1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
6.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
7.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
8.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
9.
1880
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As of the start of 1880, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 22 Toowong State School is founded in Queensland, Australia, february – The journal Science is first published in the United States with financial backing from Thomas Edison. February 2 The first electric streetlight is installed in Wabash, Indiana, the first successful shipment of frozen mutton from Australia arrives in London aboard the SS Strathleven. March 31 – Wabash, Indiana becomes the first electrically lit city in the world, april – The government of Cape Colony sets a deadline for the surrender of weapons by the Basuto people. Non-compliance leads to the Basuto Gun War, april 18 – William Ewart Gladstone defeats Benjamin Disraeli in the United Kingdom general election to become Prime Minister for the second time. April 19 – The Prime Minister of Sweden, Louis De Geer, resigns over the defeat of a reform bill in the countrys Riksdag. April 27 – Charter founding the Royal University of Ireland, allowing the Catholic University of Ireland to re-form as University College Dublin. May 2 – After having her lights installed by Edisons personnel, may 13 – In Menlo Park, New Jersey, Thomas Edison performs the first test of his electric railway. June – The SS Columbia sets off on her voyage around Cape Horn to Portland, Oregon. June 1 – Tinius Olsen awarded a United States Patent for the Little Giant Testing Machine, june 28 – Australian police capture bank robber Ned Kelly after a gun battle at Glenrowan, Victoria. June 29 – France annexes Tahiti, july 14 – Dorchester Penitentiary opens in Canada. July 22 – Abdur Rahman Khan becomes Emir of Afghanistan, july 27 – Battle of Maiwand August 14 – Cologne Cathedral is completed, after construction began in 1248,632 years earlier. August 24 – The SS Columbia completes her maiden voyage, arriving without incident in Portland, August 26 — Competing circus owners P. T. Barnum and James A. Bailey sign a contract in Bridgeport, Connecticut to create the Barnum & Bailey Circus. In 1907, the circus will merge forces with another competitor, september 1 — Second Anglo-Afghan War, General Frederick Roberts, commanding British forces, defeats the Afghan troops of Mohammad Ayub Khan in the Battle of Kandahar, bringing an end to the war. October – The Blizzard of 1880 begins in North America, october 1 – German company Munich Re is founded in Munich. October 6 – The University of Southern California opens its doors to 53 students and 10 faculty, october 15 – Mexican soldiers kill Victorio, one of the greatest Apache military strategists. October 28 – The first stone is laid for the Clarkson Memorial in Wisbech, november 2 – U. S. presidential election,1880, James Garfield defeats Winfield S. Hancock. November 4 – The first cash register is patented by James and John Ritty of Dayton, november 9 – A major earthquake strikes Zagreb and destroys many buildings including Zagreb Cathedral
10.
1881
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As of the start of 1881, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1–January 24 – Siege of Geok Tepe, Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans, january 25 – Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell form the Oriental Telephone Company. February 4 The Linngton Manor was burned to the ground, february 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert. February 16 – The Canadian Pacific Railway is incorporated, february 19 – Kansas becomes the first U. S. state to prohibit all alcoholic beverages. February 25 – Phoenix, Arizona is incorporated, march 1 – The Cunard Lines SS Servia, the first steel transatlantic liner, is launched at Clydebank in Scotland. March 4 – James A. Garfield is sworn in as President of the United States, march 12 – Andrew Watson makes his Scotland debut as the worlds first black international football player. March 13 – Alexander II of Russia is killed near his palace when a bomb is thrown at him and he is succeeded by his son, Alexander III. March 23 – First Boer War comes to an end, april 11 – Spelman College is established. April 14 – The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight erupts in El Paso, april 15 – Temuco, Chile is founded. April 15 – Anti-Semitic pogroms in Southern Russia start, april 21 – The University of Connecticut is founded as the Storrs Agricultural School. April 25 – Caulfield Grammar School is founded in Melbourne, Australia, april 28 – Billy the Kid escapes from his 2 jailers at the Lincoln County Jail in Mesilla, New Mexico, killing James Bell and Robert Ollinger before stealing a horse and riding out of town. May 10 – Romania is proclaimed a kingdom, Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is crowned King of Romania, may 12 – In North Africa, Tunisia becomes a French protectorate by the Treaty of Bardo. May 13 – The Pacific island of Rotuma cedes to Great Britain, may 16 – The worlds first regular electric tram service is started in Berlin by Siemens & Halske. May 21 The American Red Cross is established by Clara Barton, the United States Tennis Association is established by a small group of tennis club members, the first U. S. Tennis Championships are played this year, june 12 – The USS Jeannette is crushed in an Arctic Ocean ice pack. June 18 – The League of the Three Emperors is resurrected, june 20 – The current Cincinnati Reds baseball team plays its first game. June 26 War of the Pacific, Indecisive Battle of Sangrar in central Andes, july 1 – General Order 70, the culmination of the Cardwell–Childers reforms of the British Armys organization, comes into effect. July 2 – Assassination of James A. Garfield, United States President James A. Garfield is shot by lawyer Charles J. Guiteau in Washington, the wound becomes infected, killing Garfield on September 19
11.
