1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
6.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
7.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
8.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
9.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
10.
1850
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As of the start of 1850, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 18 – British foreign secretary Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, sends ships to blockade the port of Piraeus, January 20 – The ships of the McClure Arctic Expedition set sail from Plymouth. January 29 – Henry Clay introduces the Compromise of 1850 to the U. S. Congress, february 28 – The University of Utah opens in Salt Lake City, Utah. March 5 – Opening of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait, March 7 – United States Senator Daniel Webster gives his Seventh of March speech in which he endorses the Compromise of 1850 in order to prevent a possible civil war. March 16 – Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter is published, March 19 – American Express is founded by Henry Wells & William Fargo. March 31 – The paddle steamer RMS Royal Adelaide, bound from Cork to London, april Pope Pius IX returns from exile to Rome. May the Red Rose Live Alway is published in the United States, april 4 – Los Angeles is incorporated as a city. April 15 – San Francisco is incorporated as a city, april 19 – Clayton–Bulwer Treaty is signed by the United States and Great Britain, allowing both countries to share Nicaragua and not claim complete control over the proposed Nicaragua Canal. May 23 – The USS Advance puts to sea from New York to search for John Franklins Arctic expedition, may 25 – The hippopotamus Obaysch arrives at London Zoo from Egypt, the first seen in Europe since Roman times. June 1 The postage stamp issues of Austria begin with a series of imperforate typographed stamps featuring the coat of arms, the 1850 United States Census shows that 11. 2% of the population classed as Negro are of mixed race. June 3 – The traditional date of Kansas City, Missouris founding and this is the date on which it is incorporated by Jackson County, Missouri as the Town of Kansas. July – Taiping Rebellion, Hong Xiuquan orders the mobilisation of rebel forces. July 1 – St. Marys School for Boys, the future University of Dayton, opens its doors in Dayton, july 9 Mírzá Alí-Muhammad, known as the Báb, is executed by a firing squad in Tabriz, Persia for claiming to be a prophet. Vice President Millard Fillmore becomes President of the United States upon the death of President Zachary Taylor, july 10 – President Millard Fillmore is sworn in. August 28 – Richard Wagners romantic opera Lohengrin premieres under the direction of Franz Liszt in Weimar, september 9 California is admitted as the 31st U. S. state. The New Mexico Territory is organized by order of the United States Congress, september 13 – First ascent of Piz Bernina, the highest summit of the eastern Alps. September 18 – The Fugitive Slave Law is passed by the United States Congress, september 29 – Papal bull Universalis Ecclesiae, Catholic hierarchy is re-established in England and Wales by Pope Pius IX and future Pope Pius X. October 1 – The University of Sydney is founded. October 19 – Phi Kappa Sigma international fraternity was founded at the University of Pennsylvania, October 28 – Delegate Edward Ralph May delivers a speech on behalf of African American suffrage to the Indiana Constitutional Convention
11.
1851
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As of the start of 1851, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 11 – Hong Xiuquan officially begins the Taiping Rebellion, January 15 – Christian Female College, modern-day Columbia College, receives its charter from the Missouri General Assembly. January 28 – Northwestern University is founded in Illinois, February 6 – Black Thursday in Australia, Bushfires sweep across the state of Victoria, burning about a quarter of its area. February 12 – Edward Hargraves claims to have gold in Australia. February 15 – In Boston, Massachusetts, members of the anti-slavery Boston Vigilance Committee rescue fugitive slave Shadrach Minkins from a courtroom following his arrest by U. S. marshals. March 1 – Victor Hugo uses the phrase United States of Europe in a speech to the French National Assembly, march 11 – Giuseppe Verdis opera Rigoletto is first performed at La Fenice in Venice. March 27 – The first white men reportedly see Yosemite Valley, march 30 – A population census is taken in the United Kingdom. 6.3 million live in cities of 20,000 or more in England, april 9 – San Luis, the oldest permanent settlement in the state of Colorado, is founded by settlers from Taos, New Mexico. April 20 – Ramón Castilla loses power in Peru, april 21 – John Stuart Mill marries Harriet Taylor. April 28 – Santa Clara College is chartered in Santa Clara, may 1 The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London is opened by Queen Victoria. Mid-May to mid-July – Great Flood of 1851, extensive flooding across the Midwestern United States, the town of Des Moines is virtually washed away, and many rainfall records hold for 160 years. June 21 – The Immortal Game, a chess match, is played between Adolf Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky during a break in the first international tournament, held in London. July 1 The Colony of Victoria separates from New South Wales, serial poisoner Hélène Jégado is arrested in Rennes, France. July 10 – The University of the Pacific is chartered as California Wesleyan College in Santa Clara, july 29 – Annibale de Gasparis, in Naples, Italy discovers asteroid 15 Eunomia. August 1 – Virginia closes its Reform Constitutional Convention deciding that all men have the right to vote. August 22 – The yacht America wins the first Americas Cup race, september 15 – Saint Josephs University is founded in Philadelphia. September 18 – The New York Times is founded, september 30 – The HSwMS Eugenie leaves from Karlskrona, Sweden to begin its voyage as the first Swedish Royal Navy vessel to circumnavigate the world. October – The Reuters news service is founded, october 15 – The City of Winona, Minnesota is founded
12.
