1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
6.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
7.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
8.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
9.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
10.
1857
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As of the start of 1857, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The biggest Estonian newspaper Postimees is established by Johann Voldemar Jannsen, january 7 – The partly French-owned London General Omnibus Company begins operating. January 9 – The 7.9 Mw Fort Tejon earthquake shakes Central, january 24 – The University of Calcutta is established in Calcutta as the first multidisciplinary modern university in South Asia. The University of Bombay is also established in Bombay, British India, february 3 – The National Deaf Mute College is established in Washington, D. C. becoming the first school for the advanced education of the deaf. February 5 – Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States promulgated, march 3 France and the United Kingdom formally declare war on China in the Second Opium War. The largest slave auction in United States history, dubbed as The Weeping Time. Over a 2-day period, Pierce M. Butler sells 436 men, women, children, march 4 – James Buchanan is sworn in as President of the United States. March 12 – Elizabeth Blackwell opens a hospital, the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children, march 14 – Youssef Bey Karam was assigned by the people of Ehden and Bsharri to be the regions ruler. March 23 – Elisha Otis first elevator is installed, april 4 – End of the Anglo-Persian War. April 18 – The Spirits Book, one of the Five Fundamental Works of Spiritism, is published by French educator Allan Kardec, may 5–October 17 – The Art Treasures of Great Britain exhibition is held in Manchester, one of the largest such displays of all time. May 10 – Indian Rebellion of 1857, The 3rd Light Cavalry of the British East India Companys army rebels against its British officers, may 11 – Indian Rebellion of 1857, Indian combatants capture Delhi from the British East India Company. June 6 – Sophia of Nassau marries the future King Oscar II of Sweden–Norway, june 12 – American mercenary William Walker is overthrown as ruler of Nicaragua by Honduran general Florencio Xatruch. June 22 – The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is officially opened by Queen Victoria, june 26 – At a ceremony in London, Queen Victoria awards the first sixty-six Victoria Crosses to British troops, for actions during the Crimean War. July 1–November 19 – Indian Rebellion of 1857, Siege of Lucknow, july 15 – Indian Rebellion of 1857, The second massacre at Kanpur takes place. July 18 The Utah Expedition leaves Fort Leavenworth, effectively beginning the Utah War, last use of prison hulks in the United Kingdom. August 20 – The Dunbar wrecked near the entrance to Sydney Harbour, Australia, august 28 – Matrimonial Causes Act makes divorce without parliamentary approval legally possible in the United Kingdom. September – Panic of 1857 begins, Speculation in U. S, september 11 – Mountain Meadows massacre in Utah. September 12 – The SS Central America sinks off the coast of North Carolina, september 20 – In India, British forces recapture Delhi, compelling the surrender of Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal emperor
11.
1858
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As of the start of 1858, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – William I of Prussia becomes regent for his brother, Frederick William IV, january 14 – Orsini affair, Felice Orsini and his accomplices fail to assassinate Napoleon III in Paris but their bombs kill 8 and wound 142 people. Because of the involvement of French émigrés living in Britain, there is a brief anti-British feeling in France, Orsini is executed by guillotine on March 13 of this year. February 13 – Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke become the first Europeans to discover Lake Tanganyika, March 21 – Indian Rebellion, British troops retake Lucknow. March 30 – Hymen Lipman patents a pencil with an eraser in the United States. April 16 – The Wernerian Natural History Society, a former Scottish learned society, is wound up, april 19 – Treaty with Yankton Sioux Tribe. April 28–May 1 – Battle of Grahovac between Ottoman and Montenegrin forces, may–July – Mahtra War, Peasants in the Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire revolt against ongoing serfdom, which was officially abolished in 1816. May 11 – Minnesota is admitted as the 32nd U. S. state, may 13 – John Ruskin begins a tour of Europe. He considers it a significant turning point in his life, may 14 – Dr David Livingstones 6-year Second Zambesi Expedition arrives at the African coast. May 19 – The Marais des Cygnes massacre is perpetrated by pro-slavery forces in Bleeding Kansas, june 2 – Comet Donati, the first comet to be photographed, is discovered by