1882
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As of the start of 1882, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 The Standard Oil Trust is secretly created in the United States to control multiple corporations set up by John D. Rockefeller and his associates. January 5 – Charles J. Guiteau is found guilty of the assassination of James A. Garfield and sentenced to death and he will be hanged on June 30. February 3 – American showman P. T. Barnum acquires the elephant Jumbo from London Zoo, march 2 – Roderick McLean fails in an attempt to assassinate Queen Victoria at Windsor. March 20 – British gunboats enter Monrovia, with Arthur Havelock demanding that Liberia cede disputed territory to the British colony of Sierra Leone of which he is Governor, march 22 – Polygamy is made a felony by the Edmunds Act passed by the United States Congress. March 24 – Robert Koch announces the discovery of the responsible for tuberculosis. March 28 Republican Jules Ferry makes primary education in France free, non-clerical, german medical products company Beiersdorf is founded. March 29 – The Knights of Columbus, a Catholic fraternal service organization, is founded in New Haven, april 3 – Old West outlaw Jesse James is shot in the back of the head and killed by Robert Ford. April 29 – The Elektromote, the worlds first trolleybus started in Berlin, may 1 – Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, as known well for philharmonic orchestra group in Europe, which founded in Germany. May 2 – Charles Stewart Parnell is released, may 8 – The Chinese Exclusion Act is the first important law which restricts immigration into the U. S. A. May 20 – The Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, June 6 A cyclone in the Arabian Sea causes flooding in Bombay harbor, leaving about 100,000 dead. Battle of Embabo, The Shewan forces of Menelik II defeat the Gojjame army, June 11 – The ‘Urabi Revolt breaks out in Egypt against Khedive Tewfik Pasha and European influence in that country. June 28 – Anglo-French Convention of 1882 signed marking territorial boundaries between Guinea and Sierra Leone, June 30 – U. S. presidential assassin Charles Guiteau is hanged. July 11–13 – Anglo-Egyptian War, The British Mediterranean Fleet carries out the Bombardment of Alexandria, its forces capturing the city of Alexandria in Egypt, july 26 Boers establish the republic of Stellaland in southern Africa. Richard Wagners opera Parsifal debuts at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus in Bavaria, july 31 – The Hebrew Moshava of Rishon LeZion is founded. August 3 – The U. S. Congress passes the 1882 Immigration Act, august 5 – Standard Oil of New Jersey is established. August 18 – The Married Womens Property Act 1882 receives royal assent in Britain, it enables women to buy, own and sell property, august 20 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture debuts in Moscow. September 4 – Thomas Edison flips the switch to the first commercial power plant in history
12.
1883
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As of the start of 1883, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Life magazine is founded in Los Angeles January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee kills 73 people, January 16 – The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing the United States civil service, is passed. January 19 – The first electric lighting system employing overhead wires begins service in Roselle, New Jersey, february – The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi is first published complete in book form in Italy. February 13 – The German composer Richard Wagner dies of an attack in Venice. February 16 – The Ladies Home Journal is published for the first time, february 23 – Alabama becomes the first U. S. state to enact an antitrust law. February 28 – The first vaudeville theater is opened, in Boston, march 2 – The Hong Kong Observatory is formed. March 14 – Karl Marx dies in London, march 20 – Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. April 5 – Oxygen is liquefied for the very first time, april 28 – The first sevens tournament is played at Melrose RFC in Scotland. May 23 – Robert Louis Stevensons childrens pirate adventure novel Treasure Island is first published in book format, may 24 – Brooklyn Bridge is opened to traffic after 13 years of construction. May 30 – In New York City, a rumor that the Brooklyn Bridge is going to collapse causes a stampede which crushes 12 people, June 3 – Sheikh Maktoum al Butthi takes power in Dubai. The al-Maktoum family is ruling Dubai as an Emirate ever since, June 13 – Count Arvid Posse leaves office as Prime Minister of Sweden. He is succeeded by Carl Johan Thyselius, the first non-aristocrat to serve as Swedish head of government, June 16 – Victoria Hall disaster, A rush for treats results in 183 children being asphyxiated in a concert hall in Sunderland, England. June 28 – In Milan, Italy the first central European electricity power station is inaugurated, stevenson completes writing it at the end of the summer in France. July 3 – The SS Daphne disaster in Glasgow leaves 124 dead, july 4 – The worlds first rodeo is held in Pecos, Texas. July 22 – Zulu King Cetshwayo barely escapes an attack with his life. August King Williams College is opened on the Isle of Man, august 12 – The last quagga dies at the Artis Magistra zoo in Amsterdam. August 21 – An F5 tornado strikes Rochester, Minnesota, leading to the creation of the Mayo Clinic, august 26–August 27 – Krakatoa volcano erupts at 10,02 AM,163 villages are destroyed,36,380 killed by tsunami. August 29 – Dunfermline Carnegie Library, the first Carnegie library, is opened in Andrew Carnegies hometown, Dunfermline, september 11 – Major Evelyn Baring becomes Consul-General of Egypt under British rule
13.
1884
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As of the start of 1884, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – The Fabian Society is founded in London, january 5 – Gilbert and Sullivans Princess Ida has its première at the Savoy Theatre, London. January 18 – Dr. William Price attempts to cremate his dead son, Iesu Grist. Later tried and acquitted on the grounds that cremation is not contrary to English law, he is able to carry out the ceremony on March 14. February 1 – A New English Dictionary on historical principles, part 1, edited by James A. H. Murray, February 5 – Derby County Football Club is founded in England. March 13 – The siege of Khartoum, Sudan begins, april 20 – Pope Leo XIII publishes the encyclical Humanum genus, denouncing Freemasonry and certain liberal beliefs which he considers to be associated with it. April 22 German protectorate in South-West Africa, the Colchester earthquake, England, the UKs most destructive, occurs. May 1 – The eight-hour workday is first proclaimed by the Federation of Organized Trades and this date, called May Day or Labour Day, becomes a holiday recognized in almost every industrialized country. May 16 – Angelo Moriondo of Turin is granted a patent for an espresso machine, may 16, Swedens Finance Minister Robert Themptander becomes his countrys Prime Minister June 4 The future flag of Estonia is consecrated as the flag of the Estonian Students Society. June 13 – LaMarcus Adna Thompson opens the Gravity Pleasure Switchback Railway at Coney Island, july 3 – The Dow Jones Transportation Average, consisting of eleven transportation-related companies, nine railroads and two non-rail companies, was created. The index is the oldest stock index still in use, july 5 – Germany takes possession of Togoland. July 14 – German administration in Cameroon, july 23 – Todays Courier records the first tennis tournaments held on the grounds of Shrubland Hall, Leamington Spa, England. August 5 – The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty is laid on Bedloes Island in New York Harbor, August 10 – An earthquake measuring 5.5 Mfa affected a very large portion of the eastern United States. The shock had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII, chimneys were toppled in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Property damage was severe in Jamaica and Amityville in New York, August 22 – Sino-French War breaks out. August 23 – Sino-French War, Battle of Fuzhou, French Admiral Amédée Courbets Far East Squadron virtually destroys Chinas Fujian Fleet, september 5 – Staten Island Academy is founded. September 15 –Medicine, The invention of local anesthesia by Karl Koller is made public at a congress in Heidelberg. October 6 – The United States Naval War College is established in Newport, october 18 – The University of Wales, Bangor is founded
14.