1852
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As of the start of 1852, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 14 – President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed a new constitution for the French Second Republic, january 15 – Nine men representing various Jewish charitable organizations came together to form what became the Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. January 17 – The United Kingdom recognized the independence of the Transvaal, February 11 – The first British public toilet for women was opened in Bedford Street, London. February 15 – The Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, London, February 16 – The Studebaker Brothers Wagon Company, precursor of the automobile manufacturer, was established. February 25 – HMS Birkenhead sank near Cape Town, British Cape Colony, only 193 of the 643 on board survived after troops stood firm on the deck so as not to overwhelm the lifeboats containing women and children. March 1 – Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, March 2 – The first American experimental steam fire engine was tested. March 4 – Phi Mu sorority was founded in Macon Georgia March 20 – Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was published in form in Boston. April 1 – The Second Anglo-Burmese War began, april 18 – Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces began the siege of Guilin. May 19 – Taiping Rebellion, The siege of Guilin was lifted, june 12 – Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces entered Hunan. July 1 – United States statesman Henry Clay was the first to receive the honor of lying in state in the United States Capitol rotunda, July 5 – Frederick Douglass delivered his famous speech What to the Slave is the Fourth of July. July 28 – Henry Clay steamboat disaster in Riverdale, Bronx, August 3 – The first Boat Race between Yale and Harvard, the first American intercollegiate athletic event, was held. September 24 – French engineer Henri Giffard made the first airship trip from Paris to Trappes, october 7 — After learning that U. S. President Fillmore has sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry, to trade with Japan, Nicholas I of Russia sent Rear Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin to lead the Pallada on a similar mission. Putyatin arrived on August 21,1853, one month after Perry, october 16 — After nearly five years imprisonment in France, former Algerian Emir Abdelkader El Djezairi was released by orders of then-president Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. The theorem was not proven for almost 123 years, until 1976, october 31 — General Joaquin Solares of Guatemala led an invasion of neighboring Honduras, beginning a war that lasted until February 13,1856. November – Leo Tolstoys debut novel Childhood was published under the initials L. N. in this issue of the Saint Petersburg literary journal Sovremennik. November 2 – U. S. presidential election,1852, november 4 – Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour becomes the Piedmontese prime minister. November 11 – The new Palace of Westminster was opened in London, november 21–22 – The New French Empire was confirmed by plebiscite,7,824,000 for,253,000 against
13.
