1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade
6.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
7.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
8.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
9.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
10.
1844
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As of the start of 1844, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 15 – The University of Notre Dame, based in the city of the same name, february 27 – The Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti. February 28 – A gun on the USS Princeton explodes while the boat is on a Potomac River cruise, killing 2 United States Cabinet members, march 8 – King Oscar I ascends to the throne of Sweden–Norway upon the death of his father Charles XVI/III John. March 12 – The Columbus and Xenia Railroad, the first railroad planned to be built in Ohio, is chartered, march 21 – The Baháí calendar begins. March 23 – The Edict of Toleration is passed, allowing Jews to settle in the Holy Land, April – The Fleet Prison for debtors in London is closed, marking a significant milestone in the countrys human rights record. May 1 – Hong Kong Police Force, the worlds second, may 23 – Persian Prophet The Báb privately announces his revelation to Mullá Husayn, just after sunset, founding the Bábí faith in Shiraz, Persia. Abdul-Bahá Himself was later proclaimed by Baháulláh to be His own successor, thus being the third central figure of the Baháí Faith. May 24 – The first electrical telegram is sent by Samuel Morse from the U. S. Capitol in Washington, D. C. to the B&O Railroad outer depot in Baltimore, june–July – The Great Flood of 1844 hits the Missouri River and Mississippi River. June 6 – George Williams founds the Young Mens Christian Association in London, june 15 – Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber. June 22 Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity was founded, ΔΚΕ is home to many well known VIPs, such as U. S. Presidents George W. Bush, George H. W. Bush, Gerald Ford, and Theodore Roosevelt. June 27 – Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, John Taylor, future president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is severely injured but survives. July 3 The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the last definitely recorded pair of great auks are killed on the Icelandic island of Eldey. August 8 – During a meeting held in Nauvoo, Illinois, august 14 – Abdelkader El Djezairi is defeated at Isly in Morocco, sultan Abd al-Rahman of Morocco soon repudiates his ally. August 16 – Narciso Claveria, the Governor-General of the Philippines made a decree announcing that Monday, December 30,1844 would be followed by Wednesday. Tuesday, December 31,1844 was removed from the Philippine calendar because from 1521 to 1844, august 28 – Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx meet in Paris, France. September 25–September 27 – The first ever cricket match is played in New York City. October 22 – This second date, predicted by the Millerites for the Second Coming of Jesus, october 23 – The Báb publicly proclaimed to be the promised one of Islam. He is also considered to be simultaneously the return of Elijah, John the Baptist, and he announces to the world the coming of He whom God shall make manifest
11.
1845
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As of the start of 1845, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 10 – Elizabeth Barrett receives a letter from the younger poet Robert Browning on May 20 they meet for the first time in London. She begins writing her Sonnets from the Portuguese, january 23 – The United States Congress establishes a uniform date for federal elections, which will henceforth be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. January 29 – The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe is published for the first time, february 1 – Anson Jones, President of the Republic of Texas, signs the charter officially creating Baylor University. Baylor is the oldest university in the State of Texas operating under its original name, february 7 – In the British Museum, a drunken visitor smashes the Portland Vase, which takes months to repair. February 28 – The United States Congress approves the annexation of Texas, march 1 – President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas. March 3 Florida is admitted as the 27th U. S. state, the United States Congress passes legislation overriding a presidential veto for the first time. March 4 – James K. Polk is sworn in as President of the United States, march 11 – New Zealand Wars open with the Flagstaff War, Chiefs Kawiti and Hone Heke lead 700 Māoris in the burning of the British colonial settlement of Kororāreka. March 13 – The Violin Concerto by Felix Mendelssohn premieres in Leipzig, march 17 – Stephen Perry patents the rubber band in the United Kingdom. March 30 – Due to different transition dates to the Gregorian calendar, april 10 – A great fire destroys much of the American city of Pittsburgh. April 20 – Ramón Castilla becomes president of Peru, may – Frederick Douglasss Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave written by himself is published by the Boston Anti-Slavery Society. May 2 – A suspension bridge collapses in Great Yarmouth, England, leaving around 80 dead, may 19 – HMS Erebus and HMS Terror with 134 men, comprising Sir John Franklins expedition to find the Northwest Passage, sail from Greenhithe on the Thames. They will last be seen in August entering Baffin Bay, may 30 – Fatel Razack is the first ship to bring indentured labourers from India to Trinidad and Tobago, landing in the Gulf of Paria with 227 immigrants. July 20 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, july 26–August 10 – Isambard Kingdom Brunels iron steamship Great Britain makes the transatlantic crossing from Liverpool to New York, the first screw propelled vessel to make the passage. July 28 – HMS Terror and HMS Erebus of the Franklin Expedition go missing in the Davis Strait west of Greenland while searching for the Northwest Passage. August 9 – The Aberdeen Act is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom empowering the British Royal Navy to search Brazilian ships as part of the abolition of the trade from Africa. August 10 – The French Consul in Zanzibar receives the letter sent by Eugène Maizan during his expedition into tropical Africa. August 28 – The journal Scientific American begins publication, september 9 – Potato blight breaks out in Ireland, beginning of the Great Famine
12.