1885
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As of the start of 1885, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3–4 – Sino-French War – Battle of Núi Bop, French troops under General Oscar de Négrier defeat a numerically superior Qing Chinese force in northern Vietnam, january 4 – The first successful appendectomy is performed by Dr. William W. Grant on Mary Gartside. January 17 – Mahdist War in Sudan, British victory at the Battle of Abu Klea, january 20 – LaMarcus Adna Thompson patents a roller coaster. January 24 – Irish terrorists damage Westminster Hall and the Tower of London with dynamite, january 26 – Mahdist War in Sudan, Troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad conquer Khartoum. The British commander Charles George Gordon is killed, February 5 – King Léopold II of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State as a personal possession. February 7 – The play La vida alegre y muerte triste by dramatist José Echegaray opens, February 9 – The first Japanese arrive in Hawaii. February 16 – Charles Dow publishes the first edition of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the index stood at a level of 62.76, and represented the dollar average of 14 stocks,12 railroads and two leading American industries. February 21 – United States President Chester A. Arthur dedicates the Washington Monument, February 23 Sino-French War, France gains an important victory over China in the Battle of Đồng Đăng in the Tonkin region of modern-day Vietnam. An English executioner fails after several attempts to hang John Babbacombe Lee, sentenced for the murder of his employer Emma Keyse, February 26 – The final act of the Berlin Conference regulates European colonization and trade in the scramble for Africa. February 28 – February concludes without having a full moon, march 3 – A subsidiary of the American Bell Telephone Company, American Telephone and Telegraph, is incorporated in New York. March 4 – Grover Cleveland is sworn in as President of the United States, march 7 – The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Madrid is founded. March 14 – Gilbert and Sullivans comic opera The Mikado opens at the Savoy Theatre in London, march 26 The Prussian government, motivated by Otto von Bismarck, expels all ethnic Poles and Jews without German citizenship from Prussia in the Prussian deportations. North-West Rebellion in Canada by the Métis people, led by Louis Riel, first legal cremation in England, Mrs Jeannette C. Pickersgill of London, well known in literary and scientific circles, is cremated by the Cremation Society at Woking, march 30 – The Battle for Kushka triggers the Panjdeh Incident, which nearly gives rise to war between the British Empire and Russian Empire. March 31 – The United Kingdom establishes the Bechuanaland Protectorate, april 2 – Frog Lake Massacre, Cree warriors led by Wandering Spirit kill 9 settlers at Frog Lake in the Northwest Territories. April 3 – Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for his single-cylinder water-cooled engine design, april 11 – Luton Town Football Club are created by the merger of Wanderers F. C. and Luton Excelsior F. C. in England. April 14 – Final engagement of Sino-French War, with a French victory at Kép, China withdraws its forces from Tonkin. April 30 – A bill is signed in the New York State legislature forming the Niagara Falls State Park, may 2 Good Housekeeping magazine goes on sale for the first time in the United States
15.
1886
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As of the start of 1886, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Upper Burma is formally annexed to British Burma, january 5 – Publication of Robert Louis Stevensons novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. January 18 – Modern field hockey is born with the formation of The Hockey Association in England, january 29 – Karl Benz patents the first successful gasoline-driven automobile, the Benz Patent-Motorwagen. February 14 – The first train load of oranges leaves Los Angeles via the transcontinental railroad, march 3 – The Treaty of Bucharest ends the Serbo-Bulgarian War in the Balkans. March 8 – Anti-Chinese sentiments result in riots in Seattle, USA, march 16 – A law establishing the Kiel Canal is adopted. March 17 – Carrollton Massacre,20 African Americans are killed in Mississippi, march 29 – Wilhelm Steinitz becomes first recognized World Chess Champion. April 4 – William Ewart Gladstone introduces the First Irish Home Rule Bill in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, april 6 – Vancouver in British Columbia is incorporated. April 25 – Easter occurs on the latest possible date, may 4 A general strike begins in the United States, which escalates into the Haymarket Riot and eventually wins the eight-hour day for workers. Emile Berliner starts work that leads to the invention of the gramophone, may 8 – American pharmacist Dr. John Pemberton invents a carbonated beverage that will be named Coca-Cola. May 15 – Portugal and France agree to regulate the borders of their colonies in Guinea, may 17 Motherwell Football Club is founded in Scotland. Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad, The U. S. Supreme Court rules that corporations have the rights as living persons. May 29 – John Pemberton begins to advertise Coca-Cola, June 2 – U. S. President Grover Cleveland marries Frances Folsom in the White House, becoming the only President of the United States to wed in the executive mansion. She is 27 years his junior, June 3 – Uganda Martyrs, Charles Lwanga, twelve other Catholic boys and men and nine Anglicans are burned to death at the orders of Kabaka Mwanga II of Buganda in Namugongo. June 10 – The Mount Tarawera volcano erupts in New Zealand, resulting in the deaths of over 150 people, June 12 – King Ludwig II of Bavaria is detained as part of a deposition, drowning the following day under mysterious circumstances. Six weeks later his unfinished Neuschwanstein Castle is opened to the public, June 13 – The Great Vancouver Fire devastates much of Vancouver, British Columbia. June 30 – The Royal Holloway College for women is opened by Queen Victoria near London in England, july 3 – Karl Benz officially unveils the Benz Patent Motorwagen. July 9 – Charles Hall files a patent for his process of turning aluminium oxide into molten aluminium, july 23 – Steve Brodie fakes a jump from the Brooklyn Bridge. July 25 – Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury becomes Great Britains 30th Prime Minister, july 31 – Death of Hungarian composer Franz Liszt
16.