1854
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As of the start of 1854, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 –Charles Dickens commences writing the novel Hard Times, january 6 – The fictional detective Sherlock Holmes is born. January 9 –The Teutonia Männerchor in Pittsburgh, U. S. A. is founded to promote German culture. January 21 –The iron clipper RMS Tayleur runs aground off the east coast of Ireland on her maiden voyage out of Liverpool bound for Australia with the loss of at least 300 of around 650 on board, february 11 –Major streets are lit by coal gas for the first time. February 13 –Mexican troops force William Walker and his troops to retreat to Sonora, february 14 –Texas is linked by telegraph with the rest of the United States, when a connection between New Orleans and Marshall, Texas is completed. February 17 –The British recognize the independence of the Orange Free State in Southern Africa, february 27 –Britain sends Russia an ultimatum to withdraw from two Romanian provinces it has conquered, Moldavia and Wallachia. February 28 –The Republican Party is founded in Ripon, Wisconsin, March – The British East India Company annexes Jhansi State in India under the doctrine of lapse. March 1 –German psychologist Friedrich Eduard Beneke disappears,2 years later his remains are found in the canal near Charlottenburg, March 3 –Australias first telegraph line, linking Melbourne and Williamstown, opens. March 11 –A Royal Navy fleet sails from Britain under Vice Admiral Sir Charles Napier, March 20 –The Boston Public Library opens to the public. March 24 –In Venezuela, slavery was abolished March 27 –Crimean War, March 28 –France declares war on Russia. March 31 –Commodore Matthew C. Perry of the United States Navy signs the Convention of Kanagawa with the Japanese government, opening the ports of Shimoda, april 1 –Hard Times begins serialisation in Charles Dickens magazine, Household Words. April 16 –The United States packet ship Powhattan is wrecked off the New Jersey shore with more than 200 victims, may 18 –The Catholic University of Ireland is founded. May 27 –Taiping Rebellion, United States diplomatic minister Robert McLane arrives at the Heavenly Capital aboard the American warship USS Susquehanna, may 30 –The Kansas–Nebraska Act becomes law, creating the Kansas Territory and the Nebraska Territory, west of the State of Missouri and the State of Iowa. The Kansas–Nebraska Act also establishes that these two new Territories will decide either to allow or disallow slavery depending on balloting by their residents and this prohibition of slavery extended all the way from the western boundary of Missouri to the Pacific Ocean. June –The Grand Excursion takes prominent Eastern United States inhabitants from Chicago to Rock Island, Illinois by railroad, then up the Mississippi River to Saint Paul, june 10 –The first class of the United States Naval Academy graduates at Annapolis, Maryland. June 21 –Battle of Bomarsund in the Åland Islands off the coast of Finland, British Royal Navy seamans mate Charles D. Lucas throws a live Russian artillery shell overboard by hand before it explodes, for which he is awarded the first Victoria Cross in 1857. July 4 –James Ambrose Cutting takes out the first of his three United States patents for improvements to the wet collodion process. July 6 In Jackson, Michigan, the first convention of the U. S, said Pasha succeeds his nephew Abbas as the Pasha of Egypt
14.
1855
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As of the start of 1855, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario is incorporated as a city, January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru. January 23 The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens in what is now Minneapolis, the 8. 2–8.3 Mw Wairarapa earthquake claims between five and nine lives near the Cook Strait area of New Zealand. January 26 – The Point No Point Treaty is signed in the Washington Territory, January 27 – The Panama Railway becomes the first railroad to connect the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. January 29 – Lord Aberdeen resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom over the management of the Crimean War, february 5 – Lord Palmerston becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. February 11 – Kassa Hailu is crowned Tewodros II, Emperor of Ethiopia, february 12 – Michigan State University is established. February 15 – The North Carolina General Assembly incorporates the Western North Carolina Railroad to build a line from Salisbury to the western part of the state. February 22 – Pennsylvania State University is founded as the Farmers High School of Pennsylvania, march 2 – Alexander II ascends the Russian throne, upon the death of his father Nicholas I. March 3 – The United States Congress appropriates $30,000 to create the U. S. Camel Corps, march 16 – Bates College is founded by abolitionists in Lewiston, Maine. March 17 – Taiping Rebellion, A Taiping army of 350,000 invades Anhui, march 30 – Elections are held for the first Kansas Territory legislature. Missourians cross the border in large numbers to elect a pro-slavery body, april 3 – The Nepalese invasion of Tibet starts the Nepalese–Tibetan War. May 1 – Van Diemens Land separated administratively from New South Wales, may 15 Opening of the Exposition Universelle in Paris. A direct result of the exhibition is introduction of the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, great Gold Robbery from a train between London Bridge and Folkestone in England. May 17 – The Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, is dedicated in New York City, may 22 – Province of Victoria separated administratively from New South Wales. June 15 – Stamp duty is removed from newspapers in Britain, June 29 – The Daily Telegraph newspaper begins publication in London. July 1 – Quinault Treaty signed, Quinault and Quileute cede their land to the United States, july 2 – The Kansas territorial legislature convenes in Pawnee and begins passing proslavery laws. July 4 – Walt Whitmans poetry collection Leaves of Grass is published in Brooklyn, july 16 – Australian Colonies granted self-governing status by the United Kingdom. August 1 – First ascent of Monte Rosa, the second highest summit in the Alps, september 3 – The last Bartholomew Fair is held in London, England
15.
