1.
1877 in rail transport
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This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1877. May 1 – Opening of first railway in Burma, from Rangoon to Prome, July 14 – Workers on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad walk off their jobs in an act that is seen as the start of the great railroad strike of 1877. July 16 – Railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train, July 19 – The New York and Manhattan Beach Railway opens. July 20 – Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers riot in Baltimore, nine railroad employees are killed as the Maryland militia attempts to quell the riot. July 21 – Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, stage a strike for the workers killed in Baltimore. Rioting erupts throughout Pittsburgh as a result, July 24 – Joel Tiffany is awarded U. S. Patent 193,357 for his design of the first successful refrigerator car, august 31 – The first 2 ft gauge narrow gauge railroad in America, the Billerica and Bedford Railroad, begins operations. November 4 – Opening of Gustave Eiffels Maria Pia Bridge carrying the railway across the Douro into Porto, december 27 – The Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa and Occidental Railway opens, traversing a route from Montreal through Lachute to Hull. Tracks of the Southern Pacific Railroad from Los Angeles, cross the Colorado River at Yuma, William Henry Vanderbilt, son of Cornelius Vanderbilt, is promoted to President of the New York Central system. Second railway in Estonia connecting Tapa with Tartu, the biggest city in Southern Estonia is opened, approximate date – Ephraim Shay develops the first Shay locomotive. March 7 – Walter Kidde, president of New York, Susquehanna, edgar Alcock, general manager and chairman of Hunslet Engine Company of Leeds, England. January 4 – Cornelius Vanderbilt, American financier who created the New York Central, april 22 – James P. Kirkwood, designer of Starrucca Viaduct. August 3 – William Butler Ogden, president of the Chicago, september 2 – Alvin Adams, founder of Adams Express, one of the first LCL freight companies in the United States, dies. Oliver Ames, Jr. president of Union Pacific Railroad 1866–1871, matthew Baird, second owner of Baldwin Locomotive Works. Jean-Jacques Meyer, French-born steam locomotive designer Brief biographies of major mechanical engineers, rivanna Chapter, National Railway Historical Society, This Month in Railroad History, July. Retrieved July 12 and July 22,2005, white, John H. Jr. Americas most noteworthy railroaders. A history of the American locomotive, its development, 1830-1880
2.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
3.
Bristol and Exeter Railway
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The Bristol & Exeter Railway was an English railway company formed to connect Bristol and Exeter. It was built on the gauge and its engineer was Isambard Kingdom Brunel. It opened in stages between 1841 and 1844 and it was allied with the Great Western Railway, which built its main line between London and Bristol, and in time formed part of a through route between London and Cornwall. At first it contracted with the GWR for that company to work the line, avoiding the expense of acquiring locomotives, but after that arrangement expired in 1849, the B&ER operated its own line. It opened a number of branches within the area it served, to Clevedon, Cheddar, Wells, Weston-super-Mare, Chard, Yeovil. The B&ER was financially successful but amalgamated with the GWR in 1876, the Great Western Railway obtained its authorising Act of Parliament in 1835, to build its line between London and Bristol. The merchants of Bristol were anxious to secure a route to Exeter, an important commercial centre. They promoted the Bristol and Exeter Railway and when they issued a prospectus on 1 October 1835, the Bill had an easy passage and was enacted on 19 May 1836. The Act did not specify the gauge of the track, branches at Bridgwater, notwithstanding the apparent family connection to the neighbouring GWR, none of the B&ER directors was also a GWR director at this time. The GWR was still under construction, the early euphoria turned to great difficulty in raising finance for construction. 4,000 of the 15,000 subscribed shares were forfeited for non-payment of calls before the line was built, a contract was let for the first part of the line, from a temporary terminus at Pylle Hill, west of the New Cut. The position improved somewhat in 1838, and indeed the Company obtained Parliamentary powers for four short branches, of only one. It was not until 5 March 1839 that the Company adopted the broad gauge, five locomotives were ordered from Sharp, Roberts & Co for the purpose. By the end of 1839 the Directors had decided to avoid the capital outlay by arranging with the GWR—by now in operation—to operate the line for them, by this time three Directors were also directors of the GWR, and the alliance was beginning to strengthen. The proposal to lease the line to the GWR was ratified by shareholders at a meeting in September 1841. The rent was to increase proportionally with the completion of the system, the first section of the line was opened between Bristol and Bridgwater on 14 June 1841, just before the GWR completed its line from London to Bristol. It was 33½ miles in length and double track, with a 1½ mile single-line branch to Weston-super-Mare, the Exeter station was at the site now known as Exeter St Davids station. The opening to Exeter competed the B&ER main line, and with the GWR formed a broad gauge line from London to Exeter with a mileage of 194 miles
4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
5.
Great Western Railway
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The Great Western Railway was a British railway company that linked London with the south-west and west of England, the Midlands, and most of Wales. It was founded in 1833, received its enabling Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, Goods wagons were painted red but this was later changed to mid-grey. Great Western trains included long-distance express services such as the Flying Dutchman, the Cornish Riviera Express and it also operated many suburban and rural services, some operated by steam railmotors or autotrains. The company pioneered the use of larger, more economic goods wagons than were usual in Britain and it operated a network of road motor routes, was a part of the Railway Air Services, and owned ships, docks and hotels. The Great Western Railway originated from the desire of Bristol merchants to maintain their city as the port of the country. The company was founded at a meeting in Bristol in 1833 and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged twenty-nine, was appointed engineer and this was by far Brunels largest contract to date. Firstly, he chose to use a gauge of 7 ft to allow for the possibility of large wheels outside the bodies of the rolling stock which could give smoother running at high speeds. Secondly, he selected a route, north of the Marlborough Downs and this meant the line was not direct from to London to Bristol. From Reading heading west, the line would curve in a northerly sweep back to Bath, the first 22.5 miles of line, from Paddington station in London to Maidenhead Bridge station, opened on 4 June 1838. When Maidenhead Railway Bridge was ready the line was extended to Twyford on 1 July 1839, the cutting was the scene of a railway disaster two years later when a goods train ran into a landslip, ten passengers who were travelling in open trucks were killed. This accident prompted Parliament to pass the 1844 Railway Regulation Act requiring railway companies to provide carriages for passengers. The next section, from Reading to Steventon crossed the Thames twice, a 7. 25-mile extension took the line to Faringdon Road on 20 July 1840. Meanwhile, work had started at the Bristol end of the line, on 17 December 1840, the line from London reached a temporary terminus at Wootton Bassett Road west of Swindon and 80.25 miles from Paddington. The section from Wootton Bassett Road to Chippenham was opened on 31 May 1841, as was Swindon Junction station where the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway to Cirencester connected. That was an independent line worked by the GWR, as was the Bristol and Exeter Railway, in 1851, the GWR purchased the Kennet and Avon Canal, which was a competing carrier between London, Reading, Bath and Bristol. The GWR was closely involved with the C&GWUR and the B&ER, the South Wales Railway had opened between Chepstow and Swansea in 1850 and became connected to the GWR by Brunels Chepstow Bridge in 1852. It was completed to Neyland in 1856, where a port was established
6.
