles Elliot of the United Kingdom and Qishan of the Qing dynasty agree to the Convention of Chuenpi, january 26 – Britain occupies Hong Kong. Later in the year, the first census of the records a population of about 7,500. January 27 – The active volcano Mount Erebus in Antarctica is discovered and named by James Clark Ross, january 28 – Ross discovers the Victoria Barrier, later known as the Ross Ice Shelf. On the same voyage, he discovers the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, january 30 – A fire ruins and destroys two-thirds of the villa of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. February 4 – First known reference to Groundhog Day in North America, february 10 – Act of Union proclaimed in Canada. February 11 – The two colonies of The Canadas are merged into the United Province of Canada, february 18 – The first ongoing filibuster in the United States Senate begins and lasts until March 11. February 20 – The Governor Fenner, carrying emigrants to the United States, february – El Salvador proclaims itself an independent republic, bringing an end to the Federal Republic of Central America. March 4 – William Henry Harrison is sworn in as President of the United States, March 9 – United States v. The Amistad, The Supreme Court of the United States rules in the case that the Africans who seized control of the ship had taken into slavery illegally. March 12 – SS President under the command of the legendary captain Richard Roberts founders in rough seas with all passengers and he is succeeded by Vice President John Tyler, who becomes President of the United States. April 6 – President John Tyler is sworn in, may – Start of the Sino-Sikh War. May 3 – New Zealand becomes a British colony, may 11 – Lt. Charles Wilkes lands at Fort Nisqually in Puget Sound. May 22 –1841 rebellion in Guria, The Georgian province of Guria revolts against the Russian Empire, june 6 United Kingdom Census held, the first to record names and approximate ages of every household member and to be administered nationally. Marian Hughes becomes the first woman to take vows in communion with the Anglican Province of Canterbury since the Reformation. June 21 – Fordham University is founded in The Bronx by the Society of Jesus and its name at its founding is St. Johns College. June 28 – Ballet Giselle first presented by the Ballet du Théâtre de lAcadémie Royale de Musique at the Salle Le Peletier in Paris, july – Scottish missionary David Livingstone arrives at Kuruman in the Northern Cape, his first posting in Africa. July 5 – Thomas Cook arranges his first railway excursion, in England, july 17 – First edition of the humorous magazine Punch published in London
11.
1842
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As of the start of 1842, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January Michael Alexander takes office as first appointee to the Anglican-German Bishopric in Jerusalem, American medical student William E. Clarke of Berkshire Medical College becomes the first person to administer an inhaled anesthetic to facilitate a surgical procedure. January 8 – Delft University of Technology established by William II of the Netherlands as a Royal Academy for the education of civilian engineers, january 23 – Antarctic explorer James Clark Ross, charting the eastern side of James Ross Island, reaches a Farthest South of 78°0930S. February 1 – Willamette University is established in Salem, Oregon, february 7 – Battle of Debre Tabor, Ras Ali Alula, Regent of the Emperor of Ethiopia, defeats warlord Wube Haile Maryam of Semien. March – Commonwealth v. Hunt, the Massachusetts Supreme Court makes strikes, march 2 – Gaylad, ridden by Tom Olliver, wins the Grand National at Aintree Racecourse in England. March 5 – Mexican troops led by Ráfael Vásquez invade Texas, briefly occupy San Antonio and this is the first such invasion since the Texas Revolution. March 9 – Giuseppe Verdis third opera Nabucco premieres at La Scala in Milan, march 17 – The Relief Society, a philanthropic and educational womens organization of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is founded. March 28 – First concert of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, founded by Otto Nicolai, march 30 – American physician and pharmacist Crawford Long administers an inhaled anesthetic to facilitate a surgical procedure. March 31 – Middleton Junction and Oldham Branch Railway line opened up to Werneth in North West England, april 13 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British victory at the Battle of Jellalabad. May 11 – Income Tax Act establishes the first peacetime income tax in the United Kingdom,7 pence in the pound, may 19 – Dorr Rebellion, Militiamen supporting Thomas Wilson Dorr attack the arsenal in Providence, Rhode Island, but are repulsed. June 4 – In South Africa, hunter Dick King rides into a British military base in Grahamstown to warn that the Boers have besieged Durban, the British army dispatches a relief force. June 13 – Queen Victoria becomes the first reigning British monarch to travel by train, june 18 – A primary school system is established in Sweden. June 20 – Anselmo de Andrade, Portuguese economist and politician, is born in Vila Real de Santo António, june – James Nasmyth patents the steam hammer in the United Kingdom. July 8 – A total solar eclipse occurs in Asia, july 13 – The Tri-Kap fraternity is founded at Dartmouth College. It is the oldest local fraternity in the United States, August 4 – The Armed Occupation Act is signed, providing for the armed occupation and settlement of the unsettled part of the Peninsula of East Florida. August 9 – The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains, August 10 – The Mines Act 1842 becomes law, prohibiting underground work for all women and boys under 10 years old in the United Kingdom. August 14 – American Indian Wars, United States general William J. Worth declares the Second Seminole War to be over. August 29 – The Treaty of Nanking, a treaty between Britain and Qing dynasty China, ends the First Opium War and establishes Hong Kong as a British colony until 1997
12.