1887
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As of the start of 1887, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 11 – Louis Pasteurs anti-rabies treatment is defended in the Académie Nationale de Médecine by Dr. Joseph Grancher, january 20 – The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Harbor as a naval base. January 21 The Amateur Athletic Union is formed, Brisbane receives a one-day rainfall of 465 millimetres – a record for any Australian capital city. January 24 – Battle of Dogali, Abyssinian troops defeat the Italians, january 28 In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, USA, the largest snowflakes on record are reported. They are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick, construction of the foundations of the Eiffel Tower starts in Paris, France. February 2 – In Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, the first Groundhog Day is observed, february 4 – The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, as passed by the 49th United States Congress, is signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. February 5 – The Giuseppe Verdi opera Otello premieres at La Scala, february 8 – The Dawes Act, or the General Allotment Act, is enacted. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, february 26 – At the Sydney Cricket Ground, George Lohmann becomes the first bowler to take eight wickets in a Test innings. March 3 – Anne Sullivan begins teaching Helen Keller, march 4 – Gottlieb Daimler unveils his first automobile. March 7 – North Carolina State University is established as North Carolina College of Agriculture, march 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs. April 1 – Mumbai Fire Brigade is established, April 4 – Argonia, Kansas elects Susanna M. Salter as the first female mayor in the United States. April 9 – The Charter of Incorporation was approved for The Teutonia Maennerchor Hall in the East Allegheny neighborhood of Pittsburgh, April 10 – The Catholic University of America is founded on Easter Sunday. April 21 – Schnaebele incident – French/German border incident nearly leads to war between the two countries, April 20 – Occidental College is founded. May 3 – An earthquake hits Sonora, Mexico, may 9 – Buffalo Bills Wild West Show opens in London. May 14 – The cornerstone of the new Stanford University, in northern California, is laid, June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a patent for his punched card calculator. June 18 – The Reinsurance Treaty is closed between Germany and Russia, June 21 The British Empire celebrates Queen Victorias Golden Jubilee, marking the 50th year of her reign. June 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nations first national park, June 28 – Minot, North Dakota is incorporated as a city. June 29 – The United Retail Federation is established in Brisbane, july – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk in Scotland
17.
1888
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As of the start of 1888, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. In Germany,1888 is known as the Year of the Three Emperors, currently, it is the year that, when written in Roman numerals, has the most digits. This will be surpassed as late as 2888, january 3 – The 91-centimeter telescope is first used at Lick Observatory in California. January 12 – The Schoolhouse Blizzard hits Dakota Territory, the states of Montana, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, january 13 – The National Geographic Society is founded in Washington, D. C. January 21 –– Amateur Athletic Union is founded by William Buckingham Curtis in the United States, january 26 –– The Lawn Tennis Association is founded in England. February 6 –– Gillis Bildt becomes Prime Minister of Sweden, february 27 – In West Orange, New Jersey, Thomas Edison meets with Eadweard Muybridge, who proposes a scheme for sound film. March 8 – The Agriculture College of Utah, is founded in Logan, march 9 – Frederick III becomes German Emperor and King of Prussia. March 11 – The Great Blizzard of 1888 begins along the seaboard of the United States, shutting down commerce. March 13 – De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. is founded in Kimberley, march 15 – Start of the Sikkim Expedition, a British military expedition to expel the Tibetans from northern Sikkim. March 16 – Foundation stone for a new National Library of Greece is laid in Athens, march 20 – The very first Romani language operetta premieres in Moscow, Russia. March 23 – A meeting called by William McGregor to discuss establishment of The Football League is held in London, march 27 – The Rescue of the Renown, Dorus Rijkers saves the 30-man crew of the Renown off the Netherlands coast, risking his own life. March 29 – Death of French-Jewish composer Charles-Valentin Alkan, march – International Council of Women formed, a key event in the international womens movement. April 3 The Brighton Beach Hotel in Coney Island is moved 520 feet using six steam locomotives by civil engineer B. C. Miller to save it from ocean storms. April 6 – First New Years Day of the solar calendar adopted by Siamese King Chulalongkorn with the 106th anniversary of Bangkoks founding in 1782 as its epoch, April 11 – The Concertgebouw in Amsterdam is inaugurated. April 16 – The German Empire annexes the island of Nauru, April 21 – The Texas State Capitol building, completed at a cost of 3 million dollars, opens to the public in Austin. May 1 – The United States Congress establishes the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, may 8 – Royal opening of the International Exhibition of Science, Art and Industry in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow. May 12 – The North Borneo Chartered Companys territories become the British protectorate of North Borneo, may 13 – In Brazil, the Lei Áurea abolishes the last remnants of slavery. May 28 – In Scotland, Celtic F. C. plays its first official match winning 5–2 against Rangers F. C, may 30 – Hong Kongs Peak Tram begins operation
18.
