1.
1867 in science
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The year 1867 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – First clear recorded use of the science in English with todays usage as restricted to the natural and physical sciences. Gorse naturalises in New Zealand and soon becomes the worst invasive weed, swiss botanist Simon Schwendener proposes his dual theory of lichens. Rosa La France, the first hybrid tea rose, is cultivated by Jean-Baptiste Guillot, the Big Trees Ranch at Felton, California, is bought by San Francisco businessman Joseph Warren Welch to preserve the giant redwoods from logging. Publication of the first volume of Das Kapital by Karl Marx, at Fountain Point, Michigan, an artesian water spring begins to gush continuously. Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel established in the United States under the directorship of Clarence King, English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth publishes the first edition of his Choice and Chance, An Elementary Treatise on Permutations, Combinations, and Probability. March 16 – First publication of an article by Joseph Lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, july 17 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the Harvard School of Dental Medicine is established as the first dental school in the United States. Yellow fever kills 3093 in New Orleans, henry Maudsley publishes The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. It will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, february 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal. July 2 – First elevated railroad in the United States begins service in New York, december 14 – Spanish inventor Narcís Monturiol submerges his submarine Ictineo II at Barcelona, demonstrating its chemically-fired anaerobic steam propulsion system. Pierre Michaux invents the front wheel-driven velocipede, the first mass-produced bicycle, copley Medal, Karl Ernst von Baer Wollaston Medal, George Poulett Scrope January 11 – Edward B. January 22 – Gisela Januszewska, Moravian-born public health physician, april 16 – Wilbur Wright, American pioneer aviator. June 11 – Charles Fabry, French optical physicist, october 21 – Aldred Scott Warthin, American cancer geneticist. November 7 – Maria Skłodowska, later Marie Curie, Polish-born physicist, november 26 – Emil von Dungern, German serologist. December 1 – Ignacy Mościcki, chemist and President of Poland, december 26 – John Bradfield, Australian civil engineer. January 16 – William Marsden, English surgeon, february 9 – Filippo de Filippi, Italian zoologist. March 27 – Prideaux John Selby, English ornithologist, may 29 – Margaretta Morris, American entomologist. August 25 – Michael Faraday, English chemist and physicist
2.
1869 in science
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The year 1869 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. November 4 – The first issue of scientific journal Nature is published in London, march 6 – Dmitri Mendeleev makes a formal presentation of his periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society. June 15 – John Wesley Hyatt patents celluloid, in Albany, hippolyte Mège-Mouriès patents margarine in France as a beef tallow and skimmed milk substitute for butter. Publication of Adolphe Wurtzs Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée begins in Paris, april 6 – The American Museum of Natural History is founded in New York. Paul Langerhans discovers the pancreatic islets, friedrich Miescher discovers deoxyribonucleic acid in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. Found in the nuclei of cells, Miescher names it nuclein, alfred Russel Wallace publishes The Malay Archipelago. W. Stanley Jevons publishes The Substitution of Similars and has a Logic Piano constructed to work out problems in symbolic logic. Copley Medal, Henri Victor Regnault Wollaston Medal for Geology, Henry Clifton Sorby February 14 – C. T. R. Wilson, april 8 – Harvey Cushing, American neurosurgeon. July 18 – Maria von Linden, German bacteriologist and zoologist, august 23 – Robert Gunther, English historian of science. October 3 – Robert W. Paul, English pioneer of cinematography, december 16 – Bertha Lamme, American electrical engineer. Helen Boyle, British physician and psychologist, july 22 – John A. Roebling, German American bridge engineer. September 11 – Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist
3.
1878 in science
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The year 1878 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. Proctor describes the Zone of Avoidance, the area of the sky that is obscured by our own galaxy. Death of last confirmed Cape Lion, the rare earth element holmium is identified in erbium by Marc Delafontaine and Jacques-Louis Soret in Geneva and by Per Teodor Cleve in Sweden. An Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom places Epping Forest in the care of the City of London Corporation to remain unenclosed. June 22 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld sets out on the year-long first navigation of the Northern Sea Route, belgian mathematician Victor DHondt describes the DHondt method of voting. English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth is the first to publish Bertrands ballot theorem, Ádám Politzer publishes Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde, a major otology textbook. Dentists Act in the United Kingdom limits the title of dentist, february 11 – The first weekly weather report is published in the United Kingdom. 31 Iguanodon skeletons are discovered in a mine at Bernissart. February 19 – The phonograph is patented by Thomas Edison, the oldest known audio recording is recovered from this device in 2012. March – The basic process, enabling the use of iron ore in steelmaking, developed at Blaenavon Ironworks by Percy Gilchrist. May 22 – John Philip Hollands experimental powered submarine Holland I is launched in Paterson, august – Cleopatras Needle is raised onto its base in London. October 14 – The worlds first recorded floodlit football fixture is played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield, december 18 – Joseph Swan of Newcastle upon Tyne in England announces his invention of an incandescent light bulb. December 31 – Karl Benz produces a gas engine. William Crookes invents the Crookes tube which produces cathode rays, gustav Kessel obtains a patent in Germany for an espresso machine. Czech painter Karel Klíč perfects the photogravure process, lester Allan Pelton produces the first operational Pelton wheel. Remington, in the United States, introduce their No.2 typewriter, october 1 – Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University opens as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College in the United States. Copley Medal, Jean Baptiste Boussingault Wollaston Medal for Geology, Thomas Wright January 1 – A
4.
