1.
1871 in rail transport
–
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1871. February 10 - Launceston and Western Railway opens as the first line in Tasmania, Australia,45 mi 1,600 mm gauge between Deloraine and Launceston, june 8 – Devon and Somerset Railway opens its line to Wiveliscombe. June 18 - The canton of Basel-Country grants a concession for the construction of a gauge railway from Liestal to Waldenburg. July 12 - The first narrow gauge railway in North America, july 22 - The Canada Central Railway holds an official groundbreaking ceremony at Renfrew for the railroads section between there and Sand Point, Ontario. August 5 - The New Haven and Derby Railroad, a predecessor of the New Haven Railroad in Connecticut, august 24 - Hans Gløersen publishes the first documented idea of building a railway between Norways two largest cities, Bergen and Oslo, in the newspaper Bergensposten. August 26 - The Eastern Railroad An express train crashes into the rear of a local at the tiny Revere station, killing 29, either a station-to-station telegraph system, or the Westinghouse air braking system, could have prevented this accident. Public outrage, lawsuits and regulations after this crash finally forces most railroads in America to install both, september 17 - The Fréjus Tunnel is opened carrying the Fréjus railway beneath Mont Cenis in the Alps and connecting Modane, France and Bardonecchia, Italy. September 18 - The second narrow gauge railway in North America, october - Portland gauge European and North American Railway is completed linking New England to the Maritimes. November 2 - Finnish State Railways opened in Russia Sestroretsk spur line of Beloostrov to Sestroretsk rail station, the owners of the Wilmington and Raleigh Railroad and the Wilmington and Manchester Railroad begin using the name Atlantic Coast Line in advertising to describe the two railroads. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad reaches Dodge City, the Portland gauge Maine Central Railroad converts to a standard gauge mainline from Portland to Bangor after leasing the standard gauge Portland and Kennebec Railroad. Mason Bogie locomotive introduced in the United States by William Mason, ensign Manufacturing Company, later to become part of American Car and Foundry, is founded in Huntington, West Virginia. September 6 - John A. Poor, American entrepreneur, advocate of the Portland gauge, october 18 – Joseph Hamilton Beattie, locomotive engineer for London and South Western Railway 1850–1871. November 5 - Edmund Morel, English-born civil engineer in Japan, december 14 - George Hudson, English railway financier, The Railway King. Dockray, civil engineer on the London and Birmingham Railway in England, a Brief History Lines West Of The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Co. Significant dates in Canadian railway history, significant dates in Ottawa railway history. Narrow Gauge Through the Bush - Ontarios Toronto Grey and Bruce and Toronto and Nipissing Railways, Rod Clarke, beaumont and Clarke, with the Credit Valley Railway Company, Streetsville, Ontario,2007. ISBN 978-0-9784406-0-2 The Narrow Gauge For Us - The Story of the Toronto and Nipissing Railway, Charles Cooper, the Boston Mills Press, Erin, Ontario,1982. Narrow Gauge Railways of Canada, Omer Lavallee, pub, Narrow Gauge Railways of Canada, Omer Lavallee, expanded and revised by Ronald S Ritchie, pub
2.
Rail transport
–
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
3.
Norfolk, Virginia
–
Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 242,803, in 2015, Norfolk is located at the core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, named for the large natural harbor of the same name located at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. It is one of nine cities and seven counties that constitute the Hampton Roads metro area, officially known as the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, the city is bordered to the west by the Elizabeth River and to the north by the Chesapeake Bay. It also shares borders with the independent cities of Chesapeake to its south. Norfolk is one of the oldest cities in Hampton Roads, and is considered to be the historic, urban, financial, the city has a long history as a strategic military and transportation point. The largest Navy base in the world, Naval Station Norfolk, is located in Norfolk along with one of NATOs two Strategic Command headquarters. As the city is bordered by multiple bodies of water, Norfolk has many miles of riverfront and bayfront property, including beaches on the Chesapeake Bay. It is linked to its neighbors by a network of Interstate highways, bridges, tunnels. In 1619, the Governor of the Virginia Colony, Sir George Yeardley incorporated four jurisdictions, termed citties and these formed the basis for colonial representative government in the newly minted House of Burgesses. What would become Norfolk was put under the Elizabeth Cittie incorporation, in 1634 King Charles I reorganized the colony into a system of shires. The former Elizabeth Cittie became Elizabeth City Shire, after persuading 105 people to settle in the colony, Adam Thoroughgood was granted a large land holding, through the head rights system, along the Lynnhaven River in 1636. When the South Hampton Roads portion of the shire was separated, one year later, it was split into two counties, Upper Norfolk and Lower Norfolk, chiefly on Thoroughgoods recommendation. This area of Virginia became known as the place of entrepreneurs, the House of Burgesses established the Towne of Lower Norfolk County in 1680. In 1691, a final county subdivision took place when Lower Norfolk County split to form Norfolk County, in 1730, a tobacco inspection site was located here. By 1775, Norfolk developed into what contemporary observers argued was the most prosperous city in Virginia and it was an important port for exporting goods to the British Isles and beyond. In part because of its merchants numerous trading ties with other parts of the British Empire, after fleeing the colonial capital of Williamsburg, Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, tried to reestablish control of the colony from Norfolk. Dunmore secured small victories at Norfolk but was forced into exile by the American rebels and his departure brought an end to more than 168 years of British colonial rule in Virginia. On New Years Day,1776, Lord Dunmores fleet of three ships shelled the city of Norfolk for more than eight hours, the damage from the shells and fires started by the British and spread by the patriots destroyed over 800 buildings, almost two-thirds of the city
4.
Elizabeth City, North Carolina
–
Elizabeth City is a city in Pasquotank County, North Carolina, in the United States. As of the 2014 census, it had a population of 18,047, Elizabeth City is the county seat and largest city of Pasquotank County. It is the cultural, economic and educational hub of the sixteen-county Historic Albemarle region of northeastern North Carolina, the city is the economic center of the region, as well as home to many historic sites and cultural traditions. Marketed as the Harbor of Hospitality, Elizabeth City has had a history of shipping due to its location at a narrowed bend of the Pasquotank River. Founded in 1794, Elizabeth City prospered early on from the Dismal Swamp Canal as a mercantile city, with the addition of minor roads, a schoolhouse, and soon a church, a small community was established at these narrows. In 1793, construction of the Dismal Swamp Canal began, which would drive Elizabeth Citys commerce, in 1794, the town was renamed Elizabethtown, but due to confusion with another town of the same name, in 1801, the city was renamed Elizabeth City. The name Elizabeth has been attributed to Elizabeth Betsy Tooley, a local tavern proprietress who donated much of the land for the new town, the improvements made to the Dismal Swamp Canal made Elizabeth City a financial center of trade and commercially successful for the early 19th century. In 1826, the government purchased 600 stocks in the canal and, in 1829. With these funds, the Dismal Swamp Canal was widened and deepened, further bolstering Elizabeth Citys financial success was the movement in 1827 of the customs house from Camden County to Elizabeth City. From only 1829 to 1832, Elizabeth Citys tolls tripled, during the American Civil War the Confederate States had a small fleet stationed at Elizabeth City. After the Battle of Roanoke Island the Union forces sent a fleet to take the city, there was a small skirmish that followed which ended in a Union victory. Elizabeth City was under Union control for the remainder of the war, meanwhile, overland travel slowly improved, furnishing greater trade between neighboring counties, and a ferry continued to be used for transport between Elizabeth City and Camden County. However, the completion of competing canals and railroads around Elizabeth City diverted some of its success to neighboring cities. The declaration of World War II reinvigorated Elizabeth Citys industries, particularly in shipbuilding, textiles, additionally from 1942 to 1944, the Elizabeth City Shipyard manufactured thirty 111-foot SC-class submarine chasers, four YT-class yard tugboats, and six 104-foot QS-class quick supply boats. The Elizabeth City Shipyard not only built the largest number of subchasers for the war effort, as of June 2013, the Elizabeth City Shipyard is still in operation. The conclusion of the war led to an economy as industry withdrew gradually over the following decades to form the service. Starting in the late 1990s, revival efforts in tourism and civic revitalization centered over downtown, during the Civil War, there was a small battle between the Confederate states and the Union near Elizabeth City on the Pasquotank River on February 10,1862. It was nothing more than a skirmish and casualties were low, the battle ended in a Union victory with subsequent capture of the city
5.