South Devon Railway Company
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The South Devon Railway Company built and operated the railway from Exeter to Plymouth and Torquay in Devon, England. It was a 7 ft 1⁄4 in broad gauge railway built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, the revolutionary system proved to have insuperable technical difficulties and was abandoned. The line continued as a conventional locomotive railway, the Company promoted a number of branches, through the medium of nominally independent companies. Its original main line between Exeter and Plymouth remains in use today as an important part of the line between London and Plymouth. They chose the route over two suggested longer routes, which were similar to the Teignmouth and Okehampton routes that were actually built later. This ambitious scheme was presented to Parliament as a Bill on 29 February 1840 and its supporters continued to argue in its favour, but the more practical scheme via Newton soon gained favour. The failure of this scheme did not suppress the enthusiasm in Plymouth for a railway, the Great Western Railway and the B&ER were working in close harmony, and were known as the Associated Companies, forming a powerful broad gauge interest in railways. The choice of terminal in Plymouth was a point, for the Three Towns of Plymouth, Devonport and Stonehouse were independent. With Isambard Kingdom Brunel now advising the promoters, a terminal at a location at Eldad was selected. The Companys name was changed to the South Devon Railway and a Parliamentary Bill was submitted in the 1844 session, with little opposition, it obtained its authorising Act on 4 July 1844. Although the route was to follow the coast from Exeter to Newton, from there to Plymouth it would need to run over difficult hilly terrain, and gradients and curvature were challenging. Brunel had planned the route as a double-track locomotive railway, and as late as May 1844 he stated, in reference to the atmospheric system, I have not been called upon to recommend it or not. However Brunel was concerned about the efficiency of steam locomotives. The system is described in the article Atmospheric railway and in the technical section below. Briefly, it involves a pipe laid between the rails, and stationary steam engines located at intervals of a few miles along the line, they exhaust air from the pipe. A piston carriage is placed at the head of each train, the tube is slotted at the top to enable the piston bracket to pass, and a continuous leather seal prevents unwanted admission of air. With a partial vacuum in the pipe ahead of the piston, the leather seal is opened by rollers immediately ahead of the bracket carrying the piston, and closed immediately behind it. In fact the capital outlay would be reduced by £67,000, allowing for the cost of construction of the pumping stations, and annual operating costs would be £8,000 cheaper
7.
Wiese Valley Railway
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The Wiese Valley Railway is a 27.2 km long, electrified main line in Baden-Württemberg in the triangle where Germany, Switzerland and France meet near the Swiss city of Basel. It runs alongside the Wiese River from Basel Badischer Bahnhof in Basel – initially on Swiss territory – to Zell. The line was built as the first private railway in the Grand Duchy of Baden by the Wiese Valley Railway Company and it was continued up the valley as the Hintere Wiesenthalbahn on 5 February 1876 by the Schopfheim-Zell Railway Company. The transfer of ownership took place to Schopfheim on 1 January 1889 and it was one of the first lines in Germany to be electrified in 1913, together with the Wehra Valley Railway, as a result of its strategic importance and the abundant hydroelectricity available nearby. The railway came to be used by commuting workers, active in the factories of the Wiese Valley. Particularly high ticket sales were made at the stations of Lörrach, Stetten, Steinen, at the latter alone 136,036 tickets were sold in 1924. Between 2003 and 2005 massive modernisation of the line was carried out, with the exception of some residual freight transport and the carriage of cars to Lörrach, the line has changed to an almost pure S-Bahn line without freight. Passenger services on the line are now operated as line S6 of the Basel Regional S-Bahn, in the summer of 2004, the section from Lörrach-Stetten to Haagen was duplicated so that line S5 services on the Weil am Rhein–Lörrach railway could be extended to Steinen. The modernisation of the stations included the building of 55 cm high platforms with a length of 150 metres for coupled Stadler FLIRT electric multiple units. With the loss of traffic, track work was rationalised, particularly at Schopfheim, Lörrach. A new electronic interlocking now controls the entire route of the Wiese Valley Railway from Lörrach to the Swiss border, most of the changes were completed and handed over for operations by the end of 2004. In addition, the new halt of Lörrach-Schillerstraße was opened, on 9 December 2007, the halts of Schopfheim West and Lörrach-Schwarzwaldstraße were opened and Riehen-Niederholz halt followed on 14 December 2008. Lörrach Hauptbahnhof was used by around 3,500 passengers daily in 2009, in 2010, it received a system for displaying dynamic passenger information. All other stations on the Wiese Valley Railway are programmed to have electronic destination indicators installed. Die Wiesentalbahn,70 Jahre elektrischer Betrieb 1913–1983, landesverein Badische Heimat, ed. Zum hundertsten Geburtstag der Wiesentalbahn am 5. Juni 1962, Alter Badischer Bahnhof Basel um 1900, Bahnhof Riehen 1890, Alter Bahnhof Lörrach um 1909, Alter Bahnhof in Lörrach um 1885, Wiesentalbahn, nach Abschluss der Ausbauarbeiten wurde die Regio-S-Bahn eröffnet. SBB vor dem Start ins Wiesental, kisten mit Motor, die Altbau-Turmtriebwagen der Wiesentalbahn
8.
Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway
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The Grand Duchy of Baden was an independent state in what is now southwestern Germany until the creation of the German Empire in 1871. It had its own state-owned railway company, the Grand Duchy of Baden State Railways, at the time when it was integrated into the Deutsche Reichsbahn in 1920, its network had an overall length of about 2,000 kilometres. Baden was the second German state after the Duchy of Brunswick to build, other proposals too by, for example Friedrich List, were unsuccessful at first. The construction of the line was to be funded by the state. The Ministry of the Interior was responsible for the construction of the railway, setting up for that purpose its own authority, later the railway construction authorities were incorporated into the Water and Road Construction Division. Not until the merger of the Baden Post Office into the Reichspost in 1872 did a separate railway administration emerge in Baden, the first route, called the Baden Mainline, was built in sections between 1840 and 1863. The first,18.5 km long, section between Mannheim and Heidelberg was taken into service on 12 September 1840. Other sections followed, to Karlsruhe in 1843, Offenburg in 1844, Freiburg im Breisgau in 1845, Schliengen in 1847, Efringen-Kirchen in 1848, the branches to Kehl and Baden-Baden were opened as early as 1844 and 1845 respectively. In the state treaty of 27 July 1852 an accommodation was reached which enabled the construction and operation of a line on Swiss sovereign territory by the Baden State Railways, the Baden railway lines were initially laid to the 1,600 mm. The line reached Basle in 1855, Waldshut in 1856 and Konstanz in 1863, with that the 414.3 km long Baden main line was completed. Even when the Baden Mainline was being built, plans were already being formulated to link up with the Swiss railway network and this was not achieved until the bridge at Waldshut over the river Rhine, built by Robert Gerwig, was completed on 18 August 1859. Other links were made in 1863 at Schaffhausen, in 1871 at Konstanz, the Basle link line, which connected Baden station on the east of the Rhine with the Central station west of the Rhine, was opened in 1873. Today it is the most important railway connexion between Germany and Switzerland, the connexion to the north towards Weinheim-Darmstadt–Frankfurt had been established since 1846 by the Main-Neckar Line, in which the Grand Duchy of Baden participated. In 1879 the Ried Railway followed, although Baden did not own any section of it, from 1861 there had also been a direct route to France after the completion of the Rhine bridge between Kehl and Strasbourg. The opening up of the Palatinate was first realised in 1865 with a bridge from Karlsruhe–Maxau as well as a link between Mannheim and Ludwigshafen in 1867. A connexion with Bavaria followed the opening of the Baden Odenwald Railway in 1866, negotiations for a route to Württemberg were particularly difficult because both states were competing for traffic between Germany and the Alpine passes. While Baden favoured a line via Pforzheim, Württemberg was interested in a direct connexion at Bruchsal. The connexion with Bruchsal was taken into service in 1853, the subsequent expansion of Baden’s railway network was either aimed at opening up the regions or carried out from a military perspective
9.
Zell im Wiesental
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Zell im Wiesental is a town in the district of Lörrach in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated in the Black Forest, on the river Wiese,26 km northeast of Basel, the town is famous for being the birthplace of Constanze Weber, wife of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Franz Fridolin Weber, was born as the son of an official in Zell, in 1754, at the age of 21, he was also appointed an official by Freiherr Ignaz Ludwig von Schönau, and in 1756 he married the Cäcilia Stamm from Mannheim. On January 5,1762, Webers daughter Constanze Mozart, was born in Zell, another daughter of Weber, also born in Zell, was the singer and vocal pedagogue Aloysia Weber, who was born in the city between 1759 and 1761. Severin Kern was from 1950 to 1972 lord mayor of Villingen, in 1903 Karl Müller was born as the son of a textile worker in Zell. He was persecuted, imprisoned and forced to serve in the 999th Light Afrika Division during the National Socialism, as a trade unionist and member of the Communist, he became after the war a member of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany and editor of the Sächsische Zeitung. Gerhard Jung was born on 10 August 1926 in Zell, in 1997, Jung was awarded the Federal Cross, since 1986 he was an honorary citizen of his hometown. Also Markuss son Markus Manfred Jung was born in Zell, like his father, he is known as a dialect poet and writer. Also from Zell is the manager and art collector Manfred Meier-Preschany. Josepha Hofer, soprano Rudolf Vogel, material researcher and metallographer
10.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
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The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
11.