1882 in science
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The year 1882 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September – Great Comet of 1882 sighted, december 6 – Transit of Venus,1882. March 24 – Robert Koch announces his discovery of the responsible for tuberculosis. Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detects helium on Earth for the first time through its D3 spectral line when he analyzes the lava of Mount Vesuvius, clarence Duttons Tertiary History of the Grand Cañon District is published by the United States Geological Survey. German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann publishes proof that π is a transcendental number, december – Swedish mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler establishes the journal Acta Mathematica. March 28 – Paul Carl Beiersdorf patents an adhesive bandage in Germany, vladimir Bekhterev publishes Provodiashchie puti mozga, beginning to note the role of the hippocampus in memory. By March – Étienne-Jules Marey invents a chronophotographic gun capable of photographing 12 consecutive frames per second on the same plate, april 29 – Werner von Siemens demonstrates his Electromote, the first form of trolleybus, in Berlin. June 6 – Henry W. Seeley patents the electric clothes iron in the United States, september 4 – Thomas Edison starts the worlds first commercial electrical power plant, lighting one square mile of lower Manhattan. American electrical engineer Schuyler Wheeler produces an electric fan, alfred P. Southwick publishes his proposals for use of the electric chair as an execution method in the United States. First International Polar Year, a scientific program, begins. The Chartered Institute of Patent Agents, the modern-day Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys, is founded in the United Kingdom, copley Medal, Arthur Cayley Wollaston Medal for Geology, Franz Ritter von Hauer March 14 – Wacław Sierpiński, Polish mathematician. March 23 – Emmy Noether, German mathematician, March 30 – Melanie Klein, Viennese-born psychoanalyst. June 17 – Harold Gillies, New Zealand-born plastic surgeon, july 21 – Herbert E. Ives, American optical engineer. September 30 – Johannes Hans Geiger, inventor of the Geiger counter, october 5 – Robert Goddard, American rocket scientist. October 26 – Marietta Pallis, Indian-born Graeco-British ecologist, december 11 – Max Born, physicist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1954. December 28 – Arthur Eddington, astrophysicist, january 11 – Theodor Schwann, physiologist. April 19 – Charles Darwin, geologist and naturalist, september 23 – Friedrich Woehler, chemist. October 27 – Christian Heinrich von Nagel, geometer, november 20 – Henry Draper, doctor, astronomer
5.
1872 in art
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Events from the year 1872 in art. February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City. A, november 13 – Claude Monet begins painting Impression, Sunrise as viewed from his hotel room at Le Havre. November – Edward Lear acquires his cat Foss, date unknown William De Morgan sets up an art pottery in Chelsea, London. The first Wallace fountains, to the design of sculptor Charles-Auguste Lebourg, are installed in Paris
6.
1872 in architecture
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The year 1872 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Work begins on the building of the Church of the Holy Angels, Hoar Cross, Staffordshire, England, designed by George Frederick Bodley, july - The Albert Memorial in London, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, is opened by Queen Victoria. Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, Zaragoza, Aragon, st Mary Magdalene, Paddington, London, designed by George Edmund Street, originally completed. St. Matthews German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Charleston, South Carolina, designed by John Henry Devereux, the Egyptian Halls, a pioneering iron-framed commercial building in Glasgow designed by Alexander Thomson. Palacio Federal Legislativo, Caracas, Venezuela, designed by Luciano Urdaneta, royal Gold Medal - Friedrich von Schmidt. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Louis Bernier, december 17 - William Slater, London-based architect
7.