Delaware and Hudson Railway
–
The Delaware and Hudson Railway is a railroad that operates in the northeastern United States. In 1991, after more than 150 years as an independent railroad, CP operates D&H under its subsidiary Soo Line Corporation which also operates Soo Line Railroad. Nicknamed The Bridge Line to New England and Canada, D&H connected New York with Montreal, Quebec, D&H has also been known as North Americas oldest continually operated transportation company. On September 19,2015, Norfolk Southern Railway commenced acquisition of the D&H South Line from CP, the D&H South Line is 282 miles long and connects Schenectady, New York to Sunbury, Pennsylvania. The D&H South Line consists of two lines, the Sunbury Line and the Freight Line. The Nicholson Cutoff is located on the Sunbury Line, by the 1790s, industrializing eastern population centers were having increasing troubles getting charcoal to fuel their growing kilns, smithies, and foundries. As local timber was denuded efforts to find an energy source began. The Delaware and Hudson Gravity Railroad to bring coal to the Delaware and this cable railroad would grow in importance and become the far flung class I railroad, the Delaware and Hudson Railway. Finding coal outcrops, he realized the value of the extensive anthracite deposits. The canal he proposed would also tie the developing industries along the Delaware to the Hudson, in January 1825, following a demonstration of anthracite heating in a Wall Street coffeehouse, its public stock offering raised a million dollars. At the time, the Lehigh Canal had well established a reliable flow of increasing annual tonnages, ground was broken on July 13,1825, and the canal was opened to navigation in October 1828. It began at Rondout Creek at the known as Creeklocks. To get the anthracite from the Wurts mine in the Moosic Mountains near Carbondale to the canal at Honesdale, the state of Pennsylvania authorized its construction on April 8,1826. On August 8,1829, the D&Hs first locomotive, the Stourbridge Lion, westward extensions of the railroad opened to new mines at Archbald in 1843, Valley Junction in 1858, Providence in 1860 and Scranton in 1863. Passenger service began west of Carbondale in 1860, the canal was a successful enterprise for many of its early years, but the companys management realized that railroads were the future of transportation, and began investing in stock and trackage. In 1898 the canal carried its last loads of coal and was drained, the next year the company dropped the Canal from its name. The remaining fragments of the canal were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1968, as railroads grew in popularity, the canal company recognized the importance of replacing the canal with a railroad. The first step of this was the Jefferson Railroad, a line from Carbondale north towards New York, chartered in 1864, built by the Erie Railroad in 1869 and this was a branch of the Erie, running south from the main line at Lanesboro to Carbondale
6.
Albany, New York
–
Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
7.
Binghamton, New York
–
Binghamton /ˈbɪŋəmtən/ is a city in, and the county seat of, Broome County, New York, United States. It lies in the states Southern Tier region near the Pennsylvania border, in a valley at the confluence of the Susquehanna. Binghamton is the city and cultural center of the Binghamton metropolitan area. The population of the city itself, according to the 2010 census, is 47,376. From the days of the railroad, Binghamton was a crossroads and a manufacturing center, and has been known at different times for the production of cigars, shoes. IBM was founded nearby, and the simulator was invented in the city, leading to a notable concentration of electronics-. This sustained economic prosperity earned Binghamton the moniker of the Valley of Opportunity, however, following cuts made by defense firms after the end of the Cold War, the region has lost a significant portion of its manufacturing industry. The city was named after William Bingham, a wealthy Philadelphian who bought the 10,000 acre patent for the land in 1786, then consisting of portions of the towns of Union, significant agricultural growth led to the incorporation of the village of Binghamton in 1834. The Chenango Canal, completed in 1837, connected Binghamton to the Erie Canal and this growth accelerated with the completion of the Erie Railroad between Binghamton and New York City in 1849. With the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad arriving soon after, several buildings of importance were built at this time, including the New York State Inebriate Asylum, opened in 1858 as the first center in the United States to treat alcoholism as a disease. Binghamton incorporated as a city in 1867, and due to the presence of several homes, was nicknamed the Parlor City. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many moved to the area. During the 1880s, Binghamton grew to become the second-largest manufacturer of cigars in the United States, however, by the early 1920s, the major employer of the region became Endicott Johnson, a shoe manufacturer whose development of welfare capitalism resulted in many amenities for local residents. An even larger influx of Europeans immigrated to Binghamton, and the working class prosperity resulted in the area being called the Valley of Opportunity, in 1913,31 people perished in the Binghamton Clothing Company fire, which resulted in numerous reforms to the New York fire code. Major floods in 1935 and 1936 resulted in a number of deaths, the floods were devastating, and resulted in the construction of flood walls along the length of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers. During the Second World War, growth and corporate generosity continued as IBM, along with Edwin Links invention of the flight simulator in Binghamton, IBM transitioned the region to a high-tech economy. Other major manufacturers included Ansco and General Electric, until the Cold War ended, the area never experienced an economic downfall, due in part to its defense-oriented industries. The population of the city of Binghamton peaked at around 85,000 in the mid-1950s, post-war suburban development led to a decline in the city population, as the towns of Vestal and Union experienced rapid growth
8.