1846
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As of the start of 1846, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – The United States House of Representatives votes to stop sharing the Oregon Country with the United Kingdom, january 13 – Opening of the Milan–Venice railways 3.2 km bridge over the Venetian Lagoon between Mestre and Venice in Italy, the worlds longest since 1151. February 10 Many Mormons begin their migration west from Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Great Salt Lake, First Anglo-Sikh War, British victory at the Battle of Sobraon. February 14 – United States president James K. Polk annexes the Republic of Texas, February 18 – Beginning of the Galician peasant revolt. February 19 – The newly formed Texas state government is installed in Austin. February 20 –29 – Kraków Uprising, Polish nationalists stage an uprising in the Free City of Kraków, February 26 – The Liberty Bell is cracked while being rung for George Washingtons birthday. March 9 – The conclusion of the First Anglo-Sikh War with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore, kashmir is ceded to the British East India Company and the Koh-i-Noor diamond is surrendered to Queen Victoria. March 10 – Prince Osahito, fourth son of deceased Emperor Ninkō of Japan, april 25 – Mexican–American War, Open conflict begins over border disputes of Texas boundaries. May – Associated Press founded in New York, may 8 – Mexican–American War – Battle of Palo Alto, Zachary Taylor defeats a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande at Palo Alto, Texas in the first major battle of the war. May 11 – The University at Buffalo was founded by future United States President and Vice President, may 13 – Mexican–American War, The United States declares war on Mexico. On June 25 the Duke of Wellington persuades the House of Lords to pass the Act, may 16 – Revolution of Maria da Fonte in Portugal May 25 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. June 10 – Mexican–American War, The California Republic declares independence from Mexico, June 14 – Bear Flag Revolt, American settlers in Sonoma, California, start a rebellion against Mexico and proclaim the California Republic. June 15 The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, launceston Church Grammar School opens for the first time in Tasmania. June 16 – Pope Pius IX succeeds Pope Gregory XVI as the 255th pope and he will reign for 31½ years. June 28 – The saxophone is patented by Adolphe Sax, july 7 – Battle of Monterey, Acting on instructions from Washington, D. C. Commodore John Drake Sloat orders his troops to occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena thus beginning the United States annexation of California, august 22 – The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established. September – The Second Carlist War, or the War of the Matiners or Madrugadores begins in Spain, september 10 – Elias Howe is awarded the first United States patent for a sewing machine using a lockstitch design. September 19 – The Virgin Mary is said to have appeared to two children in La Salette, France
13.
1848
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As of the start of 1848, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Joseph Jenkins Roberts is sworn in as the first president of the independent African Republic of Liberia, January 12 – The Palermo rising erupts in Sicily, against the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. January 24 – California Gold Rush, James W. Marshall finds gold at Sutters Mill, in Coloma, January 31 Construction of the Washington Monument begins in Washington, D. C. Frémont is court-martialed on grounds of mutiny and disobeying orders, the verdict is set aside by United States President James K. Polk, but Frémont retires to California Territory. February 21 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto in London, february 23 – François Guizot, Prime Minister of France, resigns. 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildings, february 24 – Louis Philippe I, King of the French, abdicates in favour of his grandson, Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris. The French Second Republic is later proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob. March 2 – The March Disturbances in Sweden, March 11 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin became the first Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada to be democratically elected under a system of responsible government. March 13 – Prince Klemens von Metternich gives up office as State Chancellor, March 15 – Start of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The Hungarian young revolutionary intellectuals led by Sándor Petőfi, Mór Jókai, March 18 – In Berlin barricade fighting between revolutionaries and royalist forces marks the culmination of the German revolutions of 1848–49. Hundreds are killed in the clashes but king Frederick William IV of Prussia is forced to honour the dead, March 22 – Republic of San Marco comes into existence in Venice. March 23 – Founding of the New Zealand city of Dunedin, April 10 A Chartist Monster Rally is held in Kennington Park London, headed by Feargus OConnor. A petition demanding the franchise is presented to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the Illinois and Michigan Canal is completed. April 11 – The first Hungarian national government is formed, under the leadership of Lajos Batthyány, the April Laws, the first democratic revolutionary laws in Hungary are promulgated. The Habsburg emperor, and Hungarian king Ferdinand I of Austria, ratifies these laws, April 18 – Second Anglo-Sikh War breaks out in the Punjab. The allocution, by which Pius is seen to withdraw his support for the Italian unification movement, is a key first step in the soon-to-be crushing reaction against the revolutions of 1848. May 15 Radicals invade the French Chamber of Deputies,40,000 Romanians meet at Blaj to protest Transylvania becoming a part of Hungary. May 18 – The first German National Assembly opens in Frankfurt, may 19 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the Mexican–American War, is ratified by the Mexican government
14.