1872 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1872. March – Sheridan Le Fanus Gothic vampire novella Carmilla concludes serialization in the monthly The Dark Blue and is included in his collection In a Glass Darkly, set in Styria, it is influential in introducing the lesbian vampire genre. July 7 – Paul Verlaine abandons his family to go to London with Arthur Rimbaud, september 30 – George MacDonald arrives in Boston to begin a lecture tour of the United States. December 3 – George Smith presents the first translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh to a meeting of the Society of Biblical Archaeology in London. December 22 – Jules Vernes novel Around the World in Eighty Days concludes serialization in the daily newspaper Le Temps the day following the date of the narrative. The Federation of Madrid expels all signatories of an article in La Emancipación. Benito Pérez Galdós begins writing the series of historical novels known as Episodios Nacionales with Trafalgar. Rose la Touche rejects John Ruskin for the last time, lafcadio Hearn becomes a reporter on the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer. The first university course in American Literature is taught at Princeton University by John Seely Hart, the Scottish Gaelic magazine Féillire is first published as Almanac Gàilig air son 1872 in Inverness. Machado de Assis – Ressurreição Mary Elizabeth Braddon – To the Bitter End Rhoda Broughton Good-bye, D.1 Warren Felt Evans – Mental Medicine Friedrich Nietzsche – The Birth of Tragedy Henry Wilson – History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, vols. 1 &2 January 31 – Zane Grey, American Western novelist April 4 – Frida Uhl, Austrian writer May 21 – Teffi, born Nadezhda Alexandrovna Lokhvitskaya, Russian-born humorist May 31 – W. M
8.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
9.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
10.
Robert Chesebrough
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Robert Augustus Chesebrough, was an American chemist. He discovered petroleum jelly which he marketed as Vaseline and he founded the Chesebrough Manufacturing Company, born in London to American parents, he was raised in New York City. Chesebrough began his career as a chemist clarifying kerosene from the oil of sperm whales, the discovery of petroleum in Titusville, Pennsylvania, rendered his job obsolete, so he traveled to Titusville to research what new materials might be created from the new fuel. This led to his discovery of petroleum jelly, which he trade-named as Vaseline, in 1875, he founded the Chesebrough Manufacturing Company that in 1955 became Chesebrough-Ponds, a leading manufacturer of personal-care products. Chesebrough patented the process of making petroleum jelly in 1872, chesebroughs success stemmed from firm belief in his product. Before he began selling petroleum jelly, he tested it on his own cuts, Chesebrough was still unable to sell any to drug stores until he travelled around New York demonstrating his miracle product. In front of an audience, he would burn his skin with acid or a flame, then spread the clear jelly on his injuries while demonstrating past injuries, healed, he claimed. To further create demand, he gave out free samples, Chesebrough opened his first factory in 1870. The first known reference to the name Vaseline is in his U. S. patent, “I, Robert Chesebrough, have invented a new, the word is believed to come from German Wasser + Greek έλαιον. Chesebrough lived to be 96 years old and was such a believer in Vaseline that he claimed to have eaten a spoonful of it every day and he died at his house in Spring Lake, New Jersey. He also, reportedly, during a bout of pleurisy in his mid-50s, had his nurse rub him from head to foot with the substance. He is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Robert Chesebrough at Find a Grave
11.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
12.
Vaseline
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Vaseline /ˈvæsəˌliːn/ is a brand of petroleum jelly-based products owned by Anglo-Dutch company Unilever. Products include plain petroleum jelly and a selection of skin creams, soaps, lotions, cleansers, in many languages, the word Vaseline is used as generic for petroleum jelly, in Portuguese and some Spanish-speaking countries, the Unilever products are called Vasenol. The first known reference to the name Vaseline was by the inventor of petroleum jelly, I, Robert Chesebrough, have invented a new and useful product from petroleum which I have named Vaseline. The name vaseline is said by the manufacturer to be derived from German Wasser water + Greek έλαιον olive oil. In 1859, Chesebrough went to the oil fields in Titusville, Pennsylvania, the oil workers had been using the substance to heal cuts and burns. Chesebrough took samples of the rod wax back to Brooklyn, extracted the usable petroleum jelly, Vaseline was made by the Chesebrough Manufacturing Company until the company was purchased by Unilever in 1987. While Vaseline can be used as a lubricant, it can also be used as an insulator for local skin conditions characterized by tissue dehydration. Vaseline can help protect minor cuts and burns, media related to Vaseline at Wikimedia Commons Official website
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Eugen Baumann
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Eugen Baumann was a German chemist. He was one of the first people to create polyvinyl chloride, Baumann was born in Cannstatt, which is now part of Stuttgart. After he attended a gymnasium in Stuttgart, he was educated in the pharmacy of his father, during his time in Stuttgart, he already attended the lectures of Hermann von Fehling at the University of Stuttgart. To broaden his education, he went to Lübeck and Gothenburg to work in pharmacies there, later, he studied pharmacy at the University of Tübingen. He passed his first exam in 1870 and received his PhD in 1872 for work with Felix Hoppe-Seyler and he followed Hoppe-Seyler to the University of Straßburg where did his habilitation in 1876. The same year, Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond offered him a position as the Head of the Chemistry Department of the Institute of Physiology in Berlin, in 1882, Baumann became professor of medicine at that institute, and subsequently obtained professor position at the University of Freiburg. In 1895, he took over the management of Hoppe-Seylers Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie with Albrecht Kossel, from 1883 till his death, Baumann was married to Theresa Kopp, the daughter of chemist Hermann Kopp, and they had five children. He died at the age of 49 due to a heart problem, the organosulfur compounds of the urine were his starting point into the physiological chemistry. He identified the source for aromatic compounds in urine being the aromatic amino acids and he influenced the organosulfur chemistry by the synthesis of thioacetals and thioketals. These substances were used by other scientists, for example for anesthesia. Together with his coworkers, he was able to prove that thyroxine was the active ingredient in the thyroid gland
15.