Great Indian Peninsula Railway
–
The Great Indian Peninsula Railway was a predecessor of the Central Railway, whose headquarters was at the Boree Bunder in Mumbai. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway was incorporated on August 1,1849 by an act of the British Parliament and it had a share capital of 50,000 pounds. The Court of Directors of the East India Company appointed James John Berkeley as Chief Resident Engineer, kar and R. W. Graham as his assistants. It was Indias ever first railway, the original 21 mile section opening in 1853, on July 1,1925 its management was taken over by the Government. On November 5,1951 it was incorporated into the Central Railway and it was meant for the purpose of increasing the export of cotton, silk, opium, sugar and spices. The management committee consisted of 25 British men, including officials of the East India company and banks in London, most of whom resided in Britain and some who had resided in India. It was originally meant to connect the towns of Poonah, Nassuek, Aurungabad, Ahmednuggur, Sholapoor, Nagpur, Oomrawutty, and Hyderabad. On April 16,1853 at 3,35 pm, the first passenger train of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway left Boree Bunder station in Bombay for Tannah The train took fifty-seven minutes to reach Tannah and it covered a distance of 21 miles. Three locomotives named Sultan, Sindh and Sahib pulled the 14 carriages carrying 400 passengers on board, the railway bridge over Thane creek, first in India, was completed in 1854. The portion of the line from Tannah to Callian was opened on May 1,1854, the construction of this portion was difficult as it involved a two-line viaduct over the estuary and two tunnels. On May 12,1856 the line was extended to Campoolie via Padusdhurree, the Padusdhurree-Khandala section involved the difficult crossing of the Bhore Ghat and it took another five years for completion. During this period, the 21 km gap was covered by palanquin, the Kassarah line was opened on January 1,1861 and the steep Thull ghat section up to Egutpoora was opened on January 1,1865 and thus completed the crossing of the Sahyadri. The south-east main line proceeded over Bhor Ghat to Poonah, Sholapore and Raichore, by 1868, route kilometerage was 888 km and by 1870, route kilometerage was 2,388. Beyond Callian, the north-east main line proceeded over the Thull ghat to Bhosawal near Nusseerabad, from Bhosawal, there was a bifurcation. One passed through great cotton district of Oomravuttee and was extended up to Nagpore, the other was extended up to Jubbulpore to connect with the Allahabad-Jubbulpore branch line of the East Indian Railway which had been opened in June 1867. Hence it became possible to directly from Bombay to Calcutta. The Howrah-Allahabad-Mumbai line was opened on 7 March 1870 and it was part of the inspiration for French writer Jules Vernes book Around the World in Eighty Days
9.
Itarsi
–
Itarsi is a town in Madhya Pradesh, India in Hoshangabad District. Itarsi is a key hub for goods and is one of the earliest railway junctions in Madhya Pradesh. Rail services from all 4 major metropolitan cities of India namely Mumbai to Calcutta, Itarsi got its name by eeta, ईंटा and rassi, रस्सी. Bricks and ropes were made in old times in itarsi, the Bori Wildlife Sanctuary and Tawa Dam are nearby. Itarsi is located at 22. 62°N77. 75°E /22.62,77.75 and it has an average elevation of 304 metres. Of this about 123,325 people are living in the urban area, ◾There are 124,898 males, There are 115,821 females. Itarsi also have Indian Ordinance Factory, as of 2011 India census, Itarsi had a population of 114,495. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%, Itarsi has an average literacy rate of 75%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 81% and female literacy is 69%. In Itarsi, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age. Itarsi comes under Constituents of Urban Agglomerations of Madhya Pradesh includes Itarsi, Pathrauta, Bhilakhedi, the city is a Tehsil under Hoshangabad District. It is a part of Hoshangabad Vidhan Sabha & comes under Hoshangabad - Narsinghpur Loksabha constituency, Itarsi Junction railway station Itarsi is one of the major junctions in India, at the crossing of important east-west and north-south routes. Itarsi comes under West Central Railway zone whose headquarters is in Jabalpur, Itarsi is connected via broad gauge lines to Bhopal and Delhi to the north, Bhusawal and Mumbai to the west, the railway junctions of Nagpur to the south and Jabalpur to the east. Rail services from Mumbai to Guwahati and Delhi to Chennai pass through Itarsi,250 trains are daily passing through. Itarsi runs one express train — Vindhyachal express — and it runs three trains in Jabalpur route daily. Itarsi is the railway station in Bhopal division. The new platforms 6 and 7 opened for Jabalpur, Nagpur, apart from railway, National Highway connects Itarsi to major cities Bhopal and Nagpur. New Four lane roads are under the making in to be functional under 5 years, Four Duronto Express trains have technical halts at Itarsi. Under construction project - * Itarsi-Bhusawal 3rd line
10.
Jabalpur
–
Jabalpur is a tier 2 city in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. According to the 2011 census, it is the third-largest urban agglomeration in Madhya Pradesh and it is 2nd largest metropolis of Central India after Raipur which is followed by Jabalpur, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Indore and Durg-Bhilai. Jabalpur is the headquarters of Jabalpur district and the Jabalpur division. Historically, a centre of the Kalachuri and Gond dynasties, the city developed a culture influenced by intermittent Mughal. During the early century, it was annexed by British India as Jubbulpore. Since Indian independence there have been demands for a state of Mahakoshal. The High Court of Madhya Pradesh, headquarters of the West Central Railway, the city is also home to the Gun Carriage Factory. Jabalpur has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a city under Smart Cities Mission. Bheraghat is an experience where one can see a huge mountains of marbel. The citys name is derived from the legendary sage Jaabaali, who is mentioned in the Ramayana, according to Bheegnari folklore, a small cave on the bank of the Narmada River was Jaabaalis ashram. Variations of the name include Jabalipuram and Jubbulgarh, and under British rule the city was known as Jubbulpore, in 2006, the Jabalpur Municipal Corporation renamed the city Jabalipuram. Mythology describes three asura in the Jabalpur region who were defeated by Shiva, in Rupnath,84 kilometres north of the city, Ashokan relics dating to 300 BCE have been found as evidence of the Maurya Empire. When the empire fell, Jabalpur became a city-state before it was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty, Local rulers, including the Bodhis and the Senas, followed before the region became a vassal state of the Gupta Empire. From 675 to 800, the region was ruled by Bamraj Dev of the Kalachuri dynasty from Karanbel, the best known Kalachuri ruler was Yuvraj Dev I, who married Nohla Devi. One of the Kalachuri amatya was Golok Simha Kayastha, who was instrumental in founding the Chausath Yogini Temple near Bhedaghat and his descendants include Bhoj Simha, Diwan to Sangramsahi, Diwan Adhar Simha, Prime-minister to Rani Durgavati and Beohar Raghuvir Sinha, Last jagirdar of Jabalpur until 1947. The Gondwana king, Raje Madan Shah Madawi of Mandla, built a watch tower small hilltop fort at Madan Mahal, in the 1500s, the Gond king, Sangram held Singaurgarh fort in Sangrampur. In 1564, during the reign of Veer Narayan, Abdul Majeed Harawi conquered Jabalpur, however, the Mughal supremacy in Jabalpur was more nominal than real. In 1698, the Gondwana king, Raje Hriday shah moved his court to the Mandla fort and he secured water sources and built irrigation structures
11.
East Indian Railway Company
–
The company was established 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000, largely raised in London. The first board of directors formed in 1845 comprised thirteen members and they assessed that the maximum cost of a twin-track line would not exceed £15000 per mile if the land was available without charge. The East Indian Railway Company was then formed and raised money in London, by June, there was an impasse, in that the government still did not allow Turnbull and his engineers to mark a route on the ground. Specifications for works were advertised on 1 July and tenders received on 31 July for six contracts. Bamboo towers 80 feet tall were built above the palm trees at Serampore. On 29 January 1851 the East Indian Railway Company took possession of its first land, Turnbull and other British engineers began detailed surveys of the line. They chose the critical crossing point on the 5, 000-foot-wide Son River on 17 February, the best route to Raniganj was determined in May and June. The plans for Howrah station were submitted on 16 June, tenders for 11 contracts arrived on 31 October 1851. In December Turnbull continued his survey, he took levels and defined the line from Burdwan to Rajmahal, all permanent way, rolling stocks were transported from England in sailing ships to Calcutta via the Cape of Good Hope. In April 1854, it was estimated that over 100,000 tons of rails,27,000 tons of chairs, by 1859, there were 77 engines,228 coaches and 848 freight wagons. Although immense quantities of sal tree wood for sleepers were delivered from Nepal, yet more were needed. Thus fir sleepers from the Baltic were creosoted in England and shipped to India. The initial plans were for the bridges over the Ganges tributaries to be built of bricks. Brick-making skills were limited and often the available clay was found to be unsuitable. Transport by river of suitable clay was difficult, brick availability became a major problem, such that the decision was made to use vast quantities of ironwork – imported from England as India had no iron works at that time. Much ironwork was stolen during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in 1853, The first railway line between Bombay to Thane was opened. It had 14 coaches and was driven by 3 engines The 541 miles of line from Howrah to Benares were opened to, more than 3,000 applications were received from the people wanting a ride in the first train. The first train ran to full capacity, the train left Howrah station at 8,30 a. m. and reached Hooghly in 91 minutes. It had three first-class and two second-class coaches and it also had three trucks for third-class passengers and a brakevan for the guard
12.