1889
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As of the start of 1889, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 A total eclipse of the Sun is seen over parts of California, wovoka experiences a vision leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the Dakotas. January 4 – An Act to Regulate Appointments in the Marine Hospital Service of the United States is signed by President Grover Cleveland and it establishes a Commissioned Corps of officers as a predecessor to the modern-day U. S. January 5 – Preston North End F. C. is declared the winner of the inaugural Football League in England, january 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a patent for his electric tabulating machine in the United States. January 15 – The Coca-Cola Company is originally incorporated as the Pemberton Medicine Company in Atlanta, january 22 – Columbia Phonograph is formed in Washington, D. C. January 30 – Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, and his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera commit a suicide in the Mayerling hunting lodge. February 5 – The first issue of Glasgow University Magazine is published, February 15 – The first issue of La Solidaridad is published. February 11 – The Meiji Constitution of Japan is adopted, the 1st Diet of Japan convenes in 1890, February 22 – President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U. S. states. March 4 – Benjamin Harrison is sworn in as President of the United States, March 9 – Yohannes IV, Emperor of Ethiopia, is killed in the Battle of Metemma, Sudanese forces, who had been almost defeated, rally and destroy the Ethiopian army. Yohannes is probably the worlds last ruler ever to die in battle, Menelik II proclaims himself as the successor on March 25. March 11 – The North Carolina Legislature issues a charter for the creation of Elon College, March 15 – Samoan crisis, German and American warships keep each other at bay in a standoff in Apia harbor, ending when a cyclone blows in and sinks them all. March 22 – English Association football team Sheffield United F. C. formed at the Adelphi Hotel, March 23 – Claiming to be the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founds the Ahmadiyya Muslim community in Punjab Province. March 31 – The Eiffel Tower is inaugurated, at 300 m, its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m. Contemporary critics regard it as aesthetically displeasing, april 1 – Following a failed attempt at a coup, French defense minister Georges Boulanger is forced to flee the country. April 10 – The Hammarby Roddförening is founded in Sweden, april 16 – Charlie Chaplin is born in London, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. April 20 – Adolf Hitler is born at Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary on the border with Bavaria, april 22 – At high noon in Oklahoma Territory, thousands rush to claim land in the Land Rush of 1889. Within hours the cities of Oklahoma City and Guthrie are formed, may 2 – Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia, signs a treaty of amity with Italy, giving Italy control over what will become Eritrea. May 6 – The Exposition Universelle opens in Paris with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, the Galerie des machines, at 111 m, spans the longest interior space in the world at this time
19.
Second Industrial Revolution
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The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid industrialization in the final third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the early to mid 1800s, was punctuated by a slowdown in macroinventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, in the same period new systems were introduced, most significantly electrical power and telephones. The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line, and ended at the start of the First World War. The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of industrial development, primarily in Britain, Germany and the United States, but also in France. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe and it also was the period during which modern organizational methods for operating large scale businesses over vast areas came into use. However, some continue to express reservations about its use, Vaclav Smil called the period 1867–1914 The Age of Synergy during which most of the great innovations were developed. Unlike the First Industrial Revolution, the inventions and innovations were engineering, a synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads allowed cheap transportation of materials and products, which in turn led to cheap rails to build more roads, railroads also benefited from cheap coal for their steam locomotives. This synergy led to the laying of 75,000 miles of track in the U. S. in the 1880s, falling costs for producing wrought iron coincided with the emergence of the railway in the 1830s. The early technique of hot blast used iron for the heating medium. Iron caused problems with expansion and contraction, which stressed the iron, Edward Alfred Cowper developed the Cowper stove in 1857. This stove used firebrick as a medium, solving the expansion. The Cowper stove was also capable of producing heat, which resulted in very high throughput of blast furnaces. The Cowper stove is used in todays blast furnaces. With the greatly reduced cost of producing pig iron with coke using hot blast, demand grew dramatically, the Bessemer process greatly reduced the cost, allowing the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. The key principle was the removal of carbon and other impurities from the iron by oxidation with air blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the mass and keeps it molten
20.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
21.
Business cycle
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The business cycle or economic cycle is the downward and upward movement of gross domestic product around its long-term growth trend. The length of a cycle is the period of time containing a single boom. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time periods of relatively rapid economic growth, and periods of relative stagnation or decline. Business cycles are usually measured by considering the rate of real gross domestic product. Despite the often-applied term cycles, these fluctuations in economic activity do not exhibit uniform or predictable periodicity, the common or popular usage boom-and-bust cycle refers to fluctuations in which the expansion is rapid and the contraction severe. Prior to that point classical economics had either denied the existence of cycles, blamed them on external factors, notably war. Sismondi found vindication in the Panic of 1825, which was the first unarguably international economic crisis and they advocated government intervention and socialism, respectively, as the solution. He devoted hundreds of pages of Das Kapital to crises, in Progress and Poverty, Henry George focused on lands role in crises – particularly land speculation – and proposed a single tax on land as a solution. In 1860 French economist Clement Juglar first identified economic cycles 7 to 11 years long, interest in the different typologies of cycles has waned since the development of modern macroeconomics, which gives little support to the idea of regular periodic cycles. There were great increases in productivity, industrial production and real per capita product throughout the period from 1870 to 1890 that included the Long Depression, there were also significant increases in productivity in the years leading up to the Great Depression. Both the Long and Great Depressions were characterized by overcapacity and market saturation, the effect of technological progress can be seen by the purchasing power of an average hours work, which has grown from $3 in 1900 to $22 in 1990, measured in 2010 dollars. There were similar increases in wages during the 19th century. See Financial crisis, 19th century for listing and details, the first of these crises not associated with a war was the Panic of 1825. Business cycles in OECD countries after World War II were generally more restrained than the business cycles. This was particularly true during the Golden Age of Capitalism, in this period, the economic cycle – at least the problem of depressions – was twice declared dead. The first declaration was in the late 1960s, when the Phillips curve was seen as being able to steer the economy, however, this was followed by stagflation in the 1970s, which discredited the theory. The second declaration was in the early 2000s, following the stability, notably, in 2003, Robert Lucas, in his presidential address to the American Economic Association, declared that the central problem of depression-prevention been solved, for all practical purposes. Unfortunately, this was followed by the 2008–2012 global recession, various regions have experienced prolonged depressions, most dramatically the economic crisis in former Eastern Bloc countries following the end of the Soviet Union in 1991
22.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
23.