Pueblo, Colorado
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Pueblo /ˈpwɛbloʊ/ is a home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous city of Pueblo County, Colorado, United States. The population was 106,595 in 2010 census, making it the 267th most populous city in the United States, Pueblo is the heart of the Pueblo Metropolitan Statistical Area totaling over 160,000 people and an important part of the Front Range Urban Corridor. As of 2014, Pueblo is the city of the Pueblo-Cañon City combined statistical area totaling approximately 208,000 people. Pueblo is situated at the confluence of the Arkansas River and Fountain Creek,112 miles south of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver, the area is considered semi-arid desert land, with approximately 12 inches of precipitation annually. With its location in the Banana Belt, Pueblo tends to get less snow than the major cities in Colorado. Pueblo is one of the largest steel-producing cities in the United States, the Historic Arkansas River Project is a river walk in the Union Avenue Historic Commercial District, and shows the history of the devastating Pueblo Flood of 1921. Pueblo has the least expensive real estate of all major cities in Colorado. The median home price for homes on the market in Pueblo is $147,851 as of February 2013 and it is the sixth most affordable place to live in America as measured by the 2014 Cost of Living Index. Costs of housing, goods and services, utilities, transportation, groceries, Pueblo was listed by AARP in 2013 as one of the Best Places to Live in the USA. James Beckwourth, George Simpson, and other such as Mathew Kinkead. George married Juana Maria Suaso and lived there for a year or two before moving, however, Simpson had no title to the land. The adobe structures were built with the intention of settlement and trade next to the Arkansas River, about a dozen families lived there, trading with Native American tribes for hides, skins, livestock, as well as cultivated plants, and liquor. Evidence of this trade, as well as other utilitarian goods and they allegedly killed between fifteen and nineteen men, as well as captured two children and one woman. The trading post was abandoned after the raid, but it became important again between 1858 and 1859 during the Colorado Gold Rush of 1859, the current city of Pueblo represents the consolidation of four towns, Pueblo, South Pueblo, Central Pueblo, and Bessemer. Pueblo, South Pueblo, and Central Pueblo legally consolidated as the City of Pueblo between March 9 and April 6,1886. The consolidated city became an economic and social center of Colorado, and was home to important early Colorado families such as the Thatchers, the Ormans. One author crowed of Pueblo that the necessity exists no longer for Sharps rifles and these have been supplied by the plow and the mowing-machine. Steel emerged as a key industry very early, and in 1909 the city was considered the only town west of the Mississippi River
12.
Great Northern Railway (Ireland)
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The Great Northern Railway was an Irish gauge railway company in Ireland. The Great Northern was formed in 1876 by a merger of the Irish North Western Railway, Northern Railway of Ireland, the Ulster Railway was the GNRIs oldest constituent, having opened between Belfast and Lisburn in 1839 and extended in stages to reach Clones in 1863. The Northern Railway of Ireland was itself formed by a merger of the Dublin and Drogheda Railway with the Dublin and the Belfast Junction Railway. The Ulster, D&D and D&BJct railways together formed the line between Dublin and Belfast, with the D&BJct completing the final section in 1852 to join the Ulster at Portadown. The GNRIs other main lines were between Derry and Dundalk and between Omagh and Portadown and these main lines supported the development of an extensive branch network serving the southwest half of Ulster and northern counties of Leinster. The GNRI became Irelands most prosperous railway company and second largest railway network, in its early years the GNR closely imitated the image of its English namesake, adopting an apple green livery for its steam locomotives and a varnished teak finish for its passenger coaches. Later the company adopted its famous pale blue livery for locomotives, with the frames, passenger vehicles were painted brown, instead of varnished. In the early 20th century increasing traffic led the GNRI to consider introducing larger locomotives, the Great Southern and Western Railway had introduced express passenger locomotives with a 4-6-0 wheel arrangement, and the GNRI wanted to do the same. However, the shop in the GNRI Dundalk works was too short to build or overhaul a 4-6-0. This led to the GNRI to order a very modern and powerful class of 4-4-0s and this class has been compared with another notable V class, that introduced by the Southern Railway in England in 1930. The Partition of Ireland in 1921 created a border through the GNRIs territory, the new border crossed all three of its main lines and some of its secondary lines. The imposition of border controls caused some service disruption, with main line trains having to stop at both Dundalk and Goraghwood stations and this was not eased until 1947 when customs and immigration facilities for Dublin–Belfast expresses were opened at Dublin Amiens Street station and Belfast Great Victoria Street station. A combination of the increasing road competition facing all railways and a change in patterns of activity caused by the partition of Ireland reduced the GNRIs prosperity. In Dundalk at the GNR Works the railway engineers developed railbuses for use on sections of the rural network, nevertheless, by the 1950s the GNRI had ceased to be profitable and in 1953 the company was jointly nationalised by the governments of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The two governments ran the railway jointly under a Great Northern Railway Board until 1958, in May 1958 the Government of Northern Irelands wish to close many lines led to the GNRI Board being dissolved and the assets divided between the two territories. All lines in Northern Ireland were transferred to the Ulster Transport Authority, CIÉ had been formed as a private company in 1945 but had been nationalised in 1950. In an attempt at fairness, all classes of locomotive and rolling stock were also divided equally between the operators of the two new owners. Most classes of GNRI locomotive had been built in small classes, the Northern Ireland Government, which had a very anti-rail policy, rapidly closed most of the GNRI lines in Northern Ireland
13.
Irish North Western Railway
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Irish North Western Railway was an Irish gauge railway company in Ireland. The company was founded as the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway and opened the first section of its line, from Dundalk Quay Street to Castleblayney, in 1849. In Dundalk the D&ER line crossed the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway main line, the D&ER extended westwards, reaching Ballybay in 1854, Newbliss in 1855 and Lisbellaw in 1858. In 1859 the D&ER reached Enniskillen where it connected with the Londonderry, the L&ER had been completed in 1854 but had been unprofitable, so in 1860 it leased its line in perpetuity to the D&ER. This gave the D&ER a direct route between Dundalk and Londonderry Foyle Road, in 1862 the INW opened a branch from Clones southwards to Cavan. In the same year the company renamed itself the Irish North Western Railway, in 1863 the Ulster Railway reached Clones where it made a junction with the INW. In 1868 the Enniskillen and Bundoran Railway opened between Bundoran Junction and Bundoran, and contracted the INW to operate its line, in 1876 the INW merged with the Northern Railway of Ireland and the Ulster Railway to form the Great Northern Railway. Córas Iompair Éireann continued a freight service between Dundalk and Clones for a few years, but withdrew this and closed the line in 1960, complete Atlas of Railway Station Names
14.