Mumbai
–
Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
13.
Kolkata
–
Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
14.
Pennsylvania Railroad
–
The Pennsylvania Railroad was an American Class I railroad, founded in 1846. Commonly referred to as the Pennsy, the PRR was headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the PRR was the largest railroad by traffic and revenue in the U. S. for the first half of the 20th century. Over the years, it acquired, merged with or owned part of at least 800 other rail lines and companies and its only formidable rival was the New York Central, which carried around three-quarters of PRRs ton-miles. At one time, the PRR was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world, with a larger than that of the U. S. government. The corporation still holds the record for the longest continuous dividend history, in 1968, PRR merged with rival NYC to form the Penn Central Transportation Company, which filed for bankruptcy within two years. The viable parts were transferred in 1976 to Conrail, which was broken up in 1999, with 58 percent of the system going to the Norfolk Southern Railway. Amtrak received the electrified segment east of Harrisburg, with the opening of the Erie Canal and the beginnings of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Philadelphia business interests became concerned that the port of Philadelphia would lose traffic. The state legislature was pressed to build a canal across Pennsylvania and it soon became evident that a single canal would not be practical and a series of railroads, inclined planes, and canals was proposed. Because freight and passengers had to change several times along the route and canals froze in winter, it soon became apparent that the system was cumbersome. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania granted a charter to the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1846 to build a rail line that would connect Harrisburg to Pittsburgh. The Directors chose John Edgar Thomson, an engineer from the Georgia Railroad, to survey, the crest of the mountain was penetrated by the 3, 612-foot Gallitzin Tunnels and then descended by a more moderate grade to Johnstown. The western end of the line was built from Pittsburgh east along the banks of the Allegheny. In 1857, the PRR purchased the Main Line of Public Works from the state of Pennsylvania, the line was double track from its inception, and by the end of the century a third and fourth track were added. Over the next 50 years, PRR expanded by gaining control of railroads by stock purchases. This line is still an important cross-state corridor, carrying Amtraks Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line and he served as PRRs first Chief Engineer and third President. Track connection in Philadelphia was made via the PRRs Connecting Railway, the PRRs Baltimore and Potomac Rail Road opened on July 2,1872, between Baltimore and Washington, D. C. This route required transfer via horse car in Baltimore to the lines heading north from the city. On June 29,1873, the Baltimore and Potomac Tunnel through Baltimore was completed, the PRR started the misleadingly named Pennsylvania Air Line service via the Northern Central Railway and Columbia, Pennsylvania
15.
Kansas Pacific Railway
–
The Kansas Pacific Railway was a historic railroad company that operated in the western United States in the late 19th century. It was a federally chartered railroad, backed with government land grants, at a time when the first transcontinental railroad was being constructed by the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific, it tried and failed to join the transcontinental ranks. It was originally the Union Pacific, Eastern Division, although it was completely independent, the Pennsylvania railroad, working with Missouri financiers, designed it as a feeder line to the transcontinental system. The owners lobbied heavily in Washington for money to build a railroad from Kansas City to Colorado and it failed to get funding to go west of Colorado. It operated many of the first long-distance lines in the state of Kansas in the 1870s, extending the railway network westward across that state. The railroad was consolidated with the Union Pacific in 1880, the Kansas Pacific began in 1855 as the Leavenworth, Pawnee and Western Railroad, and was later reorganized in 1863 as the Union Pacific Eastern Division. The name Kansas Pacific was not adopted until 1869, the original intent of the railroad was to build a line west from Kansas City, Kansas across Kansas to Fort Riley, then north to join the Union Pacific main line at Fort Kearny in Nebraska. The company began construction on its main line westward from Kansas City in September 1863, in 1864, the first 40 miles of the line to Lawrence was in operation. In the fall of 1866, the line had reached Junction City, which became the end of the first division of the railroad, in 1867 the line reached to Salina. In March 1869, the name was changed by Act of the United States Congress to the Kansas Pacific, as in the case with the Union Pacific, the Pacific Railway Act authorized large land grants to the railroad along its mainline. Such grants were to be distributed to homesteaders who would populate the lands near the railroad, forming new towns, buffalo Bill Cody was employed to shoot buffalo to provide meat for the track laying crews. No funds were granted for the construction, however, a situation made more dire by the collapse in railroad investments following the end of the American Civil War. With the backing of German investors, the railroad construction on the Colorado extension in October 1869. By March 1870, the line had reached Kit Carson, Colorado, at the same time, the company began building east from Denver. In August the two met on the Colorado Eastern Plains at Commanche Crossing, which was renamed Strasburg in honor of an engineer of the Kansas Pacific. The Kansas Pacific and Denver Pacific lines intersected at Jersey Junction approximately three miles north of downtown Denver, the Strasburg joining of the rails of the Kansas Pacific in August actually marked the true completion of a coast-to-coast railway network in the United States. In 1874, Union Pacific investor Jay Gould gained effective control of the Kansas Pacific, in 1880, at Goulds direction, the railroad was consolidated with Union Pacific and the Denver Pacific, with the new railroad taking the Union Pacific name. The new companys intention to extend the old Kansas Pacific mainline through the Rockies was strengthened by renewed competition by its archrival, in the early 1880s, the Union Pacific sent surveyors on several expeditions up the Platte Canyon and the Poudre Canyon
16.
Kit Carson, Colorado
–
The historic Town of Kit Carson is a Statutory Town in Cheyenne County, Colorado, United States. The population was 233 at the 2010 United States Census, the town was named in honor of frontiersman Christopher Houston Kit Carson. Kit Carson is located at 38°45′50″N 102°47′38″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.6 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 253 people,113 households, the population density was 453.7 people per square mile. There were 158 housing units at a density of 283.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 92. 49% White,6. 72% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 70% of the population. 41. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 25. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.94. In the town, the population was out with 23. 3% under the age of 18,5. 1% from 18 to 24,21. 3% from 25 to 44,20. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 45 years, for every 100 females there were 86.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.3 males, the median income for a household in the town was $19,531, and the median income for a family was $37,500. Males had an income of $34,375 versus $16,818 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,832. About 6. 5% of families and 12. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 4% of those under the age of eighteen and 20. 0% of those sixty five or over
17.
Denver
–
Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
18.