1849
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As of the start of 1849, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – France issues Ceres, the nations first postage stamp, january 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Austrian army led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in the Hungarian capitals, Buda and Pest. The Hungarian government and parliament flees to Debrecen, january 8 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Romanian armed groups massacre 600 unarmed Hungarian civilians at Nagyenyed. January 13 – Second Anglo-Sikh War – British forces retreat from the Battle of Tooele, january 21 General elections are held in the Papal States. Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Hungarian army in Transylvania led by Josef Bem is defeated by the Austrians led by Anton Puchner at the battle of Nagyszeben. January 23 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M. D. by the Medical Institute of Geneva, New York, january 27 – The Fayetteville and Western Plank Road Company is incorporated to build a plank road from Fayetteville to Bethania, North Carolina. January 31 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, A Russian army of 10000 soldiers enters Transylvania, february 1 – Abolition of the Corn Laws by the United Kingdoms Importation Act 1846 comes fully into effect. February 4 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Austrian army led by Anton Puchner defeats the Hungarians led by general Josef Bem in the battle of Vízakna. February 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Hungarian revolutionary army led by Richard Guyon break through the pass of Branyiszkó, february 8 – The new Roman Republic is proclaimed. February 9 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Josef Bems Hungarian army defeats Anton Puchner in the battle of Piski, february 14 – In New York City, James Knox Polk becomes the first President of the United States to have his photograph taken. February 21 – Second Anglo-Sikh War, Battle of Gujrat – British East India Company forces defeat those of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, february 27 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The main Hungarian and Austrian armies meet in the Battle of Kápolna. February 28 – Regular steamboat service from the west to the east coast of the United States begins with the arrival of the SS California in San Francisco Bay. The California leaves New York Harbor on October 6,1848, rounds Cape Horn at the tip of South America, march – The Frankfurt Parliament completes its drafting of a liberal constitution and elects Frederick William IV emperor of the new German national state. March 3 The United States Department of the Interior is established, incorporating the Census Office, General Land Office, Office of Indian Affairs and Patent, minnesota becomes a United States territory. The United States Congress passes the Gold Coinage Act allowing the minting of gold coins, march 4 Zachary Taylor becomes President of the United States, but refuses to be sworn into office on a Sabbath. Urban legend holds that David Rice Atchison, President pro tempore of the United States Senate is President de jure for a single day, march 5 Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Hungarians led by János Damjanich and Károly Vécsey defeat the Austrians at Szolnok. President Zachary Taylor is sworn in, the most part of Transylvania is liberated from the Austrian rule. The Austrian and the Russian troops flee to Wallachia, march 28 – Four Christians are ordered burnt alive in Antananarivo, Madagascar, by Queen Ranavalona I, and 14 others are executed
15.