Orenstein & Koppel
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Orenstein & Koppel was a major German engineering company specialising in railway vehicles, escalators, and heavy equipment. It was founded on April 1,1876 in Berlin by Benno Orenstein, originally a general engineering company, O&K soon started to specialise in the manufacture of railway vehicles. The company also manufactured heavy equipment and escalators, O&K pulled out of the railway business in 1981. The construction-equipment business was sold to New Holland Construction, at the part of the Fiat Group. The Orenstein & Koppel Company was a firm that first entered the railway-construction field, building locomotives. O&K supplied all manner of equipment to the Army. Because of strained capacity at the Schlachtensee shops, work transferred in 1899 to a site in Nowawes, later Babelsberg, around 1908, O&K acquired the firm of Gerlach and König in Nordhausen, building petrol and diesel locomotives there under the trade mark Montania. O&K expanded to freight and passenger cars, and above all. The company also built other heavy equipment, including graders, dump trucks, forklift trucks, compressors, crawler loaders, wheeled loaders, road rollers, the company also began manufacturing escalators, transmissions, rapid-transit railway lines, buses, tractors, and cargo ships. Passenger liners, shipboard cranes, and shipbuilding enterprises rounded out the companys profile, because of the companys thriving export business, a worldwide system of branch offices was created. In the early years of the 20th century, O&K built bucket chain trenchers, at first from wood and these were propelled by steam or oil engines. O&K also made railway trenchers for work in heavy soils, in the First World War, O&K built railway engines and cars of all sizes for the German government. The treaty also removed access to markets, at the end of 1925. By 1935, business had recovered and the company produced 5,299 locomotives, besides the Feldbahn contacts, the company produced Series 50 steam locomotives and standard rail gauge vehicles in the 1930s. The company produced locomotives, and Series 44 and Series 50 steam engines, for the national railway company. In 1922, they manufactured their first continuous-track steam shovel, in 1926, diesel engines replaced steam engines, the company converted earlier steam units to diesel power as the need arose. O&K merged with a builder, selling the engines under the O&K banner. At the Spandau factory, O&K built cable-operated excavators and bucket-wheel excavators for use in the coal mines of eastern Germany
15.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
16.
Ribblehead Viaduct
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The Ribblehead Viaduct or Batty Moss Viaduct carries the Settle-Carlisle Railway across Batty Moss in the valley of the River Ribble at Ribblehead, in North Yorkshire, England. The viaduct, built by the Midland Railway, is 28 miles north-west of Skipton and 26 miles south-east of Kendal and it is a Grade II* listed structure. The land underneath and around the viaduct is an ancient monument. The remains of the camp and navvy settlements are located there. The viaduct was designed by engineer John Sydney Crossley, the first stone was laid on 12 October 1870 and the last in 1874. One thousand navvies built the viaduct and established shanty towns on the moors for themselves and they named the towns after Crimean War victories, well-to-do districts of London and biblical names. There were smallpox epidemics and deaths from industrial accidents, around one hundred navvies were killed during its construction. There are around 200 burials of men, women, and children in the graveyard at Chapel-le-Dale dating from the time of its construction, the church has a memorial to the railway workers. In 1964, several brand new Humber cars landed on the ground after being blown off their wagons while being carried over the viaduct on a freight train, Ribblehead Viaduct is 440 yards long, and 104 feet above the valley floor at its highest point. It is made up of twenty-four arches of 45 feet span, every 6th pier is 50% thicker to mitigate against complete collapse should any pier fail. The north end of the viaduct is 13 feet higher in elevation than the end leading to a gradient of 1,100. 1.5 million bricks were used in the construction and some of the blocks weigh 8 tons each. Ribblehead Viaduct is the longest on the Settle-Carlisle Railway, Ribblehead railway station is less than half a mile to the south and to the north is the Blea Moor Tunnel, the longest tunnel on line. It is near the foot of Whernside, the Settle-Carlisle Line is one of three north-south main lines, along with the West Coast Main Line through Penrith and the East Coast Main Line via Newcastle. British Rail attempted to close the line in the 1980s, citing the reason that the viaduct was unsafe, a partial solution was to single the line across the viaduct in 1985, preventing two trains from crossing simultaneously. A30 mph speed limit is also in force, the closure proposals generated tremendous protest and were eventually retracted. The viaduct, along with the rest of the line, was repaired and maintained, two taller viaducts on the route are Smardale Viaduct at 131 feet high and near to Crosby Garrett, and Arten Gill at 117 feet. In 2016 the line and viaduct carries six passenger trains from Leeds to Carlisle per day in each direction, plus regular long distance excursions, regular diesel-hauled heavy freight trains also use the route to help reduce congestion on the West Coast Main Line
17.
Midland Railway
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The Midland Railway was a railway company in the United Kingdom from 1844 to 1922, when it became part of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. It had a network of lines managed from its headquarters in Derby. It became the third-largest railway undertaking in the British Isles, the Midland Railway Consolidation Act was passed in 1844 authorising the merger of the Midland Counties Railway, the North Midland Railway, and the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway. These met at the Tri-Junct station at Derby, where the MR established its locomotive and later its carriage, leading it were George Hudson from the North Midland, dynamic but unscrupulous, and John Ellis from the Midland Counties, a careful businessman of impeccable integrity. James Allport from the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway found a place elsewhere in Hudsons empire with the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway, though he later returned. Almost immediately it took over the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway and the Erewash Valley Line in 1845, passengers from Sheffield continued to use Rotherham Masborough until a direct route was completed in 1870. Meanwhile, it extended its influence in the Leicestershire coalfields, by buying the Leicester and Swannington Railway in 1846, after the merger, London trains were carried on the shorter Midland Counties route. The former Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway was left with the traffic to Birmingham and Bristol, the line south was the Birmingham and Bristol Railway, which reached Curzon Street via Camp Hill. These two lines had been formed by the merger of the standard gauge Birmingham and Gloucester Railway and they met at Gloucester via a short loop of the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway. In the event all that was necessary was for the later LNWR to share Birmingham New Street with the Midland when it was opened in 1854, the MR controlled all the traffic to the North East and Scotland from London. The LNWR was progressing slowly through the Lake District, and there was pressure for a line from London to York. Permission had been gained for the Northern and Eastern Railway to run through Peterborough and Lincoln, two obvious extensions of the Midland Counties line were from Nottingham to Lincoln and from Leicester to Peterborough. They were approved while the bill for the line was still before Parliament, forming the present day Lincoln Branch. The Leeds and Bradford Railway had been approved in 1844, by 1850 it was losing money but a number of railways offered to buy it. In spite of the objections of Hudson, for the MR and others, the London and York Railway led by Edmund Denison persisted, after Hudsons departure, the MR was in financial difficulties. Opposition to the Great Northern bill had cost a fortune, a deal of maintenance was overdue. Added to this, the Great Northern was taking much of the traffic from the North East, in 1851 the Ambergate, Nottingham, Boston and Eastern Junction Railway completed its line from Grantham as far as Colwick, from where a branch led to the MR Nottingham station. The Great Northern Railway by then passed through Grantham and both railway companies paid court to the fledgling line, meanwhile, Nottingham had woken up to its branch line status and was keen to expand
18.
Cornwall Minerals Railway
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The Cornwall Minerals Railway owned and operated a network of 45 miles of standard gauge railway lines in central Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It started by taking over an obsolescent horse-operated tramway in 1862, and it improved and extended it, connecting Newquay and Par Harbours, having expended considerable capital, it was hurt by a collapse in mineral extraction due to a slump in prices. Despite its title, it operated a service between Newquay and Fowey. After a period in bankruptcy it returned to financial arrangements and acquired the moribund Lostwithiel. In 1896 it sold its line to the Great Western Railway and its main passenger line from Par to Newquay is in use at the present day, also carrying some mineral traffic, but the Par to Fowey line has been converted to a road haul route. Joseph Austen of Fowey inherited considerable lands and mineral resources in central Cornwall, by 1838 he changed his name to Joseph Treffry, and he is better known by that name. The expense of transport of minerals to market was heavy, and he built the harbour at Par, and a canal connecting it to Pontsmill, together with tramways on inclined planes that brought the important copper mine Fowey Consols and Par Consols into the network. Kaolinite, generally known in the United Kingdom as china clay, was extracted in the Hensbarrow area north-west of Luxulyan, Treffry soon expanded his interests by building a horse-operated tramway up the Luxulyan Valley to Molinnis, near the present-day Bugle, this line opened in 1844. Both were on the standard gauge, however Treffry suffered from ill health in the late 1840s and he never saw his dream brought into effect, he died in 1850. Nonetheless his initiative vastly enhanced transport and reduced costs, but he chose horse operation on the basis of costs of operation. A railway connecting Cornwall with London and the industrial Midlands and North of England had long been desired, in 1864 another line was promoted, to join the St Dennis terminal of Treffrys lines to Burngullow on the newly opened Cornwall Railway. The new company was the Newquay and Cornwall Junction Railway, and it built its line on the broad gauge, another short line opened in 1869, the Lostwithiel and Fowey Railway opened from a junction with the Cornwall railway at Lostwithiel to jetties some distance north of Fowey. Fowey was then an important harbour and the purpose was simply forming a connection for minerals. A 60-year lease was concluded on 21 February 1872, the lease of the tramways was only a first step, and Roebucks proposed improvements were ambitious, involving new lines, and locomotive operation. However this was unsuccessful, and Roebuck and his company were obliged to obtain Parliamentary authorisation in the ordinary way, moreover, a new line connecting St Blazey and Fowey Harbour was to be built, with jetties and wharves there, and improvements to the quays at Newquay. There were also to be three short extensions elsewhere, to Carbis, to Melangoose Mill and to Treamble, toldish Tunnel and the Treffry and Trenance Viaducts were unsuitable and they too needed to be by-passed, and numerous level crossings of roads needed to be replaced by bridges. The line to Fowey involved a new tunnel at Pinnock,1,173 yards in length, the CMR pressed ahead rapidly with the construction and conversion works, applying considerable resources on the ground. An inspector from the Board of Trade examined the line on 15 May 1874, however full opening took place on 1 June 1874, only 11 months after authorisation
19.