Charles Adolphe Wurtz
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Charles Adolphe Wurtz was an Alsatian French chemist. Wurtz was also a writer and educator. Adolphe Wurtz was born in Strasbourg, where his father, Johann Jacob Wurtz, was a Lutheran pastor in the town of Wolfisheim. When he left the Protestant gymnasium at Strasbourg in 1834, his father allowed him to medicine as next best to theology. He devoted himself specially to the side of his profession with such success that in 1839 he was appointed Chef des travaux chimiques at the Strasbourg faculty of medicine. For the summer semester of 1842 he studied under Justus von Liebig at the University of Giessen. After graduating from Strasbourg as M. D. in 1843, with a thesis on albumin and fibrin, he went to Paris and his employment with Balard lasted a few months, after which Wurtz began work in Dumass private laboratory. In 1845, he became assistant to Dumas at the École de Médecine, in 1850, he received the professorship of chemistry at the new Institut National Agronomique at Versailles, but the Institut was abolished in 1852. Both of these chairs were now abolished, and Wurtz was appointed to the newly defined post of organic, in 1866, Wurtz undertook the duties of dean of the faculty of medicine. However, he had difficulty in obtaining an adequate laboratory. The buildings of the new Sorbonne that ultimately provided modern laboratories were not completed until 1894. Wurtz was an member of almost every scientific society in Europe. He was the founder of the Paris Chemical Society, was its first secretary. In 1880, he was vice-president and in 1881 president of the French Academy of Sciences, in 1881, Wurtz was elected life senator. Wurtzs name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel tower, soon thereafter, Wurtz also adopted the new structural theory that was developing from the work of younger chemists such as August Kekulé. But his original work was mainly in the domain of organic chemistry and this discovery he worked out very thoroughly in investigations of ethylene oxide and the polyethylene alcohols. In 1855, he published work on what is now known as the Wurtz reaction, in 1867 Wurtz synthesized neurine by the action of trimethylamine on glycol-chlorhydrin. In 1872 he discovered the reaction and characterized the product as showing the properties of both an alcohol and an aldehyde
16.
Aldol reaction
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The aldol reaction is a means of forming carbon–carbon bonds in organic chemistry. These products are known as aldols, from the aldehyde + alcohol, Aldol structural units are found in many important molecules, whether naturally occurring or synthetic. For example, the reaction has been used in the large-scale production of the commodity chemical pentaerythritol. The aldol reaction unites two relatively simple molecules into a complex one. Increased complexity arises because up to two new stereogenic centers are formed, Modern methodology is capable of not only allowing aldol reactions to proceed in high yield but also controlling both the relative and absolute configuration of these stereocenters. This ability to synthesize a particular stereoisomer is significant because different stereoisomers can have very different chemical and biological properties. For example, stereogenic aldol units are common in polyketides. In nature, polyketides are synthesized by enzymes that effect iterative Claisen condensations, the 1, 3-dicarbonyl products of these reactions can then be variously derivatized to produce a wide variety of interesting structures. Often, such derivitization involves the reduction of one of the carbonyl groups, some of these structures have potent biological properties, the immunosuppressant FK506, the anti-tumor agent discodermolide, or the antifungal agent amphotericin B, for example. Although the synthesis of such compounds was once considered nearly impossible. A typical modern aldol addition reaction, shown above, might involve the addition of a ketone enolate to an aldehyde. Once formed, the product can sometimes lose a molecule of water to form an α. A variety of nucleophiles may be employed in the reaction, including the enols, enolates, and enol ethers of ketones, aldehydes. The electrophilic partner is usually an aldehyde or ketone, the aldol reaction may proceed via two fundamentally different mechanisms. Carbonyl compounds, such as aldehydes and ketones, can be converted to enols or enol ethers and these species, being nucleophilic at the α-carbon, can attack especially reactive protonated carbonyls such as protonated aldehydes. Carbonyl compounds, being carbon acids, can also be deprotonated to form enolates, the usual electrophile is an aldehyde, since ketones are much less reactive. If the conditions are harsh, condensation may occur, but this can usually be avoided with mild reagents. In contrast, retro-aldol condensations are rare, but possible, when an acid catalyst is used, the initial step in the reaction mechanism involves acid-catalyzed tautomerization of the carbonyl compound to the enol
17.