Giovanni Battista Donati and remains visible for several months afterwards. June 13–June 17 – Treaty of Tientsin signed, ending the first part of the Second Opium War, june 16 – Abraham Lincoln accepts the Republican Party nomination for a seat in the United States Senate, delivering his House Divided speech in Springfield, Illinois. June 17 – The Atlantic and North Carolina Railroad opens, operating 95 miles from Goldsboro, North Carolina to New Bern, june 20 – The last rebels of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 surrender in Gwalior. June 23 – Police of the Papal States seize Jewish boy Edgardo Mortara, july Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour goads Austria into attacking Sardinia. Fifty-Niners stream into the Rocky Mountains of the western United States during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush, july 1 – Joint presentation of papers by Darwin and Wallace announcing a theory of evolution by natural selection are read at Londons Linnean Society. July 8 – Peace treaty to end the Indian Rebellion, july 12 – The Advertiser, the daily news paper still in circulation, begins publication in Adelaide, Australia. July 17 – The Lutine bell, is salvaged and subsequently hung in Lloyds of London, july 28 – In Bengal/India, British officer William James Herschel uses the hand impression of Rajyadhar Konai as a contract fingerprint signature. July 29 – The United States and Japan sign the Treaty of Amity and Commerce, august – The first aerial photography is carried out by Nadar from a moored balloon in France. August 3 – John Hanning Speke discovers Lake Victoria, source of the river Nile, august 5 – Cyrus West Field and others complete the first transatlantic telegraph cable after several unsuccessful attempts
12.
1859
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As of the start of 1859, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 24 – Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza, january 28 – The city of Olympia is incorporated in the Washington Territory in the United States of America. February 14 – Oregon is admitted as the 33rd U. S. state, february 17 – French naval forces under Charles Rigault de Genouilly capture the city and Citadel of Saigon in Vietnam, beginning the Siege of Saigon. February 27 – United States Congressman Daniel Sickles shoots Philip Barton Key for having an affair with his wife, march 9 – The army of the Kingdom of Sardinia mobilizes against Austria, beginning the crisis which will lead to the Austro-Sardinian War. March 26 – A French amateur astronomer, Edmond Modeste Lescarbault, april 13 – The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art is founded by Peter Cooper, industrialist, inventor and philanthropist of New York. April 25 – Ground is broken for the Suez Canal, april 28 – The Pomona is wrecked off the English coast, with 424 dead. April 29 – Austrian troops begin to cross the Ticino River to Piedmont, april 30 – A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens is published. May 4 – The Cornwall Railway opens across the Royal Albert Bridge, linking the counties of Devon, may 5 – Border Treaty between Brazil and Venezuela, The two countries agree their borders should be traced at the water divide between the Amazon and the Orinoco basins. May 22 – Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies is succeeded by his 23-year-old son Francis II of the Two Sicilies, may 26 – Austro-Sardinian War, Giuseppe Garibaldis Hunters of the Alps confront Austrian forces led by Field Marshal-Lieutenant Carl Baron Urban at Varese. May 30 – Battle of Palestro, The Sardinians defeat the Austrian army, may 31 – The Great Clock at the Palace of Westminster, London was started, and its bells ring for the very first time. June 4 – Austro-Sardinian War – Battle of Magenta, The French, june 6 – The British Crown colony of Queensland in Australia is created by devolving part of the territory of New South Wales. June 17 – The only recorded simoom ever in North America hit Goleta, California and Santa Barbara, june 18 – Aletschhorn, second summit of the Bernese Alps, is first ascended. June 30 – Charles Blondin crosses Niagara Falls on a tightrope for the first time, july Count Camillo Benso di Cavour resigns. Pikes Peak Gold Rush begins in the Colorado Territory, july 1 – The first intercollegiate baseball game is played, between Amherst and Williams Colleges. July 8 Charles XV succeeds his father Oscar I of Sweden, an armistice is declared between Austria and others. July 11 – The chimes of Big Ben ring for the first time in London and this brings the Austro-Sardinian War effectively to a close. July 30 – Grand Combin, one of the highest summits in the Alps, is first ascended, august 16 – The Tuscan National Assembly formally deposes the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, ending an ascendancy of 109 years. August 27 – Edwin Drake drills the first oil well in the United States, near Titusville, Pennsylvania, starting the Pennsylvania oil rush
13.