Skyscraper
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A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
24.
Gilded Age
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The Gilded Age in United States history is the late 19th century, from the 1870s to about 1900. The early half of the Gilded Age roughly coincided with the portion of the Victorian era in Britain. It began as the US Reconstruction Era ended in 1877, the Gilded Age was an era of rapid economic growth, especially in the North and West. As American wages were higher than those in Europe, especially for skilled workers. The rapid expansion of industrialization led to real wage growth of 60% between 1860 and 1890, spread across the ever-increasing labor force, the average annual wage per industrial worker rose from $380 in 1880 to $564 in 1890, a gain of 48%. Railroads were the growth industry, with the factory system, mining. Immigration from Europe and the eastern states led to the growth of the West. Labor unions became important in the rapidly growing industrial cities. Two major nationwide depressions—the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893—interrupted growth, the South after the Civil War remained economically devastated, its economy became increasingly tied to cotton and tobacco production, which suffered from low prices. With the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877, African-American people in the South were stripped of political power, the political landscape was notable in that despite some corruption, turnout was very high and national elections saw two evenly matched parties. The dominant issues were cultural, and economic, with the rapid growth of cities, political machines increasingly took control of urban politics. In business, massive, powerful and wealthy trusts formed, unions crusaded for the 8-hour working day and the abolition of child labor, middle class reformers demanded civil service reform, prohibition, and womens suffrage. Local governments across the North and West built public schools chiefly at the elementary level, the numerous religious denominations were growing in membership and wealth, the Catholics moving to the largest totals. They all expanded their missionary activity to the world arena, Catholics and Lutherans set up parochial schools and the larger denominations set up numerous colleges, hospitals and charities. Many of the problems faced by society, especially the poor, the term Gilded age was applied to the era by historians in the 1920s, who took the term from one of Mark Twains lesser known novels, The Gilded Age, A Tale of Today. The book satirized the promised golden age after the American Civil War, in the 1920s and 30s Gilded Age became a designated period in American history, with the term applied to the post Civil War period up to 1900. For them, Gilded Age was a term used to describe a time of materialistic excesses combined with extreme poverty. The early half of the Gilded Age roughly coincided with the portion of the Victorian era in Britain
25.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
26.
Anglo-Egyptian War
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The Anglo-Egyptian War occurred in 1882 between Egyptian and Sudanese forces under Ahmed ‘Urabi and the United Kingdom. It ended a nationalist uprising against the Khedive Tewfik Pasha and vastly expanded British influence over the country, in January 1882 the British and French governments sent a Joint Note to the Egyptian government, declaring their recognition of the Khedives authority. On 20 May 1882, British and French warships arrived off the coast of Alexandria, on 11 June 1882, an anti-Christian riot occurred in Alexandria that killed 50 Europeans. Colonel ‘Urabi ordered his forces to put down the riot, but Europeans fled the city, the reasons why the British government sent a fleet of ships to the coast of Alexandria is a point of historical debate, as there is no definitive information available. May I also venture to say that it has given the Liberal Party a new lease of popularity, first, they describe a plot by Edward Malet in which he portrayed the Egyptian government as unstable to his superiors in the cabinet. The British fleet bombarded Alexandria from 11–13 July and then occupied it with marines, the British did not lose a single ship, but much of the city was destroyed by fires caused by explosive shells and by ‘Urabists seeking to ruin the city that the British were taking over. Tewfik Pasha, who had moved his court to Alexandria during the unrest, declared ‘Urabi a rebel, ‘Urabi then reacted by obtaining a fatwa from Al Azhar shaykhs which condemned Tewfik as a traitor to both his country and religion, absolving those who fought against him. ‘Urabi also declared war on the United Kingdom and initiated conscription, the British army tried to reach Cairo through Alexandria but was stopped for five weeks at Kafr El Dawwar. In August, a British army of over 40,000, commanded by Garnet Wolseley and he was authorised to destroy ‘Urabis forces and clear the country of all other rebels. The engineer troops had left England for Egypt in July and August 1882, the engineers included pontoon, railway and telegraph troops. Wolseley saw the campaign as a challenge as he did not believe the Egyptians would put up much resistance. Seeking to ascertain the strength of the Egyptians Kafr El Dawwar position and this action was reported by Orabi as a battle, and Cairo was full of the news that the advancing British had been repulsed. While, most historians describe the action merely as a reconnaissance in force which was never intended as an assault on the Egyptian lines. However, the end result was that the British abandoned any hope they may have had of reaching Cairo from the north, Wolseley arrived at Alexandria on 15 August and immediately began to organize the movement of troops through the Suez Canal to Ismailia. This was quickly accomplished, Ismailia was occupied on 20 August without resistance, Ismailia was quickly reinforced with 9,000 troops, with the engineers put to work repairing the railway line from Suez. A small force was pushed along the Sweet Water Canal to the Kassassin lock arriving on 26 August, the main body of the army started to move up to Kassassin and planning for the battle at Tell El Kebir was undertaken. Skirmishing took place but did not interfere with the build up, on 12 September all was ready and during that night the army marched to battle. 13 September 1882 - Urabi redeployed to defend Cairo against Wolseley and his main force dug in at Tell El Kebir, north of the railway and the Sweet Water Canal, both of which linked Cairo to Ismailia on the canal
27.