Yellowstone National Park
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Yellowstone National Park is a national park located in the U. S. states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. It was established by the U. S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1,1872. Yellowstone was the first National Park in the U. S. and is widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many features, especially Old Faithful Geyser. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is the most abundant and it is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion. Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years, aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior. However, the U. S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916, in 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles, comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years, half of the worlds geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earths northern temperate zone, hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous location in the Continental United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park, the Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the each year, in the large forest fires of 1988. Yellowstone has numerous opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing
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National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
19.
Challenger expedition
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The Challenger expedition of 1872–76 was a scientific exercise that made many discoveries to lay the foundation of oceanography. The expedition was named after the vessel, HMS Challenger. The expedition, led by Captain George Nares, sailed from Portsmouth, England, other naval officers included Commander John Maclear. Under the scientific supervision of Thomson himself, she traveled nearly 70,000 nautical miles surveying and exploring, the result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger during the years 1873-76 which, among other discoveries. John Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Challenger sailed close to Antarctica, but not within sight of it. As recently as the late 19th century, human knowledge of the oceans was confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water, sailors and scientists knew almost nothing of the ocean depths. The Royal Navys efforts to all of the worlds coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. To enable her to probe the depths, Challengers guns were removed, laboratories, extra cabins and a special dredging platform were installed. Because of the novelty of the expedition, some of the equipment was invented or specially modified for the occasion, in all, she was supplied with 181 miles of Italian hemp for sounding. On her 68, 890-nautical-mile journey circumnavigating the globe,492 deep sea soundings,133 bottom dredges,151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken, also about 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The scientific work was conducted by Wyville Thomson, John Murray, John Young Buchanan, Henry Nottidge Moseley, Frank Evers Beddard was appointed Prosector. The official expedition artist was John James Wild, as well as Nares and Maclear, others that were part of the naval crew included Pelham Aldrich, Lord George Granville Campbell, and Andrew Francis Balfour. Also among the officers was Thomas Henry Tizard, who had carried out important hydrographic observations on previous voyages, though he was not among the civilian scientific staff, Tizard would later help write the official account of the expedition, and also become a Fellow of the Royal Society. The original ships complement included 21 officers and around 216 crew members, by the end of the voyage, this had reduced to 144 due to deaths, desertions, being left ashore due to illness, and planned departures. Challenger reached Hong Kong in December 1874, at which point Nares, the new captain was Frank Tourle Thomson. The second-in-command, and the most senior officer present throughout the expedition, was Commander John Maclear
20.
HMS Challenger (1858)
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HMS Challenger was a steam-assisted Royal Navy Pearl-class corvette launched on 13 February 1858 at the Woolwich Dockyard. She was the flagship of the Australia Station between 1866 and 1870, as part of the North America and West Indies Station she took part in 1862 in operations against Mexico, including the occupation of Vera Cruz. Assigned as the flagship of Australia Station in 1866 and in 1868 undertook an operation against some Fijian natives to avenge the murder of a missionary. She left the Australian Station in late 1870 and she was picked to undertake the first global marine research expedition, the Challenger expedition. The Challenger carried a complement of 243 officers, scientists and crew when she embarked on her 68, the United States Space Shuttle Challenger was named after the ship. Her figurehead is on display in the foyer of the National Oceanography Centre, the Challenger Expedition was a grand tour of the world during covering 68,000 nautical miles organized by the Royal Society in collaboration with the University of Edinburgh. Charles Thomson was the leader of a scientific team. W. Thomson, Report on the results of the voyage of HMS Challenger during the years 1873-76… prepared under the superintendence of the late Sir C. H. N. Moseley, Notes by a naturalist on the Challenger, spry, The cruise of the Challenger. To enable her to probe the depths, all but two of the Challengers guns had been removed and her spars