1861
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As of the start of 1861, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Benito Juárez captures Mexico City, First steam-powered carousel recorded, in Bolton, England. January 2 – Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia dies and is succeeded by Wilhelm I, january 3 – American Civil War, Delaware votes not to secede from the Union. January 9 – American Civil War, Mississippi becomes the state to secede from the Union. January 10 – American Civil War, Florida secedes from the Union, january 11 – American Civil War, Alabama secedes from the Union. January 12 – American Civil War, Major Robert Anderson sends dispatches to Washington, january 19 – American Civil War, Georgia secedes from the Union. January 21 – American Civil War, Jefferson Davis resigns from the United States Senate, january 26 – American Civil War, Louisiana secedes from the Union. January 29 – Kansas is admitted as the 34th U. S. state, february 1 – American Civil War, Texas secedes from the Union. February 4 – American Civil War, In Montgomery, Alabama, february 8 – American Civil War, The Confederate States of America are formed, comprising the first seven break-away States. February 9 – American Civil War, Jefferson Davis is elected the Provisional President of the Confederate States of America by the Weed Convention at Montgomery, february 11 American Civil War, The U. S. House unanimously passes a resolution guaranteeing non-interference with slavery in any state. About 850 convicts at Chatham Dockyard in England take over their prison in a riot, february 13 – Italian unification, The Siege of Gaeta, stronghold of the Neapolitan King Francis II, is ended by Piedmontese forces. February 18 – American Civil War, In Montgomery, Alabama, february 20 – In Britain, storms damage the Crystal Palace and cause the collapse of the steeple of Chichester Cathedral. February 23 – President-elect Abraham Lincoln arrives secretly in Washington, D. C. after an attempt in Baltimore. February 24 – Battle of Ky Hoa, the French and the Spanish defeat the Vietnamese, february 27 – Russian troops fire upon a crowd in Warsaw protesting Russian rule over Poland, killing 5 protesters. February 28 – Colorado is organized as a United States territory, march 2 Nevada is organized as a United States territory. American Civil War, Texas is admitted to the Confederate States of America, march 3 – Emancipation reform of 1861, Serfdom is abolished in the Russian Empire. March 4 Abraham Lincoln is sworn in as President of the United States, American Civil War, The Stars and Bars is adopted as the flag of the Confederate States of America. March 10 – El Hadj Umar Tall seizes the city of Ségou, march 11 – American Civil War, The Constitution of the Confederate States of America is adopted
14.
1862
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As of the start of 1862, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. This year was named by Mitchell Stephens as the greatest year to read newspapers, january 1 – The United Kingdom annexes Lagos Island in modern-day Nigeria. January 6 – French, Spanish, and British forces arrive in Veracruz, Mexico, january 10 – John Gately Downey, 7th Governor of California, is succeeded by Amasa Leland Stanford. January 30 – American Civil War, The first US ironclad warship, january 31 – Alvan Graham Clark makes the first observation of Sirius B, a white dwarf star, through an eighteen-inch telescope at Northwestern University. February 1 – American Civil War, Julia Ward Howes Battle Hymn of the Republic is published for the first time in the Atlantic Monthly, february 2 – First railway opens in New Zealand, by Dun Mountain Copper Mining Company. February 6 – American Civil War, General Ulysses S. Grant gives the United States its first victory of the war, by capturing Fort Henry, Tennessee. February 11–16 – American Civil War, Battle of Fort Donelson, General Ulysses S. Grant attacks Fort Donelson, Tennessee, february 20 – Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas, named director of Spains Real Academia Española. February 21 – American Civil War, Battle of Valverde fought near Fort Craig in New Mexico Territory, february 22 – American Civil War, Jefferson Davis is officially inaugurated in Richmond, Virginia, to a 6-year term as president of the Confederate States of America. March 7 – American Civil War, The Battle of Pea Ridge, march 8 – American Civil War, The iron-clad CSS Virginia is launched at Hampton Roads, Virginia, the Battle of Hampton Roads starts the same day. March 9 – American Civil War, First battle between two warships, the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia, begins. A smallpox epidemic in San