Fowey railway station
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Fowey railway station was a station in Fowey, Cornwall on the Fowey to Newquay line. It was opened on 20 June 1876 when a service was introduced on the line. The station had two platforms with loading docks and a goods shed and it was situated at Caffa Mill Pill on the north side of the town by the River Fowey. Goods trains passed through the station to the jetties where ships could be loaded directly from the wagons, on 16 September 1895 a connection was made to the disused Lostwithiel and Fowey Railway and a passenger service introduced between Fowey and Lostwithiel. An intermediate station was opened at Golant on 1 July 1896, the advertised passenger service to Newquay was withdrawn on 8 July 1929, although unadvertised workmens trains continued to run until 29 December 1934. The Great Western Railway was nationalised into British Railways on 1 January 1948, the passenger service to Lostwithiel was withdrawn on 4 January 1965 and the remaining goods traffic from Par ceased on 1 July 1968. The railway was converted into a private road to bring china clay from Par harbour. The station has been demolished and the site is now a car park, trains of china clay still operate from Lostwithiel to a jetty at Carne Point, a little further up the river. Although Fowey station no longer exists, freight trains still reach the docks on the line from Lostwithiel. Fowey station on navigable 1946 O. S. map
20.
Newquay railway station
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Newquay railway station serves the town and seaside resort of Newquay in Cornwall, England. It is the terminus of the Atlantic Coast Line that operates from Par, the station is situated in the heart of Newquay, close to the town centre itself and the beaches as well. The station is managed by Great Western Railway who operate local branch line services to and from Par with also services to, during summer weekends only, CrossCountry operate long-distance services to destinations such as Dundee and Manchester Piccadilly. On summer weekends, there are local services due to the express services. The first railway at Newquay was a line from the harbour to Hendra Crazey. It was built by Joseph Treffry in stages between 1846 and 1849, the line was extended on 1 June 1874 by the Cornwall Minerals Railway, goods trains now reaching Fowey. A branch line from Tolcarn Junction, just outside Newquay, ran to Gravel Hill Mine near Treamble where there was an iron mine, passenger trains were introduced on 20 June 1876. The Great Western Railway operated all the trains from 1 October 1877, the original station had just a single platform and a turntable at the end of the platform was used to release locomotives from incoming trains. The station was rebuilt in 1905 with two platforms serving three tracks, a new line was opened from Shepherds, on the Treamble branch, to Perranporth on 2 January 1905, which allowed a new service to run from Newquay to Truro. The following year through carriages started to be run from London using the line from Par. The main departure platform was lengthened in 1928 and again in 1935 and these enlargements were to accommodate the longer trains that were now bringing holidaymakers from London and elsewhere. Extensive carriage sidings were laid on the side of the station to store these trains between services. The station started to be run following the closure of the line to Truro on 4 February 1963. The goods yard was closed in 1965, the roof on platforms 2 and 3 was removed in 1964, platform 3 was shortened in 1966 and its locomotive release line taken out of use on 4 October 1972, by which time four of the carriage sidings had been removed. On 5 October 1987 the signal box was closed, all the signals were dismantled. At the same time the last of the sidings were closed and lifted. The track beside the former platform 3 was kept as a siding until the mid-1990s, the original terminus of the Newquay Railway was at the harbour. Horses hauled wagons along a line that wound between houses to reach the top of a 1 in 4½ incline that carried the line down to the harbour, wagons were lowered on a cable down the incline, which was in a tunnel dug out of the cliff
21.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
22.
Woosung Road
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Surreptitiously conceived and constructed, it ran for less than a year before it was purchased and dismantled by the Qing viceroy Shen Pao-chen. The line would not be rebuilt for twenty years and its route – still primarily rural as late as the turn of the century – now forms part of the Shanghai Metros elevated Line 3. The British firm Jardine, Matheson, & Company in particular started to champion rail connections from the interior to Canton, Shanghai and these proposals were rejected even by the foreign-led Hong Kong Chamber of Commerce, which thought it might impact established shipping. However, in 1864, American Chinese began to be employed by the Central Pacific Railroad, whereas canals assisted irrigation along their routes and could not be stolen, railways would inevitably occupy and pollute arable land and invite theft. Even supporters of railways insisted that it was essential to keep any lines Chinese-controlled, Jardine, Matheson, & Co. initially established the Woosung Road Company as a front with a 200-share issue in 1865. Distributing shares to local businessmen did not succeed in winning official approval, the company stopped work in 1867. In the winter of 1872–1873, the American vice-consul O. B, the revived company was led by Jardines British Shanghai chief F. B. Johnson, the Americans Augustus Hayes of Olyphant & Co. and Frank Forbes of Russell & Co. the British E. Iveson of Iveson & Co. concurrently with this revival, the Woosung Tramway Company was established separately to manage purchases and planning for the railway. A third company, the Woosung Railway Company, Limited, was incorporated in London on July 28,1874, to raise capital for imported British rails and rolling stock, which arrived on December 18,1875. His subsequent discovery that its conversion to rail had been mooted and was known to Feng Chun-kuang. The British engineer Gabriel J. Morrison hammered in the first spike on 20 January 1876, the Pioneer ran its first trials on about a mile of track on February 14. Within a week, the Shanghai taotai Feng Chün-kuang had written a protest to the British consul Walter H. Medhurst, Wade ordered the British naval commander to Shanghai and provided for protection against any local interference against the workmen. Mayers demanded eight years, Feng would only permit three, adamant objection from Wu Yuan-ping, the new governor of Jiangsu, ended these negotiations. The first engine was the Ransomes & Rapier 0-4-0 Pioneer, on June 12, the 0-6-0 Celestial Empire set the lines record, reaching 25 mph. On June 30,1876, the line was completed as far as Jiangwan, after two days of complimentary and publicity runs for Shanghailanders and local businessmen, this section was opened to passenger traffic on July 3. Over the next month, receipts averaged $40–60 a day, business was brisk enough to necessitate adding an extra round trip to the original six on July 22. On August 3, a man was killed and Chinese troops from the Wusong garrison were stationed along the railway. The train driver David Banks was charged with manslaughter, but tried in a Western tribunal and acquitted on the grounds that the train had sounded and the suspicion the victim had been a suicide
23.
Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
24.
Hongkou District
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Hongkou, is a northern district of Shanghai proper, Peoples Republic of China. It has an area of 23.48 km2 and a population of 69. It is the location of the Astor House Hotel, Broadway Mansions, Lu Xun Park,20,000 Jewish refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe lived in an overcrowded square-mile section known to as the Shanghai Ghetto, in the Tilanqiao neighborhood of Hongkew. Hongkou is responsible for the administration of the following subdistricts, previously Lianhua Supermarket had its Shanghai office in the district. Shanghai Beihong Senior High School Shanghai Beijiao Senior High School Shanghai Chengzhong Senior High School Shanghai Jiguang Senior High School Shanghai No, archived from the original on 2013-03-02. Hongkou District travel guide from Wikivoyage
25.