Cheyenne, Wyoming
–
Cheyenne is the capital and most populous city of the US state of Wyoming and the county seat of Laramie County. It is the city of the Cheyenne, Wyoming, Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Laramie County. The population was 59,466 at the 2010 census, Cheyenne is situated on Crow Creek and Dry Creek. The Cheyenne, Wyoming Metropolitan Area had a 2010 population of 91,738, on July 5,1867, General Grenville M. Dodge and his survey crew plotted the site now known as Cheyenne in Dakota Territory. This site was chosen as the point at which the Union Pacific Railroad crossed Crow Creek, the city was not named by Dodge, as his memoirs state, but rather by friends who accompanied him to the area Dodge called Crow Creek Crossing. It was named for the American Indian Cheyenne nation, one of the most famous, the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad brought hopes of prosperity to the region when it reached Cheyenne on November 13,1867. The population at the time numbered over 4,000, and this rapid growth earned the city the nickname Magic City of the Plains. In 1867, Fort D. A. Russell was established, the fort was later renamed Francis E. Warren Air Force Base. The Wyoming State Capitol was constructed between 1886 and 1890, with improvements being completed in 1917. The Wyoming Stock Growers Association met at The Cheyenne Club, which acted as an interim government for the territory. Many of the WSGAs rules and regulations became state laws, the Cheyenne Regional Airport was opened in 1920, initially serving as a stop for airmail. It soon developed into an airport, serving DC-3s and various military craft. During World War II, hundreds of B-17s, B-24s, today, it serves a number of military functions, as well as a high-altitude testbed for civilian craft. Lying near the southeast corner of the state, Cheyenne is one of the least centrally located state capitals in the nation. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.63 square miles. Cheyenne, like most of the rest of Wyoming, has a cool semi-arid climate, and is part of USDA Hardiness zone 5b, with the suburbs falling in zone 5a. Winters are cold and moderately long, but relatively dry, with a December average of 28.8 °F, highs that fail to breach freezing occur 35 days per year, and lows dip to the 0 °F mark on 9.2 mornings. However, the cold is often interrupted, with winds blowing downslope from the Rockies that can bring warm conditions
19.
Rolling stock
–
The term rolling stock originally referred to any vehicles that move on a railway. It has since expanded to include the vehicles used by businesses on roadways. It usually includes both powered and unpowered vehicles, for locomotives, railroad cars, coaches, and wagons. Rolling stock is considered to be an asset, or close to it, since the value of the vehicle can be readily estimated. The term contrasts with fixed stock, which is a term for the track, signals, stations, other buildings, electric wires. In Great Britain, types of rolling stock were given code names and these codes were telegraphese, somewhat analogous to the SMS language of today. List of railway vehicles Great Western Railway telegraphic codes Great Western Railway wagons The dictionary definition of rolling stock at Wiktionary
20.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
21.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
22.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
23.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
24.
Kansas City, Kansas
–
Kansas City is the third-largest city in the state of Kansas, the county seat of Wyandotte County, and the third-largest city of the Kansas City metropolitan area. It is part of a consolidated city-county government known as the Unified Government, Wyandotte County also includes the independent cities of Bonner Springs and Edwardsville. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 145,786 residents and it is situated at Kaw Point, which is the junction of the Missouri and Kansas rivers. In October 1872, old Kansas City, Kansas, was incorporated, the first city election was held on October 22 of that year, by order of Judge Hiram Stevens of the Tenth Judicial District, and resulted in the election of Mayor James Boyle. The mayors of the city after its organization were James Boyle, C. A. Eidemiller, A. S. Orbison, Eli Teed, in June 1880, the Governor of Kansas proclaimed the city of Kansas City a city of the second class with Mayor McConnell present. In March 1886, new Kansas City, Kansas, was formed through the consolidation of five municipalities, old Kansas City, Armstrong, Armourdale, Riverview, the oldest city of the group was Wyandotte, which was formed in 1857 by Wyandot Native Americans and Methodist missionaries. In the 1890s, the city saw a growth in population as a streetcar suburb of Kansas City, Missouri, from which it takes its name. It was one of the nations 100 largest cities for many U. S. Census counts, from 1890 to 1960, including 1920, when it had a population of over 100,000 residents for the first time. As with adjacent Kansas City, Missouri, the percentage of the citys most populous ethnic group, in 1997, voters approved a proposition to unify the city and county governments creating the Unified Government of Wyandotte County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 128.38 square miles. Neighborhoods of Kansas City, Kansas, include the following, Downtown Argentine − former home to the silver smelter for which it was named, Armourdale − formerly a city, it was consolidated with the city of Kansas City in 1886. Armstrong − a town absorbed by Wyandotte, bethel − a neighborhood located generally along Leavenworth Rd. between 72nd and 77th Streets. It was never incorporated as a municipality, Fairfax District − an industrial area along the Missouri River. Nearman Piper Pomeroy − a late-19th—early-20th-century Train Depot, Trading Post, Saw Mill, Riverview Rosedale − merged with Kansas City in 1922. Stony Point Strawberry Hill Turner − community around the Wyandotte-Johnson County border to the Kansas River north-south, unless otherwise stated, normal figures below are based on data from 1981 to 2010 at Downtown Airport. The warmest month of the year is July, with a 24-hour average temperature of 81.0 °F, the summer months are hot, but can get very hot and moderately humid, with moist air riding up from the Gulf of Mexico. High temperatures surpass 100 °F on 5.6 days of the year, the coldest month of the year is January, with an average temperature of 31.0 °F. Winters are cold, with 22 days where the high is at or below the mark and 2.5 nights with a low at or below 0 °F
25.
Strasburg, Colorado
–
Strasburg is a census-designated place in Adams and Arapahoe counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. The population was 2,447 at the 2010 census, up from 1,402 at the 2000 census, the Strasburg Post Office has the ZIP Code 80136. A post office called Strasburg has been in operation since 1908, the community was named after John Strasburg, a railroad official. Strasburg is located at 39°44′10″N 104°19′43″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 20.82 square miles, of which 20.80 square miles is land and 0.023 square miles, or 0. 12%, is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,402 people,503 households, the population density was 181.1 people per square mile. There were 532 housing units at a density of 68.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 95. 44% White,1. 28% African American,0. 57% Native American,0. 21% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,0. 71% from other races, and 1. 71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 85% of the population,18. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the family size was 3.14. In the CDP, the population was out with 29. 7% under the age of 18,5. 7% from 18 to 24,29. 2% from 25 to 44,25. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $53,558, and the median income for a family was $61,157. Males had an income of $42,097 versus $25,862 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $19,546, about 3. 1% of families and 6. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6. 7% of those under age 18 and 11. 7% of those age 65 or over
26.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
–
The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
27.