1843
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As of the start of 1843, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January Serial publication of Charles Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit begins in London, in the July chapters, he lands his hero in the United States. Publication of Edgar Allan Poes Gothic short story The Tell-Tale Heart in a Philadelphia magazine, the Quaker magazine The Friend is first published in London. January 3 – Publication in China of Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms compiled by Wei Yuan and others, january 6 – Antarctic explorer James Clark Ross discovers Snow Hill Island. January 20 – Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão, Marquis of Paraná, february 3 – Uruguayan Civil War, Argentina supports Oribe of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo. February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show, february 11 – Giuseppe Verdis opera I Lombardi alla prima crociata premieres at La Scala in Milan. February 14 – The event that inspired the Beatles song Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite. is held in England, february 25 – Lord George Paulet occupies the Kingdom of Hawaii in the name of Great Britain in the Paulet Affair. March 8 – The Danish government re-establishes the Althing in Iceland as an advisory body, March 11–March 14 – Eta Carinae flares to become the second brightest star. March 13 – Catawba County, North Carolina, is created, March 15 – Victoria, British Columbia, is founded by the Hudsons Bay Company as a trading post and fort. March 16 – The city of Petrópolis is founded by the government of Brazil, March 21 – The world does not end, contrary to the first prediction by American preacher William Miller. March 24 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, March 25 – Marc Isambard Brunels Thames Tunnel, the first tunnel under the River Thames and the worlds first bored underwater tunnel, is opened in London. April – Eta Carinae is temporarily the second-brightest star in the night sky, april 7 – The Indian Slavery Act,1843 removes legal support for slavery within the territories of the East India Company May 4 – Natal is proclaimed a British colony. May 18 – The Disruption in Edinburgh of the Free Church of Scotland from the Church of Scotland, may 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the American Northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri on the Oregon Trail. May 23 – Chile takes possession of the Strait of Magellan, june 6 – In Barbados, Samuel Jackman Prescod is the first non-white person elected to the House of Assembly. July 1 – Graduation from a class of 39 at the United States Military Academy, West Point, of Ulysses S. Grant and John J. Peck. July 19 – Isambard Kingdom Brunels SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol, it will be the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. July 25 – Père Antoine Désiré Mégret, a Capuchin missionary, purchases for $900 the land that will become Abbeville, Louisiana, august 1 – Brazil becomes the second country, after Great Britain, to issue nationally valid postage stamps with the release of its Bulls Eye series. August 15 – Tivoli Gardens, one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opens in Copenhagen, september 2 –The Economist newspaper is first published in London
13.