Francisco spreads to British Columbia, march 28 – American Civil War – Battle of Glorieta Pass, In New Mexico, Union forces succeed in stopping the Confederate invasion of New Mexico Territory. March 31 – Publication of Victor Hugos epic French historical novel Les Misérables begins, april 1 – The Spanish and the British end their alliance with France in the French intervention in Mexico. April 5 – American Civil War – Battle of Yorktown, The battle begins when Union forces under General George B. McClellan close in on the Confederate capital Richmond, april 6 – American Civil War, In Tennessee, the Battle of Shiloh begins. April 7 – American Civil War – Battle of Shiloh, The Union Army under General Ulysses S. Grant defeats the Confederates near Shiloh, april 13 – Government of Vietnam is forced to cede the territories of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường to France. April 25 – American Civil War – Capture of New Orleans, april 26 – American Civil War, The besieged Confederate garrison at Fort Macon, North Carolina surrenders. May 1– November 1 –1862 International Exhibition held at South Kensington in London, may 2 – The California State Normal School is created by an Act of the California Legislature. May 5 – French intervention in Mexico – Battle of Puebla, Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza defeats the French Army, may 11 – American Civil War, The ironclad CSS Virginia is scuttled in the James River northwest of Norfolk, Virginia. May 15 – U. S. President Abraham Lincoln signs a bill into law creating the U. S. Bureau of Agriculture, may 20 – U. S. President Abraham Lincoln signs the Homestead Act into law
15.
1863
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As of the start of 1863, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – John Tyndall first explains the workings of the greenhouse effect, January 1 Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims the freedom of 3.1 million of the four million slaves. The first claim under the Homestead Act is made, for a farm in Nebraska, January 3 – Harpers Weekly publishes Thomas Nasts first drawing of the modern Santa Claus. January 4 – The New Apostolic Church, a Christian and chiliastic church, established in Hamburg, January 7 – In the Swiss canton Ticino, the village of Bedretto is partly destroyed, and 29 killed, by an avalanche. January 8 Ground is broken in Sacramento, California, on the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States, the Yorkshire County Cricket Club is founded at the Adelphi Hotel in Sheffield, England. January 10 – The first section of the London Underground Railway opens officially, January 11 American Civil War – Battle of Arkansas Post, General John McClernand and Admiral David Dixon Porter capture the Arkansas River for the Union. In the Swiss Canton Ticino, the roof of the church of SantAntonio in Locarno collapses under the weight of snow, January 15 – French intervention in Mexico – French forces bombard Veracruz. January 21 – Adam Opel founds Opel AG, January 22 – The January Uprising breaks out in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The aim of the movement is to liberate the Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth from Russian occupation. January 29 – American Indian Wars, The United States Army led by General Patrick Edward Connor massacres Chief Bear Hunter, January 31 – Jules Vernes first adventure novel, Five Weeks in a Balloon, is published in Paris. February 1 – Radicals in Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, northern Ukraine, february 2 – January Uprising, Polish peasants are massacred by Russian hussars at Čysta Būda, near Marijampolė. February 7 – HMS Orpheus sinks attempting to enter Manukau Harbour in New Zealand, february 10 The world-famous midgets General Tom Thumb and Lavinia Warren get married in New York City, P. T. Barnum takes an entrance fee. Alanson Crane patents a fire extinguisher, february 16 – Kansas State Agricultural College is established as the first land grant college created under the 1862 Morrill Act. February 24 – Arizona is organized as a United States territory, february 26 – Abraham Lincoln signs the National Banking Act into law. March 2 – Clapham Junction railway station opens in London, march 3 Idaho Territory is organized by the U. S. Congress. The U. S. National Conscription Act is signed, leading to the New York City draft riots in July, march 10 – Albert Edward, Prince of Wales marries Princess Alexandra of Denmark. March 14 – Queen Victoria issues Letters Patent granting Goulburn, New South Wales, city status, march 19 – The SS Georgiana is destroyed on her maiden voyage while attempting to run the blockade into Charleston, South Carolina
16.