Topeka, Kansas
–
Topeka is the capital city of the U. S. state of Kansas and the seat of Shawnee County. It is situated along the Kansas River in the part of Shawnee County, located in northeast Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 127,473, the Topeka Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Shawnee, Jackson, Jefferson, Osage, and Wabaunsee counties, had a population of 233,870 in the 2010 census. The name Topeka is a Kansa-Osage sentence that means place where we dug potatoes, as a placename, Topeka was first recorded in 1826 as the Kansa name for what is now called the Kansas River. Topekas founders chose the name in 1855 because it was novel, of Indian origin, the mixed-blood Kansa Native American, Joseph James, called Jojim, is credited with suggesting the name of Topeka. The city, laid out in 1854, was one of the Free-State towns founded by Eastern antislavery men immediately after the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Bill, in 1857, Topeka was chartered as a city. Three ships of the U. S. Navy have been named USS Topeka after the city, for many millennia, the Great Plains of North America were inhabited by Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In the 1840s, wagon trains made their way west from Independence, Missouri, on a journey of 2,000 miles, during the 1840s and into the 1850s, travelers could reliably find a way across the river, but little else was in the area. In the early 1850s, traffic along the Oregon Trail was supplemented by trade on a new military road stretching from Fort Leavenworth through Topeka to the newly established Fort Riley, in 1854, after completion of the first cabin, nine men established the Topeka Town Association. Included among them was Cyrus K. Holliday, an man who would become mayor of Topeka and founder of the Atchison. Soon, steamboats were regularly docking at the Topeka landing, depositing meat, lumber, and flour and returning eastward with potatoes, corn, by the late 1860s, Topeka had become a commercial hub providing many Victorian era comforts. Topeka was a free-state center during the problems in Kansas Territory between free-staters and southerners, who for a period controlled the legal government of Kansas. After southern forces barricaded Topeka in 1856, Topeka’s leaders took actions to defend the town from invasion. A militia was organized and fortifications were built on Quincy Street, the fortifications seemed to consist of low-lying earthwork levies strengthened by the presence of at least one cannon. There was stone in the fortifications, the militia manned the fortifications until at least September 1856, when the siege around the town was lifted
28.
Emporia, Kansas
–
Emporia is a city in and the county seat of Lyon County, Kansas, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 24,916, Emporia lies between Topeka and Wichita at the intersection of U. S. Route 50 with Interstates 335 and 35 on the Kansas Turnpike. Emporia is also a town, home to Emporia State University. Located on upland prairie, Emporia was founded in 1857, drawing its name from ancient Carthage, Emporia is particularly known for its newspaper, the Emporia Gazette, published in the first half of the 20th century by the legendary newspaperman William Allen White. The paper became the widely perceived model of excellence in small-town journalism, the first railroad was extended to Emporia in 1869. In 1953, Emporia was the site of the first Veterans Day observance in the United States, at the urging of local shoe cobbler Alvin J. King, U. S. Representative Edward Rees introduced legislation in The United States Congress to rename Armistice Day as Veterans Day, president Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law on October 8,1954. On June 8,1974, an F4 tornado struck Emporia, killing six people, injuring 200 people, on Sunday, March 6,1988 a heavily armed gunman walked into the Calvary Baptist Church during services and opened fire. The 29-year-old gunman, Cheunphon Ji, had no particular target, killing one person, Emporia is located at 38°24′14″N 96°10′54″W in east-central Kansas. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 11.94 square miles. The Neosho River flows along the side of the city. The city averages about 60 rainy days per year,59 days with temperatures of 90 °F or higher. The average temperature in January is 29 °F, and in July it is 79 °F, Emporia is the principal city of the Emporia Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Lyon and Chase counties. As of the 2010 census, there were 24,916 people,9,812 households, the population density was 2,491.6 inhabitants per square mile. There were 11,352 housing units at a density of 1,135.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 79. 2% White,3. 2% African American,3. 1% Asian,0. 8% American Indian,10. 5% from some other race,25. 4% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. 32. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.39, and the average family size was 3.08. In the city, the population was out with 23. 5% under the age of 18,19. 7% from 18 to 24,24. 5% from 25 to 44,20. 9% from 45 to 64
29.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
30.
Kansas
–
Kansas /ˈkænzəs/ is a U. S. state located in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas is named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribes name is said to mean people of the wind or people of the south wind. For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous, tribes in the eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys. Tribes in the part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison. When it was opened to settlement by the U. S. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided. The abolitionists eventually prevailed, and on January 29,1861, after the Civil War, the population of Kansas grew rapidly when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into farmland. By 2015, Kansas was one of the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans. Kansas, which has an area of 82,278 square miles is the 15th largest state by area and is the 34th most populous of the 50 United States with a population of 2,911,641, residents of Kansas are called Kansans, officially. Mount Sunflower is Kansass highest point at 4,041 feet, for a millennia, the land that is currently Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, in 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, from 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory. The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today. In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state, the Kansas–Nebraska Act became law on May 30,1854, establishing the U. S. territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites. Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, Missouri and Arkansas sent settlers into Kansas all along its eastern border. These settlers attempted to sway votes in favor of slavery, the secondary settlement of Americans in Kansas Territory were abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters, who attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri. Directly presaging the American Civil War, these forces collided, entering into skirmishes that earned the territory the name of Bleeding Kansas, Kansas was admitted to the United States as a free state on January 29,1861, making it the 34th state to enter the Union. He was roundly condemned by both the conventional Confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature and his application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre-war criminal record
31.
Tower Subway
–
The Tower Subway is a tunnel beneath the River Thames in central London, between Tower Hill on the north side of the river and Vine Lane on the south. In 1869 a 1, 340-foot circular tunnel was dug through the London clay using an iron shield. A2 ft 6 in narrow gauge railway was laid in the tunnel and this was uneconomic and the company went bankrupt by the end of the year. The tunnel was converted to use and one million people a year crossed under the river. The opening of the toll-free Tower Bridge in 1894 caused a drop in income, today the tunnel is used for water mains. The same method of construction was used in 1890 to dig the tunnels of the City and South London Railway and he published a pamphlet in 1867 suggesting a network of tunnels with cars carrying up to 12 people. Work began in February 1869 with the boring of entrance shafts,60 feet deep on the bank and 50 feet deep on the south bank. The tunnelling itself started in April and, using the shield, a tunnel 1,340 feet long was dug with a diameter of 6 feet 7 3⁄4 inches. This, combined with the nature of the project – the excavation face was only one twentieth that of the Thames Tunnel – enabled faster progress. Screw jacks drove the shield forward at a rate of 37 feet 4 inches each week, the under-river section was dug in fourteen weeks and the tunnel completed in December. The entrance shafts were fitted with steam-powered lifts for passengers, the tunnel was laid with 2 ft 6 in gauge railway track and a single car, carrying a maximum of 12 passengers, cable-hauled by two 4 horsepower stationary steam engines, one on each side of the river. The underground railway opened on 2 August 1870 charging 2d for first class and 1d for second class, however, the system was unreliable and uneconomic, and closed that December after the company went bankrupt. The rail car and steam engines were removed, gas lights installed, the tunnel opened to pedestrians at a toll of 1⁄2d and became a popular way to cross the river, averaging 20,000 people a week. Its main users were described as the classes who were formerly entirely dependent on the ferries. In September 1888 the subway briefly achieved notoriety after a man with a knife was seen in the tunnel at the time when Jack the Ripper was committing murders in nearby Whitechapel, in his Dictionary of London, Charles Dickens, Jr. I went down and down between two dingy walls until I found myself at the opening of the gigantic iron tube. The inside of this tube presents the appearance of a subterranean corridor, in 1894 the toll-free Tower Bridge opened a few hundred yards downriver, causing a drop in the subways income. In 1897, Parliament passed an Act authorising the sale of the tunnel to the London Hydraulic Power Company for £3,000, after its closure, the tunnel gained a new purpose as a route for hydraulic power mains operated by the LHPC and for water mains
32.