1845
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As of the start of 1845, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 10 – Elizabeth Barrett receives a letter from the younger poet Robert Browning on May 20 they meet for the first time in London. She begins writing her Sonnets from the Portuguese, january 23 – The United States Congress establishes a uniform date for federal elections, which will henceforth be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. January 29 – The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe is published for the first time, february 1 – Anson Jones, President of the Republic of Texas, signs the charter officially creating Baylor University. Baylor is the oldest university in the State of Texas operating under its original name, february 7 – In the British Museum, a drunken visitor smashes the Portland Vase, which takes months to repair. February 28 – The United States Congress approves the annexation of Texas, march 1 – President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas. March 3 Florida is admitted as the 27th U. S. state, the United States Congress passes legislation overriding a presidential veto for the first time. March 4 – James K. Polk is sworn in as President of the United States, march 11 – New Zealand Wars open with the Flagstaff War, Chiefs Kawiti and Hone Heke lead 700 Māoris in the burning of the British colonial settlement of Kororāreka. March 13 – The Violin Concerto by Felix Mendelssohn premieres in Leipzig, march 17 – Stephen Perry patents the rubber band in the United Kingdom. March 30 – Due to different transition dates to the Gregorian calendar, april 10 – A great fire destroys much of the American city of Pittsburgh. April 20 – Ramón Castilla becomes president of Peru, may – Frederick Douglasss Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave written by himself is published by the Boston Anti-Slavery Society. May 2 – A suspension bridge collapses in Great Yarmouth, England, leaving around 80 dead, may 19 – HMS Erebus and HMS Terror with 134 men, comprising Sir John Franklins expedition to find the Northwest Passage, sail from Greenhithe on the Thames. They will last be seen in August entering Baffin Bay, may 30 – Fatel Razack is the first ship to bring indentured labourers from India to Trinidad and Tobago, landing in the Gulf of Paria with 227 immigrants. July 20 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, july 26–August 10 – Isambard Kingdom Brunels iron steamship Great Britain makes the transatlantic crossing from Liverpool to New York, the first screw propelled vessel to make the passage. July 28 – HMS Terror and HMS Erebus of the Franklin Expedition go missing in the Davis Strait west of Greenland while searching for the Northwest Passage. August 9 – The Aberdeen Act is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom empowering the British Royal Navy to search Brazilian ships as part of the abolition of the trade from Africa. August 10 – The French Consul in Zanzibar receives the letter sent by Eugène Maizan during his expedition into tropical Africa. August 28 – The journal Scientific American begins publication, september 9 – Potato blight breaks out in Ireland, beginning of the Great Famine
14.
1846
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As of the start of 1846, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – The United States House of Representatives votes to stop sharing the Oregon Country with the United Kingdom, january 13 – Opening of the Milan–Venice railways 3.2 km bridge over the Venetian Lagoon between Mestre and Venice in Italy, the worlds longest since 1151. February 10 Many Mormons begin their migration west from Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Great Salt Lake, First Anglo-Sikh War, British victory at the Battle of Sobraon. February 14 – United States president James K. Polk annexes the Republic of Texas, February 18 – Beginning of the Galician peasant revolt. February 19 – The newly formed Texas state government is installed in Austin. February 20 –29 – Kraków Uprising, Polish nationalists stage an uprising in the Free City of Kraków, February 26 – The Liberty Bell is cracked while being rung for George Washingtons birthday. March 9 – The conclusion of the First Anglo-Sikh War with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore, kashmir is ceded to the British East India Company and the Koh-i-Noor diamond is surrendered to Queen Victoria. March 10 – Prince Osahito, fourth son of deceased Emperor Ninkō of Japan, april 25 – Mexican–American War, Open conflict begins over border disputes of Texas boundaries. May – Associated Press founded in New York, may 8 – Mexican–American War – Battle of Palo Alto, Zachary Taylor defeats a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande at Palo Alto, Texas in the first major battle of the war. May 11 – The University at Buffalo was founded by future United States President and Vice President, may 13 – Mexican–American War, The United States declares war on Mexico. On June 25 the Duke of Wellington persuades the House of Lords to pass the Act, may 16 – Revolution of Maria da Fonte in Portugal May 25 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. June 10 – Mexican–American War, The California Republic declares independence from Mexico, June 14 – Bear Flag Revolt, American settlers in Sonoma, California, start a rebellion against Mexico and proclaim the California Republic. June 15 The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, launceston Church Grammar School opens for the first time in Tasmania. June 16 – Pope Pius IX succeeds Pope Gregory XVI as the 255th pope and he will reign for 31½ years. June 28 – The saxophone is patented by Adolphe Sax, july 7 – Battle of Monterey, Acting on instructions from Washington, D. C. Commodore John Drake Sloat orders his troops to occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena thus beginning the United States annexation of California, august 22 – The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established. September – The Second Carlist War, or the War of the Matiners or Madrugadores begins in Spain, september 10 – Elias Howe is awarded the first United States patent for a sewing machine using a lockstitch design. September 19 – The Virgin Mary is said to have appeared to two children in La Salette, France
15.