Narrow-gauge railway
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A narrow-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow-gauge railways are between 600 mm and 1,067 mm, narrow-gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow-gauge railways also have general applications. Many narrow-gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm metre gauge tramways are common, the earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow-gauge lines in mines throughout Europe, during the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points and these railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. The worlds first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, during the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow-gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow-gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm gauge Antwerp-Ghent Railway in Belgium, historically, many narrow-gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow-gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, extensive narrow-gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow-gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market, significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow-gauge railway equipment remains in use for the construction of tunnels. Extensive narrow-gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I and they were a short-lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. Narrow-gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, the use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as feeder or branch lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, the choice was often not between a narrow-gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties
26.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
27.
Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway
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The Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway was a local passenger and freight-carrying railroad in the southwestern part of the U. S. state of Ohio, connecting Cincinnati to Dayton via Lebanon. It was built in the late 19th century to give the town of Lebanon, the company went through multiple bankruptcies, both before and after its 1881 completion, until the Pennsylvania Railroad gained control in 1896 and leased it in 1921. For this reason, portions of the line have been abandoned, passenger service was eliminated entirely in 1934. Conrail, the Pennsylvania Railroads successor, sold the remaining trackage in the 1980s to the Indiana and Ohio Railway and that company continues to provide local freight service on the ex-CL&N, and the Lebanon Mason Monroe Railroad operates tourist trains on a portion of the line near Lebanon. The town of Lebanon, Ohio, laid out in 1802, was bypassed by the Miami and Erie Canal in 1830, the branch Warren County Canal to Lebanon was wrecked by flooding in 1848. The Little Miami Railroad and Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad followed the valleys of the Little and Great Miami rivers, also bypassing the highlands on which Lebanon lay. Residents of the town obtained a charter in March 1850 for the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Xenia Railroad. At the latter town, the decided the most likely connection would be the New York and Erie Railroad. Thus the line was planned to use the Eries 6 ft broad gauge, to enter the city of Cincinnati, the CL&X would join the Dayton and Cincinnati Railroad, which was planning the 10, 011-foot double-track Deer Creek Tunnel through the Walnut Hills, at Sharonville. Tunnel construction began in late 1852, and the CL&X was finally organized under the charter in November, the CL&X located right-of-way, and began construction in about April 1853, but was forced to stop work by the end of 1855 due to lack of funds. Only grading between Sharon and Lebanon, mostly north of Mason, had been completed. In July 1861, the courts appointed a receiver for the CL&X, who in March 1869 sold the unfinished railroad, five trustees would ensure that the property was not sold without a majority of its owners consenting. Twenty years after its canal connection was destroyed, Lebanon was still without a connection to the outside world. The 1870s fad of the narrow gauge railway, which was cheaper than broader gauges to build and operate, presented a new possibility. Editorials likened the situation to Aesops fable of Hercules and the Carter, in November 1874, residents of Lebanon and the surrounding area organized the 3 ft narrow gauge Miami Valley Narrow Gauge Railway, which would complete the unfinished CL&X as a branch of the D&SE. Slow stock subscriptions delayed surveying until June 1875, when a line was located between Xenia and the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad west of Norwood. However, in August, a more direct route south of Norwood, through the rugged Deer Creek Valley, was suggested. The owners of the old CL&X grade sold it in April 1876 for $8,000 in stock of the new company, sterling and Columbus Railroad would extend to Columbus, crossing the D&SE at Octa
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Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
29.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
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Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
31.
Southern Pacific Transportation Company
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The Southern Pacific Transportation Company, earlier Southern Pacific Railroad and Southern Pacific Company, and usually called the Southern Pacific or Espee, was an American Class I railroad. It was absorbed in 1988 by the company controlled the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad. The railroad was founded as a holding company in 1865. By 1900 the Southern Pacific Company was a railroad system incorporating many smaller companies, such as the Texas and New Orleans Railroad and Morgans Louisiana. It extended from New Orleans through Texas to El Paso, across New Mexico and through Tucson, to Los Angeles, through most of California, including San Francisco, Central Pacific lines extended east across Nevada to Ogden, Utah, and reached north through Oregon to Portland. By the 1980s route mileage had dropped to 10,423 miles, in 1988 the Southern Pacific was taken over by D&RGW parent Rio Grande Industries. The combined railroad kept the Southern Pacific name due to its recognition in the railroad industry. Along with the addition of the SPCSL Corporation route from Chicago to St. Louis, by 1996 years of financial problems had dropped SPs mileage to 13,715 miles, and it was taken over by the Union Pacific Railroad. Southern Pacific founded important hospitals in San Francisco, Tucson, in the 1970s, it also founded a telecommunications network with a state-of-the-art microwave and fiber optic backbone. This evolved into Sprint, a company name that came from the acronym for Southern Pacific Railroad Internal Networking Telephony. The original aim was to construct a railroad from Galveston Bay to a point on the Red River near a trading post known as Coffees Station, the GRR built 2 miles of track in Houston in 1855. Track laying began in earnest in 1856 and on 1 September 1856 GRR was renamed the Houston and Texas Central Railway. SP acquired H&TC in 1883 but it continued to operate as a subsidiary under its own management until 1927, when it was leased to another SP-owned railroad, the Texas and New Orleans Railroad. The Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway, was chartered in Texas on 11 February 1850 by a group that included General Sidney Sherman, bBB&C was the first railroad to commence operation in Texas and the first component of SP to commence operation. Surveying of the route alignment commenced at Harrisburg, Texas in 1851, the first 20 miles of track opened in August 1853. SP was founded in San Francisco, California in 1865 by a group of businessmen led by Timothy Phelps with the aim of building a connection between San Francisco and San Diego, California. The company was purchased in September 1868 by a group of known as the Big Four, Charles Crocker, Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins. The Big Four had, in 1861, created the Central Pacific Railroad, CPRR was merged into SP in 1870
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Tehachapi Loop
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The Tehachapi Loop is a 0. 73-mile long spiral, or helix, on the Union Pacific Railroad Mojave Subdivision through Tehachapi Pass, of the Tehachapi Mountains in Kern County, south-central California. The line connects Bakersfield and the San Joaquin Valley to Mojave in the Mojave Desert, the line, which sees an average of almost 40 trains each day, is one of the busiest single-track mainlines in the world. With its frequent trains and spectacular scenery, the Loop is one of the prime railfan areas in the country, in 1998, the Loop was named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark and is designated California Historical Landmark #508. One of the feats of its day, the Loop was built by Southern Pacific Railroad to ease the grade over Tehachapi Pass. Construction began in 1874, and the line opened in 1876, contributors to the projects construction include Arthur De Wint Foote and the projects chief engineer, William Hood. Rising at a steady 2% grade, the track gains 77 feet in elevation in the Loop, a train more than 4,000 feet long passes over itself going around the loop. At the bottom of the loop, the passes through Tunnel 9. The siding on the loop is known as Walong after Southern Pacific District Roadmaster W. A. Long, a railroad museum stands in the nearby town of Tehachapi. The Loop became the property of the Union Pacific in 1996, trains of the BNSF Railway also use the loop under trackage rights. Union Pacific bars passenger trains from the line, which prevents Amtraks San Joaquin train from serving Los Angeles and this has been the case since the creation of Amtrak in 1971. An exception is made for the Coast Starlight, which uses the line as a detour if its route is closed. New aerial video of the 2nd track improvement, Nov 2016 Aerial video of 4000 train going uphill through the loop Nov 2015 Trainweb
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Thomas Francis Wade
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Born in London, he was the son of Major Wade of the Black Watch and Anne Smythe of Barbavilla, County Westmeath, Ireland. He was educated at the Cape, in Mauritius, at Harrow, in 1838, his father purchased for him a commission in the 81st Foot. Exchanging into the 42nd Highlanders, he served with his regiment in the Ionian Islands, devoting his leisure to the study of Italian. On receiving his commission as lieutenant in 1841 he exchanged into the 98th Foot, then orders for Qing China. The scene of the First Opium War had at that time been transferred to the Yangtze River, there he took part in the attack on Zhenjiang and in the advance on Nanking. In 1845, he was appointed interpreter in Cantonese to the Supreme Court of Hong Kong, in 1852 he was appointed vice-consul at Shanghai. This formed the beginning of the maritime customs service. In 1855, Wade was appointed Chinese secretary to Sir John Bowring, for the purpose of arranging for a camping ground in the neighborhood of Tongzhou he accompanied Mr Harry Parkes on his first visit to that city. As early as 1866, Wade urged Chinese officials to discontinue their method of execution known as slicing, Wade was appointed British Minister to China in 1871 and remained in that position in 1883. He was knighted in 1875, and negotiated the Chefoo Convention in 1876 with Li Hongzhang, in 1888, he was elected the first Professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge. He held the position as a professor until his death in Cambridge at 77 and he served as president of the Royal Asiatic Society from 1887 to 1890. Wade was married to Amelia Herschel, daughter of John Herschel, designed to accompany the Hsin Ching Lu, or Book of Experiments,1859. 語言自邇集 Yü-yen tzu-erh chi, a course designed to assist the student of colloquial Chinese. 文件自集 Wen-chien tzu-erh chi, a series of papers selected as specimens of documentary Chinese, 漢字習寫法 Han-tzu hsi-hsieh fa, a set of writing exercises, designed to accompany the colloquial series of the tzu-erh chi, London,1867. In these books, Wade produced an early and innovative system of transliteration of Chinese pronunciation into the Latin alphabet, wades system was later modified by Herbert Giles, into the Wade system as modified by Giles, the system now more generally known as the Wade-Giles system. It was the dominant transliteration system for much of the 20th century, though it was replaced by the Pinyin system, it is still used in some publications and communities. Note on the condition and government of the Chinese empire in 1849, the Chinese Army, Containing Notices of Its Bannermen, Hánkiun, and Luhying Divisions, With Details Respecting Their Organization, Locations, Pay, Efficiency, &c. n. p. The Hsin Ching Lu, or, Book of Experiments, being the first of a Series of Contributions to the Study of Chinese, État général des forces militaires et maritimes de la China, solde, armes, équipements, etc. J. Corréard
34.