River Thames
–
The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
33.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
34.
Wrought iron
–
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron. It is a mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions which gives it a grain resembling wood. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded, before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been worked by forging, extruding, rolling, hammering, etcetera, to change its form. Wrought iron is a worked iron product that is seldom produced today as other cheaper. Historically, a modest amount of iron was refined into steel. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s with the adaptation of ironclad warships, however, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined. Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild steel. They retain that description because they are made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought by hand by a blacksmith, the word wrought is an archaic past participle of the verb to work, and so wrought iron literally means worked iron. Wrought iron is a term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods. It was used in that sense in British Customs records. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold, Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a variety of terms according to its form, origin. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the materials used in the finery forge. Pig iron and cast iron have higher content than wrought iron. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron, at foundries it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings. Fusion eventually became accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by heat treating, historically, wrought iron was known as commercially pure iron, however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%
35.
Tunnelling shield
–
A tunnelling shield is a protective structure used during the excavation of large, man-made tunnels. When excavating through ground that is soft, liquid, or otherwise unstable, there is a risk to workers, a tunnelling shield serves as a temporary support structure. It is in place for the short time from when the tunnel is excavated until it can be lined with a permanent support structure. The permanent structure may be made up of, depending on the period, bricks, concrete, cast iron, the structure nevertheless protected the men from cave-ins as they laboured within it, digging the tunnel out in front of themselves. The first successful tunnelling shield was developed by Sir Marc Isambard Brunel and patented by him, Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel used it to excavate the Thames Tunnel beginning in 1825. Brunel is said to have inspired in his design by the shell of the shipworm Teredo navalis. The shield was built by Maudslay, Sons & Field of Lambeth, London, brunels original design was substantially improved by Peter W. Barlow in the course of the construction of the Tower Subway under the River Thames in central London in 1870. The shield was 7 ft 3in in diameter, the Barlow design was enlarged and further improved by James Henry Greathead for the construction of the City and South London Railway in 1884, with tunnels 10 ft 2in in diameter. His system was used in the driving of the 12-foot-1 3⁄4-inch diameter running tunnels for the Waterloo & City Railway which opened in 1898. The station tunnels at the City station were the largest diameter tunnelling shields in the world at the time, to this day, most tunnelling shields are still loosely based on the Greathead shield. An original Greathead Shield used in the excavation of the deep London Underground lines remains in place in disused tunnels beneath Moorgate station, the early deep tunnels for the London Underground were built in this way. The shield divided the workface into overlapping portions that each worker could excavate, a tunnel boring machine consists of a shield and trailing support mechanisms. A rotating cutting wheel is located at the front end of the shield, behind the cutting wheel there is a chamber where the excavated soil is either mixed with slurry or left as-is, depending on the type of the TBM. The choice for a type of TBM depends on the soil conditions. Systems are also present for removal of the soil, behind the chamber there is a set of hydraulic jacks supported by the finished part of the tunnel which are used to push the TBM forward. Once a certain distance has been excavated, a new ring is built using the erector. The erector is a system which picks up precast concrete segments. The tunnel lining is the wall of the tunnel and it usually consists of precast concrete segments which form rings
36.
James Henry Greathead
–
James Henry Greathead was a civil engineer renowned for his work on the London Underground railway. Greathead was born in Grahamstown, South Africa, of English descent and he was educated at St. Andrews College, Grahamstown, and the Diocesan College private school in Cape Town. After migrating to England in 1859, he completed his education from 1859 to 1863 at the Westbourne Collegiate School and he spent some time as assistant engineer on the Midland Railway between Bedford and London. Soon after, in 1869, he rejoined Barlow and they work on designs for the Tower Subway. Barlow was the engineer for the tunnel and Greathead was in charge of the actual drive, the tunnelling shield for driving the Tower Subway, while designed by Greathead, was inspired by Barlows ideas for a circular tunnelling shield which he had patented in 1864 and 1868. The so-called Barlow-Greathead shield consisted of an iron cylinder 7 ft 3 in in diameter fitted with screw jacks which enabled it to be jacked forward. In use, the shield was inched forward as the face was excavated, while behind it a permanent tunnel lining of cast iron segments was fitted into place. Greathead patented many of his improvements including the use of compressed air and forward propulsion by hydraulic jacks and he was also a consultant in relation to the construction of the Blackwall Tunnel. In 1873 Greathead became resident engineer on the Hammersmith extension railway and the Richmond extension of the District Railway, after this he assisted in the preparation of the Regents Canal Railway, the Metropolitan Outer Circle Railway, a new London-Eastbourne line and in various light railways in Ireland. In 1888, he became joint engineer with Sir Douglas Fox on the Liverpool Overhead Railway and his final work was on the Central London Railway with Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker. The Greathead Injector Hydrant was a precursor to the sprinkler systems to pump water into a building or attach hoses externally to the mains system of underground water networks. Design of the Greathead Shield derived from Marc Isambard Brunels original idea, however, there were considerable design changes to make it distinguishable from Brunels shield, allowing a patent application for Greatheads design. Greatheads patented Shield for Tunnelling Soft Earth used pneumatic compression in the tunnel to ensure safety for workers. The second edition of his shield used hydraulic action at the face to create slurry, Greathead Grouting Machine mentioned in the repair of Winchester and Lincoln Cathedrals. An English Heritage blue plaque marks his home in Barnes, south-west London,3 St Marys Grove, in January 1994 a statue was erected outside the Bank station next to the Royal Exchange in the City of London. It was unveiled by the Lord Mayor of London and is positioned on a plinth which hides a ventilation shaft for the Underground, while Bank Station was being refurbished a section of the Barlow-Greathead shield was discovered in a passageway between the Underground and the Waterloo and City Railway. The section has been painted red and a plate erected as a further memorial to his achievements
37.
Cast iron
–
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
38.
Alexander II of Russia
–
Alexander II was the Emperor of Russia from 2 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He was also the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Finland, Alexanders most significant reform as emperor was emancipation of Russias serfs in 1861, for which he is known as Alexander the Liberator. In foreign policy, Alexander sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, despite his otherwise pacifist foreign policy, he fought a brief war with Turkey in 1877–78, pursued further expansion into Siberia and the Caucasus, and conquered Turkestan. Although disappointed by the results of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, among his greatest domestic challenges was an uprising in Poland in 1863, to which he responded by stripping that land of its separate constitution and incorporating it directly into Russia. Alexander was proposing additional parliamentary reforms to counter the rise of nascent revolutionary, born in Moscow, Alexander Nikolaevich was the eldest son of Nicholas I of Russia and of Charlotte of Prussia. Personal and official censorship was rife, criticism of the authorities was regarded as a serious offence, aleksandrs alleged lack of interest in military affairs resulted from his reaction to the effects of the unsavoury Crimean War of 1853-1856 on his own family and on the whole country. Unusually for the time, the young Alexander was taken on a tour of Russia. He also visited many prominent Western European countries in 1838 and 1839, as Tsesarevich, Alexander became the first Romanov heir to visit Siberia. Alexander II succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 1855, the first year of his reign was devoted to the prosecution of the Crimean War and, after the fall of Sevastopol, to negotiations for peace led by his trusted counsellor Prince Alexander Gorchakov. The country had exhausted and humiliated by the war. Bribe-taking, theft and corruption were everywhere, in 1867 he sold Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million after recognising the great difficulty of defending it against the United Kingdom or the former British colony of Canada. After Alexander became emperor in 1855, he maintained a generally liberal course, despite this, he was a target for numerous assassination attempts. On 13 March 1881, members of the Narodnaya Volya party killed him with a bomb and this step had been followed by one even more significant. The hint was taken, in all provinces where serfdom existed, the emancipation was not merely a humanitarian question capable of being solved instantaneously by imperial ukase. It contained very complicated problems, deeply affecting the economic, social and political future of the nation, the emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the Russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in Europe to shake off serfdom. The architects of the manifesto were Alexanders brother Konstantin, Yakov Rostovtsev. On 3 March 1861, six years after his accession, the law was signed and published. The changes included universal military conscription, introduced for all classes on 1 January 1874
39.