1856
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As of the start of 1856, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 8 –Borax deposits are discovered in large quantities by John Veatch in California, january 24 –U. S. President Franklin Pierce declares the new Free-State Topeka government in Bleeding Kansas to be in rebellion. January 26 –First Battle of Seattle, Marines from the USS Decatur suppress indigenous uprising in response to Governor Stevens declaration of a war of extermination on Native communities, january 29 The 223-mile North Carolina Railroad is completed from Goldsboro through Raleigh and Salisbury to Charlotte. Queen Victoria institutes the Victoria Cross, february –The Tintic War breaks out in Utah. February 1 –Auburn University is first chartered as the East Alabama Male College, february 2 –Dallas, Texas is incorporated as a city. February 7 –The nawab of Oudh is exiled to Metiabruz and the state is annexed by the British East India Company, february 18 –The American Party convene in Philadelphia to nominate their first Presidential candidate, former President Millard Fillmore. This eventually leads to the birth of the chemical industry, march –Nepalese–Tibetan War, The signing of the Treaty of Thapathali concludes the war. March 5 –Fire destroys the Covent Garden Theatre in London, march 6 –Maryland Agricultural College is chartered. March 20 –Filibuster War, Costa Rican troops rout Walkers soldiers in Battle of Santa Rosa, march 31 –The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Crimean War. April –Xhosa cattle-killing movement and famine begins in Cape Colony, april 7 –Nelson College is founded in Nelson, New Zealand. April 16 –Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law abolishes privateering and regulates the relationship between neutral and belligerent and shipping on the high seas, april 17 –The Chicago Historical Society Museum is established at 1601 N. Clark Street, Chicago. April 21 –Building workers agitate for the day in Melbourne. April 29 –The iron-hulled paddle steamer RMS Persia concludes a 9-day 16 hour westbound transatlantic crossing at an average 13.11 knots, may 1 –The province of Isabela is created in the Philippines in honor of Queen Isabella II of Spain. May 3 –Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom gives Norfolk Island to the population of the colony at Pitcairn Island and they first settle on Norfolk Island on June 8. Womens suffrage as practiced on Pitcairn is extended to Norfolk Island, may 14 –A San Francisco Committee of Vigilance is founded in the United States. It lynches two gangsters, arrests most Democratic Party officials and disbands itself on August 18, may 20 –David Livingstone arrives at Quelimane on the Indian Ocean having completed a 2-year transcontinental journey across Africa from Luanda. May 21 –Lawrence, Kansas is captured and burned by pro-slavery forces, sumner is unable to return to duty for 3 years while he recovers, Brooks becomes a hero across the South. May 24 –Pottawatomie massacre, A group of followers of radical abolitionist John Brown kill 5 homesteaders in Franklin County, June 2 –Battle of Black Jack, Antislavery forces, led by John Brown, defeat proslavery forces in Bleeding Kansas
16.
1853 in architecture
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The year 1853 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. June 30 - Georges-Eugène Haussmann is selected as préfect of the Seine to begin the re-planning of Paris, fastnet Rock Lighthouse is completed at the most southerly point of Ireland. The New York Crystal Palace is constructed for the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations in New York City, the New York Cotton Exchange building is completed in New York City. Rhode Island Tool Company building is completed in Providence, Rhode Island, charlbury railway station in Oxfordshire, England, designed by I. K. Brunel, is opened. Royal Gold Medal - Robert Smirke, grand Prix de Rome, architecture - Arthur-Stanislas Diet
17.
