1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
6.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
7.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
8.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
9.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
10.
1869
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As of the start of 1869, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, january 5 – Scotlands oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F. C. is founded. January 20 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton is the first woman to testify before the United States Congress, sisterhood, a philanthropic educational organization for women, is founded at Iowa Wesleyan College in Mount Pleasant, Iowa. January 27 – The Republic of Ezo is proclaimed on the northern Japanese island of Ezo by remaining adherents to the Tokugawa shogunate, february 5 – Prospectors in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia, discover the largest alluvial gold nugget ever found, known as the Welcome Stranger. February 20 – Ranavalona II, the Merina Queen of Madagascar, is baptized, february 26 – The 2½-year-old Mahbub Ali Khan begins a 42-year reign as Nizam of Hyderabad. March 1 – North German Confederation issues 10gr and 30gr value stamps, march 4 – Ulysses S. Grant is sworn in as President of the United States. March 6 – Dmitri Mendeleev makes a presentation of his periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society. March 9 – Southern Illinois University Carbondale is founded, march 24 – Titokowarus War ends with surrender of the last Māori troops at large in the South Taranaki District of New Zealands North Island. April 6 – The American Museum of Natural History is founded in New York, may – In France, the opposition, consisting of republicans, monarchists and liberals, polls almost 45% of the vote in national elections. May 4–10 – Naval Battle of Hakodate, The Imperial Japanese navy defeats adherents of the Tokugawa shogunate, may 6 – Purdue University is founded in West Lafayette, Indiana. May 10 – The First Transcontinental Railroad in North America is completed at Promontory, Utah, may 15 – Womens suffrage, In New York, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton form the National Woman Suffrage Association, may 18 – One day after surrendering at the land Battle of Hakodate, Enomoto Takeaki turns over Goryōkaku to Japanese forces, signaling the collapse of the Republic of Ezo. May 22 – Sainsburys first store, in Drury Lane, London, is opened, may 26 – Boston University is chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. June 1 – The Cincinnati Red Stockings open the season as the first fully professional team. June 2 – Sherwood College is founded in Nainital, India, june 15 – John Wesley Hyatt patents celluloid, in Albany, New York. June 27 – The fortress of Goryōkaku is turned over to Imperial Japanese forces, bringing an end to the Republic of Ezo, the Battle of Hakodate, june 30-July 2 – The first Estonian Song Festival takes place in Tartu. July 10 – The Swedish town Gävle is destroyed in a city fire, August 9 – August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht found the Social Democratic Workers Party of Germany. August 27 – The University of Oxford win the first international race held on the River Thames against Harvard University
11.
1870
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As of the start of 1870, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The first edition of The Northern Echo newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed. January 3 – Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins, january 6 – The Musikverein, Vienna, is inaugurated in Austria-Hungary. January 10 – John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil, january 15 – A political cartoon for the first time symbolizes the United States Democratic Party with a donkey. January 20 – SS City of Boston vanishes at sea with all 177 aboard, january 23 – U. S soldiers attack a peaceful camp of Piegan Blackfeet Indians led by chief Heavy Runner in the Marias Massacre. January 26 – Reconstruction Era, Virginia rejoins the Union, february – Denis Vrain-Lucas is sentenced to 2 years in prison for multiple forgery in Paris. February 1 – Goodna State School in Goodna, Queensland, Australia is founded, february 2 – It is revealed that the famed Cardiff Giant in the U. S. is just carved gypsum and not the petrified remains of a human. February 3 – The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, february 9 – The U. S. Army Weather Bureau is created. February 10 Anaheim, California is incorporated, the YWCA is founded in New York City. February 12 – Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory, february 23 – Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union. February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, february 26 – In New York City, the first pneumatic subway is opened, Beach Pneumatic Transit. February 26 – The German Commerzbank is founded in Hamburg, february 27 – The circle of the sun flag of Japan is adopted as the national flag for Japanese merchant ships by proclamation of the Daijō-kan. February 28 – The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire, march – The Mitsubishi company is established in Japan as a shipping firm by Iwasaki Yatarō with Thomas Blake Glover. March 1 – Marshal Francisco Solano Lópezs last troops are cornered by those of the Triple Alliance at the Battle of Cerro Corá in Paraguay, lópez refuses to surrender and is killed, ending the Paraguayan War. March 4 – Thomas Scott is executed by Louis Riels provisional government during the Red River Rebellion in modern-day Manitoba, march 5 – First ever international Association football match, England v Scotland, takes place under the auspices of the Football Association at The Oval, London. March 10 – The Deutsche Bank is founded in Berlin, march 19 – The Ohio Legislature passes the Cannon Act, thereby establishing the Ohio Agriculture and Mechanical College, later Ohio State University. March 24 – Syracuse University is established and officially opens, march 30 The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, giving blacks the right to vote, is ratified. Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction, march 31 – Thomas Mundy Peterson is the first African-American to vote in an election
12.