Aceh War
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The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia. The campaign drew controversy in the Netherlands as photographs and accounts of the toll were reported. Isolated insurgencies continued as late as 1914 and popular resistance continued into the World War II era, for much of the 19th century, Acehs independence had been guaranteed by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 and its status as a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire since the 16th century. During the 1820s, Aceh became a political and commercial power, supplying half of the worlds pepper. Growing European and American demand for pepper led to a series of skirmishes between the British, French and Americans. During the reign of Sultan Alauddin Ibrahim Mansur Syah, the Aceh Sultanate brought the regional rajas under its control, however, this southward trend clashed with the northwards expansion of Dutch colonialism in Sumatra. In return, Britain gained control of the Dutch Gold Coast in Africa, Dutch territorial ambitions in Aceh were fuelled by a desire to exploit its natural resources, especially black pepper and oil, and to eliminate an independent native state player. The Dutch also sought to ward off other rival colonial powers that had ambitions in Southeast Asia, particularly the British, the Dutch tried one strategy after another over the course of decades. In 1873 they tried a single attack, but it failed. They then tried a naval blockade, reconciliation, concentration within a line of forts, reaching 15 to 20 million guilders a year, the heavy spending for failed strategies nearly bankrupted the colonial government. In 1873, negotiations took place in Singapore between representatives of the Aceh Sultanate and the local American Consul over a potential bilateral treaty, the Dutch saw this as a violation of a prior agreement with the British in 1871 and used this as an opportunity to annexe Aceh militarily. An expedition under Major General Johan Harmen Rudolf Köhler was sent out on 26 March 1873 and it was the intention of the Dutch to attack and take the Sultans palace, which would also lead to the occupation of the entire country. The Sultan requested and possibly received military aid from Italy and the United Kingdom in Singapore, in any case the Aceh army was rapidly modernised and enlarged with figures ranging from 10,000 to 100,000. Underestimating the military abilities of the Acehnese, the Dutch made some tactical errors and these defeats undermined Dutch morale and prestige. Forced to retreat, the Dutch imposed a blockade of Aceh. In an attempt to preserve Acehs independence, Sultan Mahmud appealed to the other Western powers and Turkey for help, while the American Consul was sympathetic, the American government remained neutral. Due to its position in the international political stage, the Ottoman Empire was impotent. Meanwhile, the British refused to intervene due to their relations with the Dutch while the French declined to respond to Mahmuds appeal, in November 1873, a second expedition consisting of 13,000 troops led by General Jan van Swieten was dispatched to Aceh
28.
War of the Pacific
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The War of the Pacific, took place from 1879 to 1883, with Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. The war ended with the victory of Chile, which gained a significant amount of land from Peru, battles were fought in the Pacific Ocean, the Atacama Desert, Perus deserts, and mountainous regions in the Andes. For the first five months the war played out in a naval campaign, Chile protested and solicited to submit it to mediation, but Bolivia refused and considered it a subject of Bolivias courts. Chile insisted and informed the Bolivian government that Chile would no longer consider itself bound to the 1874 Boundary Treaty if Bolivia did not suspend enforcing the law. On February 14,1879 when Bolivian authorities attempted to auction the property of CSFA. On April 5, after Peru refused this, Chile declared war on both nations, the following day, Peru responded by acknowledging the casus foederis. On the other, there was the competition for economic and political hegemony in the region. Afterwards, Chiles land campaign bested the Bolivian and Peruvian armies, Bolivia withdrew after the Battle of Tacna on May 26,1880. Chilean forces occupied Lima in January 1881, Peruvian army remnants and irregulars waged a guerrilla war that did not change the wars outcome. Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Ancón on October 20,1883, Bolivia signed a truce with Chile in 1884. Chile acquired the Peruvian territory of Tarapacá, the disputed Bolivian department of Litoral, as well as control over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna. In 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed the Treaty of Peace, the 1929 Tacna–Arica compromise gave Arica to Chile and Tacna to Peru. It is also known as the Saltpetre War, as the The Ten Cents War in reference to the controversial ten-centavo tax imposed by the Bolivian government, or as the The Second Pacific War. Not to be confused with the Saltpeter War, a pre-Columbian war nor the Guano War as the Chincha Islands War is sometimes named, wanu is a Quechua word for fertilizer. Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate are nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as salpeter, saltpetre, salitre, caliche and they are used as fertilizer with also other important uses. Hence the words oficina, or oficina salitrera for saltpeter works, the word Atacama had two meanings. It was and is a Chilean region, then province, South of the Atacama desert, the Atacama desert mostly coincides with the disputed Antofagasta province, also named Litoral in Bolivia. The dry climate of the Peruvian and Bolivian coasts had permitted the accumulation and preservation of vast amounts of high-quality guano deposits, in the 1840s, Europeans knew the guano and nitrates value as fertilizer and saltpeters role in explosives
29.