reduced to more space available. Laboratories, extra cabins and a special dredging platform were installed, in all she was supplied with 181 miles of Italian hemp for sounding, trawling and dredging. The Challengers crew was the first to sound the deepest part of the ocean and she was commissioned as a Coast Guard and Royal Naval Reserve training ship at Harwich in July 1876. In 1878 Challenger went through an overhaul by the Chief Constructor at Chatham Dockyard with a view to converting the vessel into a ship for boys of the Royal Navy. She was found suitable and it was planned to take the place of HMS Eurydice which sank off the Isle of Wight on 24 March 1878, nothing, apart from her figurehead, now remains. This is on display in the foyer of the National Oceanography Centre, european and American voyages of scientific exploration Bastock, John, Ships on the Au Station, Child & Associates Publishing Pty Ltd, Frenchs Forest, Australia. ISBN 0-86777-348-0 Winfield, Rif & Lyon, David, the Sail and Steam Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815–1889. Media related to HMS Challenger at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Portsmouth
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Portsmouth is a port city in Hampshire, England, mainly on Portsea Island,70 miles south-west of London and 19 miles south-east of Southampton. It is the United Kingdoms only island city and has a population of 205,400, the city forms part of the South Hampshire built-up area, which also covers Southampton and the towns of Havant, Waterlooville, Eastleigh, Fareham, and Gosport. The citys history can be traced to Roman times, a significant naval port for centuries, Portsmouth has the worlds oldest dry dock and was Englands first line of defence during the French invasion in 1545. Special Palmerston Forts were built in 1859 in anticipation of invasion from continental Europe. The worlds first mass production line was set up in the city, during the Second World War, the city was a pivotal embarkation point for the D-Day landings and was bombed extensively in the Portsmouth Blitz, which resulted in the deaths of 930 people. In 1982, the city housed the entirety of the forces in the Falklands War. Her Majestys Yacht Britannia left the city to oversee the transfer of Hong Kong in 1997, Portsmouth is one of the worlds best known ports. HMNB Portsmouth is the largest dockyard for the Royal Navy and is home to two-thirds of the UKs surface fleet, the city is home to some famous ships, including HMS Warrior, the Tudor carrack Mary Rose and Horatio Nelsons flagship, HMS Victory. The former HMS Vernon naval shore establishment has been redeveloped as a park known as Gunwharf Quays. Portsmouth is among the few British cities with two cathedrals, the Anglican Cathedral of St Thomas and the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St John the Evangelist, the waterfront and Portsmouth Harbour are dominated by the Spinnaker Tower, one of the United Kingdoms tallest structures at 560 feet. Nearby Southsea is a resort with a pier amusement park. Portsmouth F. C. the citys football club, play their home games at Fratton Park. The city has several railway stations that connect to London Waterloo amongst other lines in southern England. Portsmouth International Port is a cruise ship and ferry port for international destinations. The port is the second busiest in the United Kingdom after Dover, the city formerly had its own airport, Portsmouth Airport, until its closure in 1973. The University of Portsmouth enrols 23,000 students and is ranked among the worlds best modern universities, Portsmouth is also the birthplace of author Charles Dickens and engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The Romans built Portus Adurni, a fort, at nearby Portchester in the third century. The citys Old English name Portesmuða is derived from port, meaning a haven, and muða and it was mentioned in an Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for the year 501, Her cwom Port on Bretene 7 his. ii
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Oceanography
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Oceanography, also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and the biological aspects of the ocean. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past, humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo, early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Streams cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770, information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic, during a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped the banks and currents at the Lagullas. He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagles three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology, the first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies, many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide. Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water, almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navys efforts to all of the worlds coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. The seminal event in the founding of the science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this laid the groundwork for an entire academic. In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore worlds oceans, charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work, under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,492 deep sea soundings,133 bottom dredges,151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken, around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S, Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
23.