1871
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As of the start of 1871, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 18 – The member states of the North German Confederation, the King of Prussia is declared the first German Emperor as Wilhelm I of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. January 21 – Giuseppe Garibaldis group of French and Italian volunteer troops in support of the French Third Republic win a battle against the Prussians in Dijon, february 9 – United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries is founded. March 7 – José Paranhos, Viscount of Rio Branco, becomes Prime Minister of the Empire of Brazil, march 21 – John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne marries Princess Louise. March 21 – Otto von Bismarck becomes first Chancellor of the German Empire, march 22 In North Carolina, William Holden becomes the first governor of a U. S. state to be removed from office by impeachment. The United States Army issues an order for the abandonment of Fort Kearny, march 26 – The Paris Commune is formally established in Paris. March 27 – The first rugby union International results in a 4–1 win by Scotland over England, march 29 First Surgeon General of the United States appointed. The Royal Albert Hall in London is opened by Queen Victoria, april – The Stockholms Handelsbank is founded. April 4 – New Jersey Detective Agency chartered, april 20 – U. S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Civil Rights Act. April 24 – Murder of servant girl Jane Clouson in Eltham, may 4 – The first supposedly Major League Baseball game is played. May 8 – The first Major League Baseball home run is hit by Ezra Sutton of the Cleveland Forest Citys, may 10 – Treaty of Frankfurt is signed confirming the frontiers between Germany and France. May 11 – The first trial in the Tichborne case begins in the London Court of Common Pleas, may 21 – Opening of the first rack railway in Europe, the Vitznau–Rigi Railway on Mount Rigi in Switzerland. May 30 – French Third Republic, Government suppression of the Paris Commune rebellion is completed, june 1 – Bombardment of the Selee River Forts, Koreans attack two United States Navy warships. June 10 – United States expedition to Korea, Captain McLane Tilton leads 109 members of the United States Marine Corps in a naval attack on the Han River forts on Ganghwa Island in Korea. June 18 – The University Tests Act removes restrictions limiting access to Oxford, Cambridge, july 20 British Columbia joins the confederation of Canada. C. W. Alcock proposes that a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association, july 21 – August 26 – First ever photographs of Yellowstone National Park region taken by the photographer William Henry Jackson during the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. July 22 – The foundation stone of the first Tay Rail Bridge is laid, july 28 – The Annie, the first boat ever launched on Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park region. August 29 – The abolition of the han system is carried out in Japan, August 31 – Adolphe Thiers becomes the President of the French Republic
13.
1873
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As of the start of 1873, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Japan adopts the Gregorian calendar, the California Penal Code goes into effect. January 17 – American Indian Wars, The First Battle of the Stronghold is fought during the Modoca War, February 11 – The Spanish Cortes deposes King Amadeus I and proclaims the First Spanish Republic. February 12 Emilio Castelar, the foreign minister, becomes prime minister of the new Spanish Republic. February 20 The University of California opens its first medical school in San Francisco, British Naval Officer John Morseby discovers the site of Port Moresby and claims the land for Britain. March 3 – Censorship, The United States Congress enacts the Comstock Law, making it illegal to send any obscene, lewd, march 4 – Ulysses S. Grant is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. March 15 – The Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity is founded at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, march 19 – German Modernist composer Max Reger is born in Brand, Bavaria. March 22 – Emancipation Day for Puerto Rico, Slaves are freed, march 29 – The Rio Tinto Company is formed in Spain, following the February 17 purchase of the Rio Tinto mine from the Spanish government by a British investment group. April 1 – The British steamer RMS Atlantic sinks off Nova Scotia, april 4 – The Kennel Club, the worlds first kennel club, is founded in the United Kingdom. April 15–17 – American Indian Wars, The Second Battle of the Stronghold is fought, april 19 –11 perish in a train derailment due to a bridge washout in the village of Richmond Switch in Richmond, Rhode Island. May – Henry Rose exhibits barbed wire at an Illinois county fair, which is taken up by Joseph Glidden and Jacob Haish, may 5 – Battle of Eraul, Carlists under General Dorregaray defeat Republicans at Eraul, near Estella during the Third Carlist War. May 9 Der Gründerkrach, The Wiener Börse crash in Austria-Hungary ends the Gründerzeit and heralds the global Panic of 1873, the Battle of Montejurra at Navarra, Spain, is fought during the Third Carlist War. May 20 Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis receive United States patent#139121 for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants, Levi Strauss & Co. begin manufacturing the famous Levis brand of jeans, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire. In Chipping Norton, England, rioters attempt to free the Ascott Martyrs –sixteen women sentenced to imprisonment for attempting to dissuade strikebreakers, may 23 The Canadian Parliament establishes the North-West Mounted Police. The Preakness Stakes horse race is run for the first time in Baltimore, may 27 Classical archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovers Priams Treasure. Laan brings order to the created by the dockworker riots of Tripoli. The city of Khiva falls to Imperial Russian forces, under the command of General Konstantin von Kaufman, june 4 – American Indian Wars, The Modoc War ends with the capture of Kintpuash. June 9 – Alexandra Palace in London is destroyed by only a fortnight after its opening
14.