1850
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As of the start of 1850, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 18 – British foreign secretary Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, sends ships to blockade the port of Piraeus, January 20 – The ships of the McClure Arctic Expedition set sail from Plymouth. January 29 – Henry Clay introduces the Compromise of 1850 to the U. S. Congress, february 28 – The University of Utah opens in Salt Lake City, Utah. March 5 – Opening of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait, March 7 – United States Senator Daniel Webster gives his Seventh of March speech in which he endorses the Compromise of 1850 in order to prevent a possible civil war. March 16 – Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter is published, March 19 – American Express is founded by Henry Wells & William Fargo. March 31 – The paddle steamer RMS Royal Adelaide, bound from Cork to London, april Pope Pius IX returns from exile to Rome. May the Red Rose Live Alway is published in the United States, april 4 – Los Angeles is incorporated as a city. April 15 – San Francisco is incorporated as a city, april 19 – Clayton–Bulwer Treaty is signed by the United States and Great Britain, allowing both countries to share Nicaragua and not claim complete control over the proposed Nicaragua Canal. May 23 – The USS Advance puts to sea from New York to search for John Franklins Arctic expedition, may 25 – The hippopotamus Obaysch arrives at London Zoo from Egypt, the first seen in Europe since Roman times. June 1 The postage stamp issues of Austria begin with a series of imperforate typographed stamps featuring the coat of arms, the 1850 United States Census shows that 11. 2% of the population classed as Negro are of mixed race. June 3 – The traditional date of Kansas City, Missouris founding and this is the date on which it is incorporated by Jackson County, Missouri as the Town of Kansas. July – Taiping Rebellion, Hong Xiuquan orders the mobilisation of rebel forces. July 1 – St. Marys School for Boys, the future University of Dayton, opens its doors in Dayton, july 9 Mírzá Alí-Muhammad, known as the Báb, is executed by a firing squad in Tabriz, Persia for claiming to be a prophet. Vice President Millard Fillmore becomes President of the United States upon the death of President Zachary Taylor, july 10 – President Millard Fillmore is sworn in. August 28 – Richard Wagners romantic opera Lohengrin premieres under the direction of Franz Liszt in Weimar, september 9 California is admitted as the 31st U. S. state. The New Mexico Territory is organized by order of the United States Congress, september 13 – First ascent of Piz Bernina, the highest summit of the eastern Alps. September 18 – The Fugitive Slave Law is passed by the United States Congress, september 29 – Papal bull Universalis Ecclesiae, Catholic hierarchy is re-established in England and Wales by Pope Pius IX and future Pope Pius X. October 1 – The University of Sydney is founded. October 19 – Phi Kappa Sigma international fraternity was founded at the University of Pennsylvania, October 28 – Delegate Edward Ralph May delivers a speech on behalf of African American suffrage to the Indiana Constitutional Convention
16.
1847 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1847. January – Vanity Fair, A Novel without a Hero begins serial publication in Punch magazine, with the author, William Makepeace Thackeray, march–April – Ivan Goncharovs debut novel A Common Story is published in Sovremennik. April – Robert Browning settles with his wife and fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning in Florence, hans Christian Andersen begins his first visit to Britain during which he meets Charles Dickens. June 10 – Fictional date at the end of Anne Brontës The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, july – London publisher Thomas Cautley Newby accepts for publication Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey. August 7–24 – Charlotte Brontë completes the manuscript of Jane Eyre at Haworth, september 16 – William Shakespeares birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon in England is bought by the United Shakespeare Company for preservation. October 19 – Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre is published in London by Smith, november – Dmitry Grigorovichs anti-serfdom novel Anton Goremyka is published in Sovremennik with its politically sensitive last scene rewritten by a censor. November 1 – John Maddison Mortons one-act farce Box and Cox opens at the Lyceum Theatre, London with John Pritt Harley and John Baldwin Buckstone in the title rôles. December 14 – Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey are published in a 3-volume set under the pen names of Ellis, Wuthering Heights will be Emilys only published novel as she dies aged 30 a year later. London publisher E. Churton brings out the first six of George Sands books to be issued in English, the translations being by Matilda Hays, Eliza Ashurst and Rev. Edmund Larken
17.
1847 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1847 in Sweden Monarch – Oscar I18 January – Brottslingarne by Emelie Flygare Carlén on Mindre teatern in Stockholm. 24 May – Hittebarnet by August Blanche on Djurgårdsteatern in Stockholm,13 December – Mor och döttrar eller Namnförvexlingen by Jeanette Stjernström in Mindre teatern in Stockholm. Jenny Lind returns to Sweden with a great tour, the first bureau for registration as medical examination of prostitutes is opened in the capital, from 1859, all prostitutes are forced to registration. Poor Care Regulation of 1847 replace the Beggar Regulation of 1642, the Åhlinska skolan is founded in Stockholm by Karin Åhlin and her sisters. Aurore Storckenfeldt open the Storckenfeldtska skolan, slavery is abolished on the Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy. The perfume and cosmetic company Antoinette W Nording is founded by Antoinette Nording, -1846 och 1946 by August Blanche - Barnen i nya skogen by Frederick Marryat
18.