Saint Petersburg
–
Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
40.
Helsinki
–
Helsinki is the capital and largest city of Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 629,512, a population of 1,231,595. Helsinki is located some 80 kilometres north of Tallinn, Estonia,400 km east of Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki has close historical connections with these three cities. The Helsinki metropolitan area includes the core of Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, Kauniainen. It is the worlds northernmost metro area of one million people. The Helsinki metropolitan area is the fourth largest metropolitan area in the Nordic countries, Helsinki is Finlands major political, educational, financial, cultural, and research center as well as one of northern Europes major cities. Approximately 75% of foreign companies operating in Finland have settled in the Helsinki region, the nearby municipality of Vantaa is the location of Helsinki Airport, with frequent service to various destinations in Europe and Asia. In 2009, Helsinki was chosen to be the World Design Capital for 2012 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, the city was the venue for the 1952 Summer Olympics and the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest 2007. In 2011, the Monocle magazine ranked Helsinki the most liveable city in the world in its Liveable Cities Index 2011, in the Economist Intelligence Units August 2015 Liveability survey, assessing the best and worst cities to live in globally, Helsinki placed among the worlds top ten cities. Helsinki is used to refer to the city in most languages, the Swedish name Helsingfors is the original official name of the city. The Finnish name probably comes from Helsinga and similar names used for the river that is known as the Vantaa River. Helsingfors comes from the name of the parish, Helsinge and the rapids, which flowed through the original village. As part of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, one suggestion for the origin of the name Helsinge is that it originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Others have proposed that the name derives from the Swedish word helsing, other Scandinavian cities located at similar geographic locations were given similar names at the time, for example Helsingør and Helsingborg. The name Helsinki has been used in Finnish official documents and in Finnish language newspapers since 1819, the decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue. This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish, in Helsinki slang the city is called Stadi. Hesa, is not used by natives to the city, helsset is the Northern Sami name of Helsinki
41.
VR Group
–
VR or VR Group is a state-owned railway company in Finland. Formerly known as Suomen Valtion Rautatiet until 1922 and Valtionrautatiet / Statsjärnvägarna until 1995 and its most important function is the operation of freight and passenger rail services. Since 2010, the maintenance and the construction of the network have been the responsibility of the Finnish Transport Agency. The operation and network were originally carried out by the parent company Valtionrautatiet until 1995, when it was split into VR Group and the rail administration entity Ratahallintokeskus. Rail transport started in Finland in 1862, and multiple main lines were built at the end of the nineteenth, Valtion Rautatiet operated mainly on the bigger and longer main lines. During the twentieth century, most private companies were shut down. In 1995 the company was privatised into VR group, the group owns a bus company, Pohjolan Liikenne, and a road freight haulage company VR Transpoint. Altogether the group of companies includes 21 companies employing a total of about 14,400 people, because in most parts of Finland the density of population is low, Finland is not optimally suited for railways. Commuter services are rare outside the Helsinki area, but express trains interconnect most cities. As in France, the majority of services are connections to the capital. Seven stations allow loading and unloading of cars on trains, Helsinki, Turku and Tampere in the south, Oulu further north, car transport trains stop at other stations along the way for normal passenger transport. Finland is the only Nordic country to offer car transport on trains, however, car transport on trains is available on many European countries outside the Nordic countries. VR runs commuter traffic in the Helsinki area, there is an international passenger rail service from Finland to Russia. As of June 2011, there are four Allegro passenger trains per day to Saint Petersburg, on 29 May 2011, Allegro traffic increased from two to four trains per day in each direction. The tracks on the Helsinki – Saint Petersburg line were upgraded to enable a higher running speed before the Allegro started its service, domestic and international freight services are provided by VR Transpoint, part of VR Group. In 2009, both domestic and international freight traffic declined, which worsened VR Groups financial position, VR operated steam locomotives until 1975, the regular use of steam traction for scheduled passenger services ended in 1970 but occasional use continued until 1975. As of 2011, the company operates two classes of locomotives and three classes of diesel locomotives. The use of locomotive hauled passenger trains has declined due to electrification of all main lines
42.
Portland and Ogdensburg Railway
–
The Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad was a railroad planned to connect Portland, Maine to Ogdensburg, New York. The plan failed, and in 1880 the Vermont section was reorganized and leased by the Boston & Lowell Railroad, in 1886, the Maine and New Hampshire section was reorganized as the Portland & Ogdensburg Railway. That part was leased to the Maine Central Railroad in 1888, and in 1912 the Maine Central leased the eastern part of the Vermont section from the Boston & Maine Railroad, the successor to the B&L. Their track joined in a ceremony at the summit of Crawford Notch on August 7,1875, then opened on August 16,1875. In 1864, the Essex County Railroad was chartered to run from St. Johnsbury, Vermont, on the Connecticut & Passumpsic Rivers Railroad, the Montpelier & St. Johnsbury Railroad was chartered in 1866 to run west from St. Johnsbury to Montpelier. The Lamoille Valley Railroad was chartered in 1867 to run from West Danville on the planned M&SJ northwest to Swanton, construction on the Vermont Division began in 1871, and was complete in 1877. To connect between the two divisions, the company at first used trackage rights over the Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad from Fabyan to Dalton, New Hampshire, but soon built its own alignment. West of Swanton, the P&O was allied with the Ogdensburgh & Lake Champlain Railroad, running west from Rouses Point, New York to Ogdensburg, and used the Vermont & Canada Railroad to access it. The Montreal, Portland & Boston Railway opened in 1876 from Montreal, Quebec to the national border, just after completion of the Vermont Division the company went bankrupt, was taken over by the receiver on October 19,1877. The Vermont Division was reorganized as the St. Johnsbury & Lake Champlain Railroad on January 30,1880, on August 9,1882 the Montreal, Portland & Boston Railway leased it, but it was soon taken over by the Boston & Lowell Railroad. The main division was reorganized on June 8,1884 as the Portland & Ogdensburg Railway, and on August 20,1888, the Maine Central Railroad leased it as their Mountain Division. In July 1912, the Maine Central Railroad leased the old Vermont Division, but on August 1,1927 the lease was terminated, and a new lease was made on only the part east of St. Johnsbury. The remainder of the Vermont Division operated as the St. Johnsbury & Lake Champlain Railroad until reorganized as the St. Johnsbury & Lamoille County Railroad in 1948, Railroad History Database Lamoille Valley Rail Corridor, A Brief History