1874
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As of the start of 1874, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – The Pangkor Treaty, by which the British extended their control over, first the Sultanate of Perak, january 1 – New York City annexes The Bronx. January 2 – Ignacio María González becomes head of state of the Dominican Republic for the first time, in a brilliant action the Carlists were routed, losing 200 prisoners and 80 horses, while Despujol was promoted to Brigadier and became Conde de Caspe. January 23 Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria, marries Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, camille Saint-Saëns composition Danse macabre receives its première. February 21 – The Oakland Daily Tribune publishes its first issue, february 23 – Walter Clopton Wingfield patents a game called sphairistike which is more commonly called lawn tennis. Carlists, under General Nicolás Ollo, entrenched at Somorrostro outside Bilbao drive back an assault by General Fernando Primo de Rivera. The republicans lose 1,200 men, and Moriones loses his nerve demanding reinforcements, march 14 – Battle of Castellfollit de la Roca, Appointed to command the Spanish Republican army in the north, General Ramón Nouvilas attempted to relieve the Carlist siege of Olot in Girona. But at Castellfollit de la Roca, in one of the Government’s worst defeats, Nouvilas was routed by Carlist General Francesc Savalls, march 18 Hawaii signs a treaty with the United States granting exclusive trading rights. The Dresden English Football Club is founded, first soccer club on European mainland, march – The Young Mens Hebrew Association in Manhattan is founded. April 15–May 15 – First exhibition of the group of painters, Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes, Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs. Louis Leroys critical review of it published on 25 April gives rise to the term Impressionism for the movement, with reference to Claude Monets Impression, may 2 – Siege of Bilbao, The siege is lifted. May 9 – The first commercial horse-drawn carriage debuts in the city of Bombay, may 20 – Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis receive a U. S. patent for blue jeans with copper rivets. The price is $13.50 per dozen, june 14 – Michel Domingue becomes head of state of Haiti. June 22 – Andrew Taylor Still starts the movement for osteopathic medicine in the United States at Kirksville, july 1 Universal Postal Union is established. Philadelphia Zoo opens, the first public zoo in the United States, sholes and Glidden typewriter, with cylindrical platen and QWERTY keyboard, first marketed, in the United States. The Bank of Spain emits the first peseta banknotes, july 23 – Aires de Ornelas e Vasconcelos is appointed the Archbishop of the Portuguese colonial enclave of Goa. July 24 – Mathew Evans and Henry Woodward patent the first incandescent lamp with a light bulb. After two days the outnumbered garrison capitulated but Don Alfonso permitted a terrible slaughter, subsequently another republican force defeats the disorderly Catalans who flee back to the Ebro
15.