1853 in France
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Events from the year 1853 in France. Monarch – Napoleon III6 December - Taiping Rebellion, French minister de Bourboulon arrives at the Heavenly Capital aboard the Cassini,20 January - Marguerite de Witt-Schlumberger, feminist campaigner. 23 April - Jules Auguste Lemire, priest and social reformer,27 April - Jules Lemaître, critic and dramatist. 21 May - Jacques Marie Eugène Godefroy Cavaignac, politician,14 July - Henri Menier, businessman and adventurer. 24 July - Henri-Alexandre Deslandres, astronomer,9 September - Pierre Marie, neurologist. 30 October - Louise Abbéma, painter and designer,17 December - Pierre Paul Émile Roux, physician, bacteriologist and immunologist. 26 December - René Bazin, novelist,20 February - Jean-François Bayard, playwright. 3 April - Louis Gustave le Doulcet, comte de Pontécoulant,11 April - Louis-Emmanuel Jadin, composer, pianist and harpsichordist. 23 April - Auguste Laurent, chemist,27 May - Jean Marie Pardessus, lawyer. 3 September - Augustin Saint-Hilaire, botanist and traveller,10 October - Pierre François Léonard Fontaine, architect, interior decorator and designer
18.
1853 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1853 in Sweden Monarch – Oscar I - The first Telegraphy net are being constructed. - The first Gasworks in Sweden, - Street lights by gas lighting are introduced in the capital. - Coffee brand Gevalia is launched, - The choir Orphei Drängar is founded. - The profession of teacher at primary and elementary schools are opened to both sexes
19.
1853 in the United States
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Events from the year 1853 in the United States. President, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce Vice President, until March 4, vacant March 4–April 18, William R. King starting April 18, vacant Chief Justice, January 6 – President-elect Franklin Pierce and his family are involved in a train wreck near Andover, Massachusetts. Pierces 11-year-old son Benjamin is killed in the crash, february 22 – Washington University in St. Louis is founded as Eliot Seminary. March – Levi Strauss & Co. is founded in San Francisco, March 2 – Washington Territory is created from Oregon Territory. March 4 – Franklin Pierce succeeds Millard Fillmore as the 14th President of the United States, March 5 – Steinway & Sons, a piano maker, is founded in Manhattan by the German immigrant Henry E. Steinway and his family. April 4 – Regular operation of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad begins between Montreal and Portland, Maine, April 18 – Vice President William R. King dies. May – An outbreak of yellow fever kills 7,790 in New Orleans, may 6 – Norwalk rail accident, A train drives off an open swing bridge into a river in Norwalk, Connecticut, killing 56. May 11 – Shimer College is founded in Mount Carroll, Illinois, may 23 – The first plat for Seattle, Washington, is laid out. July 1 – The Latting Observatory is opened for selected guests in New York City as part of the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations and it is the tallest structure in the city at the time. July 2 – Koszta Affair, American Captain Duncan Ingraham commanding the USS St. Louis threatens to fire upon an Austrian ship holding Martin Koszta as a prisoner. Koszta, who was in the process of obtaining American citizenship, is returned to the U. S. Commodore Matthew Perry arrives in Edo Bay with a request for a trade treaty, july 14 – The Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations worlds fair begins in New York City. July 25 – Outlaw and bandit Joaquin Murrieta is killed in California, August 24 – Potato chips are traditionally said to have been invented on this date by George Crum in Saratoga, New York. October 4 – The Great Republic, the largest wooden ship ever constructed, is launched in Boston by Donald McKay. October 15 – William Walker sets out with 45 men to conquer the Mexican territories of Baja California, november 11 – Voters in Massachusetts reject all eight proposals from the states Constitutional Convention that was held from May 4 to August 2. December 7 – Erie Gauge War, Citizens of the Erie, Pennsylvania, area act to stop new track being laid to resolve rail gauge differences coming from neighboring Ohio and New York. December 25 – Cincinnati riot of 1853, Cardinal Gaetano Bedinis visit to Cincinnati, Ohio and it is the oldest institution of what later became the University of Florida. The high school known as the Wheaton Academy is founded in West Chicago, yontoket Massacre, More than 450 Tolowa people are killed at Yontocket, California, by a citizen militia from Crescent City
20.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
21.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
22.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
23.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
24.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
25.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
26.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
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