Tael
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Tael or tahil can refer to any one of several weight measures of the Far East. Most commonly, it refers to the Chinese tael, a part of the Chinese system of weights, in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia it is equivalent to 10 mace or 1⁄16 catty, albeit with slightly different metric equivalents in these two places. These Chinese units of measurement are used in Chinese herbal medicine stores as well as gold. The English word tael comes through Portuguese from the Malay word tahil, early English forms of the name such as tay or taes derive from the Portuguese plural of tael, taeis. In Chinese, tael is written 兩 and has the Mandarin Chinese pronunciation in pinyin, in Chinese and Vietnamese, the phrase half a catty, eight taels, meaning two different presentations of the same thing, is still often used today. In China, there were many different weighting standards of tael depending on the region or type of trade, in general the silver tael weighed around 40 grams. The most common government measure was the Kuping tael, weighing 37.5 grams, a common commercial weight, the Caoping tael weighed 36.7 grams of marginally less pure silver. As in China, Japan used the tael as both a unit of weight and, by extension, a currency, traditional Chinese silver sycees and other currencies of fine metals were not denominated or made by a central mint and their value was determined by their weight in taels. The local tael also took precedence over any measure, so the Canton tael weighed 37.5 grams, the Convention or Shanghai tael was 33.9 g. The conversion rates between various common taels were well known, the tael was still the basis of the silver currency and sycee remained in use until the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Common weights were 50 tael,10 tael, and 5 down to 1, the Thai equivalent of the tael is known as the tamlueng, a term derived from Khmer. It was used as a unit of equal to four baht. The tael is still in use as a measurement in a number of countries though usually only in limited contexts. Chinas standardised market tael of 31.25 g was modified by the Peoples Republic of China in 1959, the new market tael was 50 g or 1⁄10 catty to make it compatible with metric measures. In Shanghai, silver is still traded in taels, some foodstuffs in China are sold in units also called taels, but which do not necessarily weigh one tael. For cooked rice, the weight of the tael is approximated using special tael-sized ladles, other items sold in taels include the shengjian mantou and the xiaolongbao, both small buns commonly found in Shanghai. In these cases, one tael is traditionally four and eight buns respectively, the tael is a legal weight measure in Hong Kong, and is still in active use. In Hong Kong, one tael is 37.799364167 g, similar to Hong Kong, in Singapore, one tael is defined as 1 1⁄3 ounce and is approximated as 37.7994 g The Taiwan tael is 37.5 g and is still used in some contexts
35.
Wusong District
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Wusong, formerly romanized as Woosung, is a subdistrict of Baoshan in northern Shanghai. Prior to the expansion, it was a separate port town located 14 miles down the Huangpu River from Shanghais urban core. Wusong is named for the Wusong River, a name for Shanghais Suzhou Creek. Suzhou Creek is now a tributary to the Huangpu River, emptying into it in Puxi across from Lujiazui, the Huangpu had previously been a tributary to the Wusong, but the two reversed their importance when a flood caused it to gain a number of the Wusongs former tributaries. Wusong housed a Qing fortress protecting the entrance to Shanghai and it was captured by the British during the Battle of Woosung on 16 June 1842, amid the First Opium War. During the steamship era, it was the point of departure for large steamers bound for Shanghai. This position caused it to be the site of Chinas first telegraph wires and first railroad, by 1900, it boasted a lighthouse and a skeleton teahouse, as well as a small squadron of war-junks of the Imperial Chinese Navy. Tongji University was founded here in 1909, during World War II, this town was the site of an internment camp for marines captured on Wake Island. Wusong became a district of Shanghai, before it was abolished in 1964, sladen, Douglas, Bits of China, The Japs at Home, 5th ed. New York, New Amsterdam Book Co. pp. 276–354, Woosung Road Wenzaobang, also known as Wusong Creek Suzhou Creek, formerly known as the Wusong River
36.
Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits
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The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today. Such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express, CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa. Now part of the French Newrest group, Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits was founded by Georges Nagelmackers during 1872, CIWL quickly established itself as the premier provider and operator of European railway sleepers and dining cars during the late 19th and the 20th centuries. The holding company, CIWLT, is an owned subsidiary of the Accor Group. During his trip to the United States in 1867–1868 the 23-year-old Belgian Georges Nagelmackers was impressed by the Pullman night trains, upon his return home, he decided to establish a network of such trains in Europe. He envisioned that such trains should be luxurious and travel across borders, in 1874 Nagelmackers founded the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits and the et des Grands Express Européens addition became part of the name ten years later. By 1886 his company had become the organiser for most European heads of state. The symbol WL held by two lions became a trade mark. These cars were drawn by locomotives of the various state railways. Prior to World War I, CIWL held a monopoly being the only catering to the needs of the international railroad traveller. The Companys trains also reached Manchuria, China and Cairo, in 1894 the Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels was founded as a subsidiary and began operating a chain of luxury hotels in major cities. Among these were the Hôtel Terminus in Bordeaux and Marseille, the Hôtel Pera Palace in Istanbul, the Hôtel de la Plage in Ostend, with the start of World War I CIWLs coaches were confiscated for military use. In Germany and Austro-Hungary Mitropa was founded to take over the property, in 1918, the communists in Russia expropriated CIWLs local rolling stock and hotels. After the conclusion of World War I CIWL demanded to have its central European service routes restored and it regained these for Austria, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, however, in Germany the Reichsbahn and Mitropa sabotaged this process. On April 23,1925, CIWL and Mitropa agreed to separate spheres of influence, CIWL received transit routes through Germany and routes between Germany and Belgium, France, Italy, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania and Czechoslovakia. Mitropa took over the routes between Germany and the Netherlands and Scandinavia, as well as trains within Germany, and to Danzig, Trains between Germany and Austria were served by both companies. In the interbellum period CIWL flourished again, the companys blue and gold livery was introduced
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Brussels
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Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
38.