1875
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As of the start of 1875, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category leaving First Class, other British railway companies follow Midlands lead during the rest of the year. January 12 – Guangxu becomes 11th Qing dynasty Emperor of China at the age of 4 in succession to his cousin, january 14 – The newly proclaimed King Alfonso XII of Spain arrives in Spain to restore the monarchy during the Third Carlist War. The Carlists take several pieces of artillery, more than 2,000 rifles,800 men of both sides are killed - mostly government troops. February 18 – The Mason County War begins as a German-American mob breaks into a prison, february 21 – Jeanne Calment is born in Arles, France. She would go on to become the worlds oldest verified person to have lived, reaching an age of 122 years and 164 days. February 24 – The SS Gothenburg sinks off Australias east coast with the loss of approximately 102 lives, including a number of civil servants. The two tribes are not allowed to return to the Verde Valley until 1900, february 27 – Newton Booth, 11th Governor of California, resigns, having been elected Senator. Lieutenant Governor of California Romualdo Pacheco becomes acting Governor and he is later replaced by elected governor William Irwin. March 1 – The United States Congress passes the Civil Rights Act, march 3 – Georges Bizets opera Carmen receives its première at the Opéra-Comique in Paris. Bizet’s Carmen is first performed at the Opéra-Comique, Paris, France, the first indoor ice hockey game is played at the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. March 15 – Roman Catholic Archbishop of New York John McCloskey is named the first cardinal in the United States, april 10 – The Arya Samaj is founded in Mumbai by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. April 25 – Ten sophomores from Rutgers College steal a one-ton cannon from the campus of the College of New Jersey, may 7 – The Treaty of Saint Petersburg is signed between Japan and Russia. May 7 – German liner SS Schiller wrecks on the rocks off the Isles of Scilly with the loss of 335 lives, may 17 – Aristides wins the first Kentucky Derby. May 20 – The Metre Convention is signed in Paris, France, june – The record-setting American clipper Flying Cloud of 1851 is burned for scrap metal. June 4 – Two American colleges play each other in arguably the first game of football, Tufts University and Harvard University at Jarvis Field in Cambridge. Summer – Third Carlist War in Spain, Two government armies under General Quesada, both they and their Carlist opponent drive opposing sympathisers from their homes and burn crops in areas they can not hold. Several Carlist generals are unjustly put on trial for disloyalty, mendiri is also removed from his command, and is replaced by the Count of Caserta
16.
1872 in architecture
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The year 1872 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Work begins on the building of the Church of the Holy Angels, Hoar Cross, Staffordshire, England, designed by George Frederick Bodley, july - The Albert Memorial in London, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, is opened by Queen Victoria. Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, Zaragoza, Aragon, st Mary Magdalene, Paddington, London, designed by George Edmund Street, originally completed. St. Matthews German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Charleston, South Carolina, designed by John Henry Devereux, the Egyptian Halls, a pioneering iron-framed commercial building in Glasgow designed by Alexander Thomson. Palacio Federal Legislativo, Caracas, Venezuela, designed by Luciano Urdaneta, royal Gold Medal - Friedrich von Schmidt. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Louis Bernier, december 17 - William Slater, London-based architect
17.
1872 in art
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Events from the year 1872 in art. February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City. A, november 13 – Claude Monet begins painting Impression, Sunrise as viewed from his hotel room at Le Havre. November – Edward Lear acquires his cat Foss, date unknown William De Morgan sets up an art pottery in Chelsea, London. The first Wallace fountains, to the design of sculptor Charles-Auguste Lebourg, are installed in Paris
18.
1872 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1872. March – Sheridan Le Fanus Gothic vampire novella Carmilla concludes serialization in the monthly The Dark Blue and is included in his collection In a Glass Darkly, set in Styria, it is influential in introducing the lesbian vampire genre. July 7 – Paul Verlaine abandons his family to go to London with Arthur Rimbaud, september 30 – George MacDonald arrives in Boston to begin a lecture tour of the United States. December 3 – George Smith presents the first translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh to a meeting of the Society of Biblical Archaeology in London. December 22 – Jules Vernes novel Around the World in Eighty Days concludes serialization in the daily newspaper Le Temps the day following the date of the narrative. The Federation of Madrid expels all signatories of an article in La Emancipación. Benito Pérez Galdós begins writing the series of historical novels known as Episodios Nacionales with Trafalgar. Rose la Touche rejects John Ruskin for the last time, lafcadio Hearn becomes a reporter on the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer. The first university course in American Literature is taught at Princeton University by John Seely Hart, the Scottish Gaelic magazine Féillire is first published as Almanac Gàilig air son 1872 in Inverness. Machado de Assis – Ressurreição Mary Elizabeth Braddon – To the Bitter End Rhoda Broughton Good-bye, D.1 Warren Felt Evans – Mental Medicine Friedrich Nietzsche – The Birth of Tragedy Henry Wilson – History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, vols. 1 &2 January 31 – Zane Grey, American Western novelist April 4 – Frida Uhl, Austrian writer May 21 – Teffi, born Nadezhda Alexandrovna Lokhvitskaya, Russian-born humorist May 31 – W. M
19.