1847 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1847 in the United Kingdom. Monarch – Victoria Prime Minister – Lord John Russell 1 January – Britains first Medical Officer of Health is appointed,14 January – All thirteen members of the Point of Ayr life-boat crew are drowned when it capsizes off Rhyl. 5 March – An explosion at The Oaks in the Barnsley seam in Yorkshire kills 73 men,15 March – New system of county courts, with 60 judicial circuits and 491 courts, comes into operation in England and Wales under terms of the County Courts Act. 5 April – The worlds first civic public park, Birkenhead Park in Birkenhead,15 April – The House of Lords in the Palace of Westminster, designed by Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin, is opened. 25 April – The brig Exmouth carrying emigrants from Derry bound for Quebec is wrecked off Islay with only three survivors from more than 250 on board, may – The Architectural Association School of Architecture is founded in London. Ltd, which becomes the Northern England supermarket chain Booths, is founded when 19-year-old tea dealer Edwin Henry Booth opens a shop called The China House in Blackpool,8 June – Factory Act establishes a maximum 10-hour working day for women, and for boys aged 13–18. 9 August – The Whig Party under Lord John Russell wins the general election,13 August – John Russell Hind makes the first British discovery of an asteroid, from London,7 Iris. On 18 October he discovers 8 Flora,16 September William Shakespeares birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon is bought by the United Shakespeare Company for preservation. The Band of Hope is established to promote teetotalism among young people by Rev. Jabez Tunnicliff in Leeds,30 September – The Vegetarian Society is formed. It remains the oldest in the world, November – Henry Francis Lyte writes the hymn Abide with Me at Brixham. 4–8 November – James Young Simpson discovers the properties of chloroform and first uses it, successfully, on a patient. December – The Christmas cracker is marketed by Tom Smith of London, ongoing – Great Famine, This summers potato crop is free from blight, but inadequate due to the small area sown. United Presbyterian Church of Scotland constituted, prince Albert is unsuccessfully challenged for the chancellorship of the University of Cambridge by The Earl of Powis. The winning margin is less than 120 votes, the public school Radley College is founded near Oxford. Anne Brontës novel Agnes Grey under the pen name of Acton Bell, emily Brontës novel Wuthering Heights under the pen name of Ellis Bell. Charlotte Brontës novel Jane Eyre under the pen name of Currer Bell, benjamin Disraelis Young England novel Tancred. Frederick Marryats childrens historical novel The Children of the New Forest, Christina Rossettis Verses by Christina G. Rossetti. Alfred Tennysons poetry collection The Princess, a medley, William Makepeace Thackerays novel Vanity Fair
19.
1847 in the United States
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Events from the year 1847 in the United States. President, James K. Polk Vice President, George M. Dallas Chief Justice, Roger B. Taney Speaker of the House of Representatives, John Wesley Davis, Robert Charles Winthrop Congress, January 13 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the fighting in the Mexican-American War in California. Fremont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory, January 17 – Saint Anthony Hall is founded at Columbia University, New York City, New York. January 30 – Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco, february 5 – A rescue effort, called the First Relief, leaves Johnsons Ranch to save the ill-fated Donner Party. These California bound emigrants became snowbound in the Sierra Nevada in the winter of 1846–1847, march 1 – The state of Michigan formally abolishes the death penalty. March 9 – Mexican-American War, United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Veracruz, march 29 – Mexican-American War, United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege. May 7 – In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association is founded, june 1 – Zeta Psi Fraternity of North America is founded at New York University. July 1 – The United States issues its first postage stamps, featuring George Washington, july 24 – After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, resulting in the establishment of Salt Lake City. July 29 – The Cumberland School of Law is founded at Cumberland University in Lebanon, at the end of 1847 only 15 law schools exist in the United States. November 29 – The Whitman massacre, Dr. Marcus Whitman, his wife Narcissa, the North Carolina General Assembly incorporates the railroad town of Goldsborough, and the Wayne county seat is moved to the new town. Mexican–American War January 28 – William V. Allen, United States Senator from Nebraska from 1893 till 1899, february 11 – Thomas A. Edison, American Inventor and Businessman. March 13 – Francis S. White, United States Senator from Alabama from 1914 till 1915, march 18 – William OConnell Bradley, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1895 till 1899. March 29 – John D. Works, United States Senator from California from 1911 till 1917, September 23 – Victoria Woodhull, American leader of the womans suffrage movement September 30 – James Taliaferro, United States Senator from Florida from 1899 till 1911. May 1 – Jesse Speight, United States Senator from Mississippi from 1845 till 1847, july 22 – Henry W. Edwards, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1823 till 1838. August 6 – Henry M. Ridgely, United States Senator from Delaware from 1827 till 1829, november 1 – Jabez W. Huntington, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1840 till 1847. November 29 – Narcissa Whitman, pioneer missionary Media related to 1847 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
21.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
22.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
23.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
24.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
25.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
26.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
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Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
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Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