Richard Dedekind
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Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind was a German mathematician who made important contributions to abstract algebra, algebraic number theory and the definition of the real numbers. Dedekinds father was Julius Levin Ulrich Dedekind, an administrator of Collegium Carolinum in Braunschweig, as an adult, he never used the names Julius Wilhelm. He was born, lived most of his life, and died in Braunschweig and he first attended the Collegium Carolinum in 1848 before transferring to the University of Göttingen in 1850. There, Dedekind was taught number theory by professor Moritz Stern, Gauss was still teaching, although mostly at an elementary level, and Dedekind became his last student. Dedekind received his doctorate in 1852, for a thesis titled Über die Theorie der Eulerschen Integrale and this thesis did not display the talent evident by Dedekinds subsequent publications. At that time, the University of Berlin, not Göttingen, was the facility for mathematical research in Germany. Thus Dedekind went to Berlin for two years of study, where he and Bernhard Riemann were contemporaries, they were awarded the habilitation in 1854. Dedekind returned to Göttingen to teach as a Privatdozent, giving courses on probability and he studied for a while with Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, and they became good friends. Because of lingering weaknesses in his knowledge, he studied elliptic. Yet he was also the first at Göttingen to lecture concerning Galois theory, about this time, he became one of the first people to understand the importance of the notion of groups for algebra and arithmetic. In 1858, he began teaching at the Polytechnic school in Zürich, when the Collegium Carolinum was upgraded to a Technische Hochschule in 1862, Dedekind returned to his native Braunschweig, where he spent the rest of his life, teaching at the Institute. He retired in 1894, but did occasional teaching and continued to publish and he never married, instead living with his sister Julia. Dedekind was elected to the Academies of Berlin and Rome, and he received honorary doctorates from the universities of Oslo, Zurich, and Braunschweig. While teaching calculus for the first time at the Polytechnic school, Dedekind developed the now known as a Dedekind cut. The idea of a cut is that an irrational number divides the rational numbers into two classes, with all the numbers of one class being strictly greater than all the numbers of the other class. Every location on the number line continuum contains either a rational or an irrational number, thus there are no empty locations, gaps, or discontinuities. Dedekind published his thoughts on irrational numbers and Dedekind cuts in his pamphlet Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen, in modern terminology, Vollständigkeit, Dedekinds theorem states that if there existed a one-to-one correspondence between two sets, then Dedekind said that the two sets were similar. Thus the set N of natural numbers can be shown to be similar to the subset of N whose members are the squares of every member of N, N12345678910
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Irrational number
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In mathematics, the irrational numbers are all the real numbers, which are not rational numbers, the latter being the numbers constructed from ratios of integers. Irrational numbers may also be dealt with via non-terminating continued fractions, for example, the decimal representation of the number π starts with 3.14159265358979, but no finite number of digits can represent π exactly, nor does it repeat. Mathematicians do not generally take terminating or repeating to be the definition of the concept of rational number, as a consequence of Cantors proof that the real numbers are uncountable and the rationals countable, it follows that almost all real numbers are irrational. The first proof of the existence of numbers is usually attributed to a Pythagorean. The then-current Pythagorean method would have claimed that there must be sufficiently small. However, Hippasus, in the 5th century BC, was able to deduce that there was in no common unit of measure. His reasoning is as follows, Start with a right triangle with side lengths of integers a, b. The ratio of the hypotenuse to a leg is represented by c, b, assume a, b, and c are in the smallest possible terms. By the Pythagorean theorem, c2 = a2+b2 = b2+b2 = 2b2, since c2 = 2b2, c2 is divisible by 2, and therefore even. Since c2 is even, c must be even, since c is even, dividing c by 2 yields an integer. Squaring both sides of c = 2y yields c2 =2, or c2 = 4y2, substituting 4y2 for c2 in the first equation gives us 4y2= 2b2. Dividing by 2 yields 2y2 = b2, since y is an integer, and 2y2 = b2, b2 is divisible by 2, and therefore even. Since b2 is even, b must be even and we have just show that both b and c must be even. Hence they have a factor of 2. However this contradicts the assumption that they have no common factors and this contradiction proves that c and b cannot both be integers, and thus the existence of a number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers. Greek mathematicians termed this ratio of incommensurable magnitudes alogos, or inexpressible. ”Another legend states that Hippasus was merely exiled for this revelation, the discovery of incommensurable ratios was indicative of another problem facing the Greeks, the relation of the discrete to the continuous. Brought into light by Zeno of Elea, who questioned the conception that quantities are discrete and composed of a number of units of a given size. ”However Zeno found that in fact “ in general are not discrete collections of units. That in fact, these divisions of quantity must necessarily be infinite, for example, consider a line segment, this segment can be split in half, that half split in half, the half of the half in half, and so on
25.