1860 in architecture
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The year 1860 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. August 22 - The Cenotaph to Matthew Henry, designed by Thomas Harrison, is unveiled in Chester, spring - Willden Fort, Utah, built by Charles William Willden and his son Ellott. June - Oxford University Museum of Natural History, designed by Benjamin Woodward, august 28 - St. Augustin, Coburg, consecrated by the Archbishop of Bamberg Michael Deinlein. November 22 - Solund Church, Norway, designed by Christian Henrik Grosch, november 28 - Swedish Theatre, Helsinki, Finland, designed by Georg Theodor von Chiewitz. Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem, Palestinian territories Varshavsky railway station building in Saint Petersburg, Russia, designed by Piotr Salmanovich
17.
1860 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1860. January First issue of the Cornhill Magazine published in London, anthony Trollopes Framley Parsonage is serialized in it throughout the year. Mrs. Henry Woods sensation novel East Lynne begins serialization in The New Monthly Magazine and this year also her first full-length novel Danesbury House is published. Approximate date - The Catholic newspaper LUnivers is suppressed by the French government, january 28 - The first of Charles Dickens literary sketches under the general title of The Uncommercial Traveller is published in his magazine All the Year Round. February - Mary Elizabeth Braddon gives up her career to write. In the same year, she meets her future husband John Maxwell, march 27 - The Irish melodrama The Colleen Bawn, or The Brides of Garryowen, written by and starring Dion Boucicault, is first performed at Miss Laura Keenes theatre, New York. April 4 - George Eliots novel The Mill on the Floss is published by John Blackwood in three volumes, june 30 -1860 Oxford evolution debate, Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Lewis Carroll is among the audience, August 25 - Wilkie Collins sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, concludes serialization in the magazine All the Year Round. It is published in form in London around August 15. September 3 - Charles Dickens burns most of his papers at his home in Kent. December 1 - Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman Great Expectations begins serialization in his magazine All the Year Round, alexander Bain is appointed to the chair of logic and English literature at the University of Aberdeen. Andreas Munch becomes the first person to be granted a pension by the Parliament of Norway. Bram Stokers horror novel The Lair of the White Worm is set in this year
18.
1860 in France
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Events from the year 1860 in France. Monarch – Napoleon III23 January - Cobden-Chevalier Treaty Free Trade treaty is signed between the United Kingdom and France,9 April - Typesetter Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville sings Au clair de la lune into his phonautograph, producing the worlds earliest known sound recording of a song. However, it would not be converted back into audible sound until 2008,18 October - At the end of the Second Opium War, British and French troops enter the Forbidden City in Beijing. 24 October - Convention of Peking signed by Chinese with Britain and France
19.
1860 in South Africa
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May 1 – The seat of the South African Republic government is officially transferred from Potchefstroom to Pretoria. 4 – The Orange Free State signs a treaty with Moshoeshoe I at Wittebergen, near Winburg. September 17 – The Alfred Dock in Table Bay, Cape Town is officially opened by sixteen-year-old Prince Alfred, unknown date The first indenture of Indian workers arrive in Natal to work in the sugar industry. The first telegraph service in South Africa starts operating between Cape Town and Simonstown, the penny post is started in Cape Town. Boer republics north of the Vaal River unite as the South African Republic,29 April – John Robinson Royston, soldier and farmer, is born in Durban. 26 June – Natal – Durban to Point,2 miles,20 March – The Cape Town Railway and Dock Company takes delivery of eight broad gauge 0-4-2 tender locomotives for service on the Cape Town-Wellington line, which is still under construction. 13 May – The Natal Railway Company’s first locomotive, the broad gauge engine Natal, is landed at Durban
20.
1860 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1860 in Sweden Monarch – Charles XV - A. E. Schwabitz and A. E. Rudberg produces a proposal for the regulation of Gamla stan. - The Dissenter Acts allow citizens to leave the state church, - Royal Gothenburg Yacht Club is founded. - The internal passport, until then needed to travel inside the country, are abolished, - Jeanette Berglind founds the pioneer institution Tysta Skolan for the deaf in Stockholm
21.