Ashtabula River railroad disaster
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The Ashtabula River railroad disaster was a derailment caused by the failure of a bridge over the Ashtabula River about 1,000 feet from the railroad station at Ashtabula, in far northeastern Ohio. The wooden cars were set alight by their heating stoves, the accident killed 92 people, including the gospel singer and hymn-writer Philip Bliss and his wife, and was the worst rail accident in the U. S. until the Great Train Wreck of 1918. The coroners report found that the bridge, designed by the company president, had been improperly designed. As a result of the accident a hospital was built in the town, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway Train No. 5, The Pacific Express, left Erie, Pennsylvania, on the afternoon of December 29,1876 in deep snow. Two locomotives, Socrates and Columbia, were hauling 11 railcars, at about 7,30 pm the train was crossing over the Ashtabula River about 1,000 feet from the railroad station at Ashtabula, Ohio when the bridge gave way beneath it. The lead locomotive made it across the bridge, while the second locomotive, some cars landed in an upright position. The wooden cars were set alight by the heating stoves and lamps and soon small, of 159 passengers and crew on board that night,92 were killed or died later from injuries, they included the gospel singer and hymn-writer Philip Bliss and his wife. Forty-eight of the fatalities were unrecognizable or consumed in the flames, the crash was heard in the town and the alarm was raised. By the time the townspeople reached the bridge the wounded passengers had made their way to the shore, when the Ashtabula Fire Brigade arrived, the immediate instructions from railroad employees were to get the wounded out and to clear a pathway up the side of the ravine. After this no water was put onto the fire, even after reports of survivors still trapped in the wreck, the survivors were led, carried and conveyed on sleds to hotels and private houses in the town, there being no hospital. However, people assisting also stole money and valuables from the survivors and dead, $1,500 being returned following investigation by detectives, the dead were moved the following morning. The railroad bridge was re-built with temporary underpinning, the following day an investigative coroners jury, made up of six men, was appointed. Their investigation was to take 68 days, built in 1865 to span 165 feet, the engineer employed to draft and construct it resigned after saying the braces were too small. The Railroads Engineer in Charge, Charles Collins, saw it as an experiment, the coroners jury report strongly criticized the design of the bridge, as the failure of one part led to its collapse. Bridge members, instead of being fastened, rested on each other, the report also noted that an inspection by a competent bridge engineer during the 11 years the railroad had used the bridge would have spotted these defects. The jury also criticized the way the trains had been heated, the State Legislature of Ohio appointed engineers to look at the use of iron for the bridge, then a new material, and they concluded that the material had no inherent defect. Days after testifying to the State Legislature Committee, Collins was found dead in his bedroom of a wound to the head
39.
Ashtabula, Ohio
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Ashtabula /æʃtəˈbjuːlə/ ash-tə-BEW-lə is a city in Ashtabula County, Ohio, United States, and the center of the Ashtabula Micropolitan Statistical Area. It is located at the mouth of the Ashtabula River on Lake Erie, one of the Great Lakes, across from the province of Ontario, the name Ashtabula is derived from ashtepihəle, which means always enough fish to be shared around in the Lenape language. The city became an important destination on the Underground Railroad in the middle 19th century, as slaves could take ships to Canada. Even in the state of Ohio, they were at risk of being captured by slavecatchers. Beginning in the late 19th century, the city became a coal port on Lake Erie at the mouth of the Ashtabula River northeast of Cleveland. Coal and iron were shipped here, the latter from the Mesabi Range in Minnesota, the city attracted immigrants from Finland, Sweden and Italy in the industrial period. Ashtabula hosts an annual Blessing of the Fleet Celebration, usually in late May or early June, as part of the celebration, a religious procession and prayer service is held at Ashtabula Harbor. The city was the site of the FinnFestUSA in 2007, a celebration of Finnish Americans, as of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 19,124, a decrease of 1,838. From the 20,962 residents recorded in the 2000 census and it has lost population due to the decline in industrial jobs. This area had long inhabited by indigenous peoples. The success of military effort resulted in more European Americans entering Ohio. The site of Ashtabula was settled by such European Americans beginning in 1803, the city was incorporated in 1891. Located directly on Lake Erie and developed as a port for trade and this informal, secret system was the means by which anti-slavery supporters helped escaped African-American slaves reach freedom in Canada in the years before the American Civil War. While Ohio was a state, many refugee slaves still felt at risk of slavecatchers here. It required enforcement and cooperation by residents of states to return escaped slaves and was biased toward slavecatchers. Among the Underground Railroad sites in Ashtabula is Hubbard House, one of the handful of former surviving termination points. Refugee slaves stayed in a basement of the adjacent to the lake and then left on the next safe boat to Canada. The citys harbor has been important as an ore and coal port since the end of the 19th century
40.
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway
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The Toledo War soon gave about one-third of the route to the state of Ohio. Trains commenced operating, pulled by horses, on November 2,1836, the Buffalo and Mississippi Railroad was chartered in Indiana on February 6,1835, to run from Buffalo, New York, to the Mississippi River. The name was changed February 6,1837, to the Northern Indiana Railroad, some grading between Michigan City and La Porte was done in 1838, but money ran out. Around 1838, the state of Michigan started to build the Southern Railroad, the first section, from Monroe west to Petersburg, opened in 1839. Extensions opened in 1840 to Adrian and 1843 to Hillsdale, on May 9,1846, the partially completed line was sold to the Michigan Southern Rail Road, which changed the planned western terminal to Chicago using the charter of the Northern Indiana Railroad. The grading that had been done was not used, as the grade was too steep, the Michigan Southern leased the Erie and Kalamazoo on August 1,1849, giving it a branch to Toledo, OH and a connection to planned railroads east from Toledo. Due to lobbying by the Michigan Central Railroad, a competitor of the Michigan Southern, however the most practical route went closer than two miles west of White Pigeon. The Northern Indiana and Chicago Railroad was chartered on November 30,1850 and its initial tracks, from the Michigan Southern at the state line running west-southwest to Elkhart, IN then west through Osceola and Mishawaka to South Bend, IN, opened on October 4,1851. The full line west to Chicago opened on February 20,1852, a more direct line was soon planned from Elkhart east to Toledo, and the Northern Indiana Railroad was chartered in Ohio on March 3,1851. On April 25,1855, that company in turn merged with the Michigan Southern Rail Road to form the Michigan Southern and Northern Indiana Railroad, in 1858 the new alignment from Elkhart, IN east to Air Line Junction in Toledo, OH was completed. The company now owned a line from Chicago to Toledo, with an alternate route through southern Michigan east of Elkhart. Also included was the Detroit, Monroe and Toledo Railroad, leased July 1,1856, Erie to Cleveland The Franklin Canal Company was chartered May 21,1844, and built a railroad from Erie, PA southwest to the Ohio border. The Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula bought the Franklin Canal Company on June 20,1854, Buffalo to Erie The Buffalo and State Line Railroad was incorporated October 13,1849, and opened January 1,1852, from Dunkirk, NY west to Pennsylvania. The rest of the line from Dunkirk to Buffalo opened on February 22, the Erie and North East Railroad was chartered April 12,1842, to build the part from the state line west to Erie, PA, and opened on January 19,1852. This would result in through passengers no longer having to change trains at Erie, and on December 7,1853, on February 1,1854, the relaying was finished and the first train passed through Erie. On May 15,1867, the two companies between Buffalo and Erie merged to form the Buffalo and Erie Railroad, Cleveland to Toledo The Junction Railroad was chartered March 2,1846, to build from Cleveland west to Toledo. The Toledo, Norwalk and Cleveland Railroad was chartered March 7,1850, to build from Toledo east to Grafton on the Cleveland, Columbus, the latter company opened on January 24,1853, finally forming a continuous Buffalo-Chicago line. The Northern Division opened from Cleveland west to Sandusky on October 24,1853, the Northern Division was abandoned west of Sandusky due to lack of business, but the track was relaid in 1872, merging with the Southern Division at Millbury, east of Toledo
41.
Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
42.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