1847
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As of the start of 1847, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Samuel Colt sells his first revolver pistol to the U. S government, January 13 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the fighting in the Mexican–American War in California. Frémont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory, January 17 – St. Anthony Hall is founded at Columbia University, New York City. January 30 – Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco, February 5 – A rescue effort, called the First Relief, leaves Johnsons Ranch to save the ill-fated Donner Party. These California bound emigrants became snowbound in the Sierra Nevada in the winter of 1846–47, march 1 The state of Michigan formally abolishes the death penalty. Faustin Soulouque is elected the President of Haiti, march 4 – The 30th United States Congress is sworn into office. March 9 – Mexican–American War, United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Veracruz, march 14 – Verdis opera Macbeth premieres at Teatro della Pergola in Florence, Italy. March 29 – Mexican–American War, United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege, april 5 – The worlds first municipally-funded civic public park, Birkenhead Park in Birkenhead on Merseyside in England, is opened. April 15 – The Lawrence School, Sanawar is established, april 25 – The brig Exmouth carrying Irish emigrants from Derry bound for Quebec is wrecked off Islay with only three survivors from more than 250 on board. May – The Architectural Association School of Architecture is founded in London, may 7 – In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association is founded. May 8 – In Japan,1847 Zenkoji earthquake, according to official estimated, may 31 – Second Treaty of Erzurum, the Ottoman Empire cedes Abadan Island to the Persian Empire. Ltd, which becomes the northern England supermarket chain Booths, is founded when 19-year-old tea dealer Edwin Henry Booth opens a shop called The China House in Blackpool, june 1 The first congress of the Communist League is held in London. June 26 – Opening of the first passenger railway wholly within modern-day Denmark, july 1 – The United States issues its first postage stamps. July 24 – After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, july 26 – Liberia gains independence. July 29 – The Cumberland School of Law is founded at Cumberland University in Lebanon, at the end of this year only 15 law schools exist in the United States. August 12 – U. S. troops of General Winfield Scott begin to advance along the aqueduct around Chalco and Xochimilco lakes in Mexico August 20 – U. S. September 14 – U. S. general Winfield Scott enters Mexico City, september 30 – The Vegetarian Society was formed in the United Kingdom. It remains the oldest in the world, october – Last volcanic eruption of Mount Guntur in West Java
16.
1844 in archaeology
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1844 in archaeology Karl Richard Lepsius examines, describes, and maps Meroë William Reeves locates Nendrum Monastery. Views of Ancient Monuments in Central America by Frederick Catherwood, with color lithographs of ruins of the Maya civilization March - The Archaeological Journal first published, the first volume includes Frederick Lukiss Observations on the primaeval antiquities of the Channel Islands. List of years in archaeology 1843 in archaeology 1845 in archaeology
17.
1844 in architecture
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The year 1844 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. June 12 - Abingdon Road railway station near Culham on the line to Oxford in England, august 21 - St Marys Church, Newcastle upon Tyne in England, designed by Augustus Pugin. August 27 - St Barnabas Church, Nottingham in England, designed by Augustus Pugin, october - The Grange, Ramsgate, designed for himself by Augustus Pugin. Autumn - The Scott Monument in Edinburgh, Scotland, designed by George Meikle Kemp, berkshire County Gaol, Reading, England, designed by George Gilbert Scott with William Bonython Moffatt. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Prosper Desbuisson, april 15 - Charles Bulfinch, first native-born American to practice architecture as a profession
18.