1872 in Canada
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Events from the year 1872 in Canada. Head of state – Queen Victoria Governor general – John Young, april 25 - The first issue of the weekly Ontario Workman is published by the Toronto Trades Assembly. It is Canadas first labour newspaper, may 15 - In the first nationwide labour protest, marchers across the land press for the nine-hour workday. June 14 - The Trade Unions Act is passed in parliament, the Criminal Law Amendment Act is also passed, making picketing illegal. June 22 - A Grand Trunk Railway express passenger train from Toronto to Montreal derails near Shannonville, Ontario, the new Patent Act encourages import or licensing of technology and foreign patents by allowing legal use of patent in Canada if not registered in Canada within two years. An award of arbitration sets the boundary between Canada and the United States in the Gulf of Georgia and the Strait of Juan de Fuca
20.
1872 in Denmark
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Events from the year 1872 in Denmark. Monarch – Christian IX Prime minister – Ludvig Holstein-Holsteinborg 1 April – The Danish Meteorological Institute is founded,3 August – Prince Carl, the future King Haakon VII of Norway, is born to Crown Prince Frederick and Crown Princess Louise. 20 September – The 1872 Folketing election is held, resulting in a victory for the United Left, 12–14 November – The 1872 Baltic Sea storm surge floods large parts of Lolland and Falster. 80 people are killed,50 ships are wrecked on the east coast of Zealand and other islands, low-lying areas along the Øresund, in Eastern Jutland,12 December – The central battery ironclad Odin is launched from the Naval Dockyard in Copenhagen. The Book on Adler, a book on pastor Adolph Peter Adler by philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, is published posthumously, brumleby, an enclave of terraced houses and one of the earliest examples of social housing, is completed in Copenhagen. Fritz Hansen, a design company, is founded. Svendborg Gymnasium, one of the largest upper secondary schools in Denmark, is founded as Svendborg Realskole. F. S. Grundtvig, pastor, author, poet, philosopher, historian, teacher and politician 3 September – Anders Sandøe Ørsted, botanist, mycologist, zoologist and marine biologist
21.
1872 in the United States
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Events from the year 1872 in the United States. February 13 – Rex, the most famous parade on Mardi Gras, February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City. March 1 – Yellowstone National Park is established as the worlds first national park March 5 – George Westinghouse patents the air brake for railways. March 26 – The 7. 4–7.9 Mw Lone Pine earthquake shakes eastern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X. Twenty-seven people were killed, may 10 – Victoria Woodhull becomes the first woman nominated for President of the United States. May 22 – Reconstruction, President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Amnesty Act of 1872 into law restoring full rights to all. June 4 – Two men lead investors to land near the Wyoming-Colorado border claiming to have found diamonds there, September 4 – The New York Sun breaks the story on the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal September 26 – The first Shriners Temple is established in New York City. October 1 – The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College begins its first academic session, October 2 – Morgan State University founded. November – Ulysses S. Grant defeats Horace Greeley in the U. S, November 5 – Womens suffrage, In defiance of the law, suffragist Susan B. Anthony votes for the first time, November 7 – The Mary Celeste sets sail from New York, bound for Genoa. November 9 – Great Boston Fire of 1872, In Boston, Massachusetts, the two-day event destroyed about 65 acres of city,776 buildings, much of the financial district and caused US$60 million in damage. November 28 – The geologist Clarence King uncovers the hoax in Wyoming in The New York Times. November 29 – Indian Wars, The Modoc War begins with the Battle of Lost River, December 4 – The crewless American-owned ship Mary Celeste is found by the British brig Dei Gratia in the Atlantic. December 9 – P. B. S. Pinchback takes office as Governor of Louisiana, the first African American governor of a U. S. state. Reconstruction era Gilded Age The Wheeler Survey of the southwestern US, 1872–1879 January 20 – Julia Morgan, California architect January 31 – Zane Grey, Western novelist February 1 – Jerome F. S. Senator from Tennessee from 1929 to 1931 March 15 – Harry Holman, character film actor April 5 – Samuel Cate Prescott, food scientist and microbiologist April 23 – Nathan Philemon Bryan, senator from Arkansas from 1913 to 1937 James J. Couzens, U. S. Senator from Arkansas in 1913 November 7 – Leonora Speyer, née von Stosch, classical violinist and poet November 11 – Maude Adams, stage actress December 9 – Thomas W. Hardwick, U. S. Senator from Georgia from 1914 to 1919 December 17 – Walter Loving, African American military bandleader January 4 – Arnold Naudain, U. S. Senator from Delaware from 1830 to 1836 January 7 – James Fisk, financier January 9 – Henry Halleck, general January 21 – Thomas Bragg, U. S
22.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
23.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
24.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
25.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
26.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
27.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
28.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