Felix Klein
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His 1872 Erlangen Program, classifying geometries by their underlying symmetry groups, was a hugely influential synthesis of much of the mathematics of the day. Felix Klein was born on 25 April 1849 in Düsseldorf, to Prussian parents, his father, Kleins mother was Sophie Elise Klein. He attended the Gymnasium in Düsseldorf, then studied mathematics and physics at the University of Bonn, 1865–1866, at that time, Julius Plücker held Bonns chair of mathematics and experimental physics, but by the time Klein became his assistant, in 1866, Plückers interest was geometry. Klein received his doctorate, supervised by Plücker, from the University of Bonn in 1868, Plücker died in 1868, leaving his book on the foundations of line geometry incomplete. Klein was the person to complete the second part of Plückers Neue Geometrie des Raumes, and thus became acquainted with Alfred Clebsch. Klein visited Clebsch the following year, along with visits to Berlin, in July 1870, at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, he was in Paris and had to leave the country. For a short time, he served as an orderly in the Prussian army before being appointed lecturer at Göttingen in early 1871. Erlangen appointed Klein professor in 1872, when he was only 23, in this, he was strongly supported by Clebsch, who regarded him as likely to become the leading mathematician of his day. Klein did not build a school at Erlangen where there were few students, in 1875 Klein married Anne Hegel, the granddaughter of the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. After five years at the Technische Hochschule, Klein was appointed to a chair of geometry at Leipzig, there his colleagues included Walther von Dyck, Rohn, Eduard Study and Friedrich Engel. Kleins years at Leipzig,1880 to 1886, fundamentally changed his life, in 1882, his health collapsed, in 1883–1884, he was plagued by depression. Nonetheless his research continued, his work on hyperelliptic sigma functions dates from around this period. Klein accepted a chair at the University of Göttingen in 1886, from then until his 1913 retirement, he sought to re-establish Göttingen as the worlds leading mathematics research center. Yet he never managed to transfer from Leipzig to Göttingen his own role as the leader of a school of geometry, at Göttingen, he taught a variety of courses, mainly on the interface between mathematics and physics, such as mechanics and potential theory. The research center Klein established at Göttingen served as a model for the best such centers throughout the world and he introduced weekly discussion meetings, and created a mathematical reading room and library. In 1895, Klein hired David Hilbert away from Königsberg, this appointment proved fateful, under Kleins editorship, Mathematische Annalen became one of the very best mathematics journals in the world. Founded by Clebsch, only under Kleins management did it first rival then surpass Crelles Journal based out of the University of Berlin, Klein set up a small team of editors who met regularly, making democratic decisions. The journal specialized in analysis, algebraic geometry, and invariant theory
26.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
27.
George Huntington
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George Huntington was an American physician who contributed a classic clinical description of the disease that bears his name – Huntingtons disease. Huntington described this condition in the first of two scientific papers he ever wrote. He wrote this paper when he was 22, a year after receiving his degree from Columbia University in New York. Huntingtons father and grandfather, George Lee Huntington and Abel Huntington, were physicians in the same family practice. Their longitudinal observations combined with his own were invaluable in precisely describing this hereditary disease in multiple generations of a family in East Hampton on Long Island, in 1874 George Huntington returned to Dutchess County, New York to practice medicine. He joined a number of associations and started working for the Matteawan General Hospital. In 1908 the scientific journal Neurograph dedicated him a special edition, George Huntington should not be confused with George Sumner Huntington, the anatomist. HOPES, Huntingtons Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford, a Biography of George Huntington, M. D. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Archived from the original on March 15,2009
28.
Moritz Kaposi
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Moritz Kaposi was a Hungarian physician and dermatologist who discovered the skin tumor that received his name. Born to a Jewish family, originally his surname was Kohn, a more plausible explanation is based on his own comments to colleagues that he changed his name to avoid confusion with five other similarly named physicians on the Vienna faculty. In his dissertation, titled Dermatologie und Syphilis he made an important contribution to the field. Kaposi was appointed as professor at the University of Vienna in 1875, together with his mentor, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, he authored the book Lehrbuch der Hautkrankheiten in 1878. He is credited with the description of xeroderma pigmentosum, a genetic disorder now known to be caused by defects in nucleotide excision repair. Among other diseases, Kaposi was the first to study Lichen scrofolosorum, in all, he published over 150 books and papers. He is widely credited with advancing the use of pathologic examination in the diagnosis of dermatologic diseases, Kaposis sarcoma is a tumor that is caused by a virus, Kaposis sarcoma-associated herpesvirus or KSHV, discovered in 1993. Kaposis sarcoma is now the most commonly reported cancer in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. According to his biographer, Dr. J. D. Oriel, in his lifetime, Moritz Kaposi was acknowledged as one of the masters of the Vienna School of Dermatology. While his mentor, Ferdinand von Hebra, is considered the father of dermatology and he became the chairman of Vienna School of Dermatology, after Hebras death in 1880. Idiopathic multiple pigmented sarcoma of the skin, medline abstract Holubar, Karl, Fatovic-Ferencic, Stella. Moriz Kaposi 1837–1902, a historical reappraisal, archived from the original on 2007-05-07. Also available at http, //www. bium. univ-paris5. fr/sfhd/ecrits/kaposi2. htm Moriz Kaposi @ Who Named It Moritz Kaposi, Wer war der Mann hinter dem Sarkom
. PMID 26056609.