1844 in music
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May 27 - Joseph Joachim plays the solo part in Beethovens violin concerto with Mendelssohn conducting the London Philharmonic. October 15 - Johann Strauss Jr. makes his debut at Dommayers Casino in Hietzing. November 25 – Seth Gingras music by Michael William Balfe and libretto by Alfred Bunn has its American premiere at the Park Theatre, thomas Tellefsen becomes a pupil of Frédéric Chopin. Jacques Offenbach converts to Catholicism and marries Herminie dAlcain, the Blue Juniata Marion Dix Sullivan Open Thy Lattice, Love w. George Pope Morris, m. Stephen Collins Foster Skip To My Lou Trad. US Hector Berlioz – Roman Carnival Overture Henry Litolff – Concerto Symphonique No 2 in B minor, a Midsummer Nights Dream incidental music Violin Concerto in E minor, Op.64 Johann Strauss Jr
19.
1844 in France
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Events from the year 1844 in France. Monarch – Louis Philippe I6 August - First Franco-Moroccan War begins,14 August - Battle of Isly, French victory over Moroccan forces near Oujda, Morocco, ending the First Franco-Moroccan War. 28 August - Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx meet in Paris,10 September - Treaty of Tangiers, whereby Morocco officially recognized Algeria as part of the French Empire. 24 October - Treaty of Whampoa, a treaty between France and China, is signed. French Industrial Exposition of 18447 January - St
20.
1844 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1844 in the United Kingdom. Monarch – Victoria Prime Minister – Robert Peel 28 February — The Grand National at Aintree is won by the 5/1 joint favourite Discount,11 April — Initiation of the Ragged Schools Union. 11 May — Major fire at Lyme Regis,6 June — George Williams founds the Young Mens Christian Association in London. 15 June — Factory Act imposes a maximum 12-hour working day for women,19 July — Bank Charter Act restricts powers of British banks other than the Bank of England to issue banknotes of the pound sterling. 9 August — Imprisonment for debt abolished in England,28 September — A blackdamp explosion at Haswell Colliery in the Durham Coalfield kills 95, with just four survivors. 28 October — The Royal Exchange in London opened by Queen Victoria,21 December — The Rochdale Pioneers, usually considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, open their store in Rochdale, forming the basis for the modern cooperative movement. Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge appointed as Governor-General of India, winsford rock salt mine opens in Cheshire, by 2014 it will be Britains oldest working mine. Ring of bells installed at St John the Evangelists Church, Kirkham, surplice riots in Exeter and London break out in opposition to supposed Catholicisation of the Church of England. Robert Chambers anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which paves the way for acceptance of Darwins The Origin of Species, charles Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit and his Christmas novella The Chimes. Henry Fox Talbots book The Pencil of Nature, the first illustrated with photographs from a camera, william Makepeace Thackerays novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon
21.
1844 in the United States
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Events from the year 1844 in the United States. President, John Tyler Vice President, vacant Chief Justice, Roger B, taney Speaker of the House of Representatives, John Winston Jones Congress, 28th January 15 – The University of Notre Dame receives its charter from Indiana. March 12 – The Columbus and Xenia Railroad, the first railroad that is planned to be built in Ohio, is chartered. May 24 – The first electrical telegram is sent by Samuel F. B. Morse from the U. S. Capitol in Washington, D. C. to the B&O Railroad outer depot in Baltimore, Maryland, saying What hath God wrought. June 22 – Influential North American fraternity Delta Kappa Epsilon is founded at Yale University, july 3 – The United States signs The Sino-American Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government. October 22 – The Great Disappointment, Millerites find that the Second Coming of Jesus does not occur as predicted by preacher William Miller, december 4 – U. S. presidential election,1844, James K. Polk defeats Henry Clay. The first ever cricket match is played in New York City between Canada and the United States. Seward August 1 – Levi Ankeny, United States Senator from Washington from 1903 till 1909, june 3 – Garret Hobart, 24th Vice President of the United States from 1897 till 1899. January 13 – Alexander Porter, United States Senator from Louisiana from 1833 till 1837, april 21 – Henry Baldwin, Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1830 till 1844. June 27 – Joseph Smith Jr. religious leader and founder of Mormonism, media related to 1844 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
23.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
24.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
25.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
26.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
27.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
28.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
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