1860 in the United States
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Events from the year 1860 in the United States. President, James Buchanan Vice President, John C, taney Speaker of the House of Representatives, William Pennington Congress, 36th January 10 – The Pemberton Mill collapses in Lawrence, Massachusetts, killing 145 workers. February 22 – The New England Shoemakers Strike of 1860 begins in Lynn, Massachusetts February 26 –1860 Wiyot Massacre,80 to 250 Wiyot people were killed on Indian Island, near Eureka, February 27 – Abraham Lincoln gives his Cooper Union speech. April 3 – The Pony Express begins its first run from Saint Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, may 1 – A Chondrite type meteorite falls to earth in Muskingum County, Ohio near the town of New Concord. May 6 – The Paiute War begins as Northern Paiutes raided Williams Station in Utah Territory, constitutional Union Party holds its convention and nominates John Bell for President of the United States. May 12 – Paiute War – First Battle of Pyramid Lake, disorganized and outnumbered, nearly all of the vigilantes are killed or wounded. May 18 – Abraham Lincoln is selected as the U. S. presidential candidate for the Republican Party. June 2–4 – Paiute War – Second Battle of Pyramid Lake, A well-organized force of militia and U. S. Army soldiers seek out the Paiutes, august – The Paiute War ends with an informal ceasefire. August 25 – The Stones Prairie Riot takes place in Payson and Plainville, September 7 – The Lady Elgin is accidentally rammed and sunk in Lake Michigan, more than 400 drown. November 6 – U. S. presidential election, Abraham Lincoln beats John C, breckinridge, Stephen A. Douglas, and John Bell and is elected as the 16th President of the United States, the first Republican to hold that office. December 18 Senator John J. Crittenden proposes the so-called Crittenden Compromise hoping to resolve the U. S. secession crisis, texas Rangers defeat a band of Comanches at the Battle of Pease River, Cynthia Ann Parker is recaptured and returned to her family after 24 years. December 20 – South Carolina becomes the first state to secede from the United States, augustana College is founded in Chicago, Illinois, United States by Swedish immigrants. The college moves to Paxton, Illinois, in 1862, and to its home in Rock Island, Illinois. The American South has c.4 million slaves, 1860–1900 –14 million immigrants come to the United States. Secession crisis January 25 – Charles Curtis, 31st Vice President of the United States from 1929 to 1933, U. S. Long, U. S. Smith, songwriter December 31 Joseph S. Cullinan, industrialist, founder of Texaco John T. Thompson, U. S. Haun, U. S. Senator from California from 1859 to 1860 July 1 – Charles Goodyear, inventor September 12 – William Walker, filibuster, briefly President of Nicaragua, executed September 19 – Thomas D
22.
1860 in science
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The year 1860 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. July 18 – Total solar eclipse, june 30 – Debate about evolution at the new Oxford University Museum of Natural History. John Curtis publishes Farm Insects, being the history and economy of the insects injurious to the field crops of Great Britain. With suggestions for their destruction in Glasgow, joseph Dalton Hooker concludes publication of The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H. M. 1839–1843 with issue of the part of Flora Tasmaniae in London. September 3–5 – Karlsruhe Congress, the first international meeting of chemists, marcellin Berthelot rediscovers and names acetylene. Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, using their newly improved spectroscope, discover and name caesium in mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, albert Niemann makes a detailed analysis of the coca leaf, isolating and purifying the crystalline alkaloid which he calls cocaine. Carl Wilhelm Borchardt first discovers and proves Cayleys formula in graph theory, july 9 – The Nightingale Training School and Home for Nurses, the first nursing school based on the ideas of Florence Nightingale, is opened at St Thomas Hospital in London. Gustav Fechner publishes Elemente der Psychophysik, establishing the discipline of psychophysics, april 9 – Earliest known decipherable sound recording of the human voice, a phonautogram, produced by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. Playback is impossible at this time, wollaston Medal for geology, Searles Valentine Wood. February 29 – Herman Hollerith, American statistician, punched card data processing inventor, may 2 John Scott Haldane, Scottish physiologist. May 25 – James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist, january 27 – János Bolyai, mathematician. January 27 – Thomas Brisbane, astronomer, june 29 – Thomas Addison, physician and scientist. July 1 – Charles Goodyear, inventor of the vulcanization process
23.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
24.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
25.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
26.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
27.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
28.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
29.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