First Boer War
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The war resulted in defeat for the British and the second independence of the South African Republic. The southern part of the African continent was dominated in the 19th century by a set of struggles to create within it a single unified state. British attempts in 1880 to annex the Transvaal were their biggest incursions into southern Africa, in the 1880s, Bechuanaland, became an object of dispute between the Germans to the west, the Boers to the east, and the British in the Cape Colony to the south. Although Bechuanaland had almost no value, the Missionaries Road passed through it toward territory farther north. After the Germans annexed Damaraland and Namaqualand in 1884, the British annexed Bechuanaland in 1885, after the Battle of Blaauwberg Britain had acquired the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa from the Dutch in 1815 during the Napoleonic Wars. Certain groups of Dutch speaking settler farmers resented British rule, even though British control brought some economic benefits, the British did not try to stop the Trekboers from moving away from the Cape. The Trekboers were farmers gradually extending their range and territory with no agenda, the formal abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1834 led to more organised groups of Boer settlers attempting to escape British rule, some travelling as far north as modern-day Mozambique. However, British colonial expansion was, from the 1830s, marked by skirmishes, the discovery of diamonds in 1867 near the Vaal River, some 550 miles northeast of Cape Town, ended the isolation of the Boers in the interior and changed South African history. In the 1870s, the British annexed West Griqualand, site of the Kimberley diamond discoveries, however the cultural and historical context was entirely different, and the Boer leaders turned him down. The successive British annexations, and in particular the annexation of West Griqualand, there were other more pressing concerns for the Boer Republics. During the 1870s there was a series of skirmishes within the Transvaal between the Boers and indigenous local tribes, there were also serious tensions between the Transvaal Republic and the Zulus led by King Cetshwayo. The Zulus occupied a kingdom located to the southeast, bordered on the one side by the Transvaal Republic, upon taking the throne, King Cetshwayo had expanded his army and reintroduced many of the paramilitary practices of the famous Shaka, king of the Zulus. He had also started equipping his impis with firearms, although this was a process and the majority had only shields, knobkerries, throwing spears and the famous stabbing spear. Over 40,000 Zulu warriors were a force on their own home ground. The Transvaal Boers became more and more concerned, but King Cetshwayos policy was to good relations with the British in Natal in an effort to counter the Boer threat. In 1877, Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British Secretary for Native Affairs in Natal, annexed the South African Republic, for Britain, using a special warrant. They also feared a war on two fronts, namely that the tribes would seize the opportunity to rebel and the simmering unrest in the Transvaal would be re-ignited. The British annexation nevertheless resulted in resentment against the British occupation, the Transvaal Boers, led by Paul Kruger, thereafter elected to deal first with the perceived Zulu threat to the status quo, and local issues, before directly opposing the British annexation
30.
Mahdist War
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Eighteen years of war resulted in the joint-rule state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, a condominium of the British Empire and the Kingdom of Egypt. Following the invasion by Muhammad Ali in 1819, Sudan was governed by an Egyptian administration, because of the heavy taxes it imposed and because of the bloody start of the Turkish-Egyptian rule in Sudan, this colonial system was resented by the Sudanese people. Throughout the period of Turco-Egyptian rule, many segments of the Sudanese population suffered extreme hardship because of the system of taxation imposed by the central government. Under this system, a tax was imposed on farmers and small traders. In bad years, and especially during times of drought and famine, fearing the brutal and unjust methods of the Shaiqiyya, many farmers fled their villages in the fertile Nile Valley to the remote areas of Kordofan and Darfur. The jallaba were also known to be slave trading tribes, by the middle 19th century the Ottoman Imperial subject administration in Egypt was in the hands of Khedive Ismail. Thus an ever increasing British role in Egyptian affairs seemed necessary and this commission eventually forced Khedive Ismail to abdicate in favor of his son Tawfiq in 1877, leading to a period of political turmoil. Also in 1873, Ismail had appointed General Charles Chinese Gordon Governor of the Equatorial Provinces of Sudan, for the next three years, General Gordon fought against a native chieftain of Darfur, Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur. Upon Ismails abdication in 1877, Gordon found himself with dramatically decreased support, exhausted by years of work, he resigned his post in 1880 and left early the next year. His policies were soon abandoned by the new governors, but the anger, another widely reported potential source of frustration was the Turco-Egyptian abolition of the slave trade, one of the main sources of income in Sudan at the time. In the 1870s, a Muslim cleric named Muhammad Ahmad preached renewal of the faith and liberation of the land, soon in open revolt against the Egyptians, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi, the promised redeemer of the Islamic world. In August 1881 the then-governor of the Sudan, Raouf Pasha, the captains of the two companies were each promised promotion if their soldiers were the ones to return the Mahdi to the governor. Both companies disembarked from the steamer that had brought them up the Nile to Aba Island, arriving simultaneously, each force began to fire blindly on the other, allowing the Mahdis scant followers to attack and destroy each force in turn at the Battle of Aba. The Mahdi then began a retreat to Kordofan, where he was at a distance from the seat of government in Khartoum. This movement, couched as a progress, incited many of the Arab tribes to rise in support of the Jihad the Mahdi had declared against the Turkish oppressors. Another Egyptian expedition dispatched from Fashoda was ambushed and slaughtered on the night of 9 December 1881, the Mahdi also legitimized his movement by drawing deliberate parallels to the life of the Prophet Muhammad. He called his followers Ansar, after the people who greeted the Prophet in Medina, and he called his flight from the British, the hijrah, after the Prophets flight from the Quraysh. The Egyptian administration in the Sudan, now thoroughly concerned by the scale of the uprising and this force approached the Mahdist gathering, whose members were poorly clothed, half starving, and armed only with sticks and stones
31.
Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat
32.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
33.
Sino-French War
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The Sino-French War, also known as the Tonkin War and Tonquin War, was a limited conflict fought from August 1884 through April 1885, to decide whether France would supplant Chinas control of Tonkin. Although the Chinese armies performed better than in other nineteenth-century wars and the war ended with French defeat on land, France began its colonial campaign in 1858, annexing several southern provinces in 1862 to form the colony of Cochinchina. In 1873, a small French force commanded by Lieutenant de Vaisseau Francis Garnier, exceeding his instructions, following a series of French victories against the Vietnamese, the Vietnamese government called on Liu Yongfus Black Flags, who defeated Garniers force beneath the walls of Hanoi. Garnier was killed in battle, and the French government later disavowed his expedition. In 1881, French Commandant Henri Rivière was sent with a military force to Hanoi to investigate Vietnamese complaints about the activities of French merchants. In defiance of the instructions of his superiors, Rivière stormed the citadel of Hanoi on 25 April 1882, although Rivière subsequently returned the citadel to Vietnamese control, his recourse to force provoked alarm both in Vietnam and in China. The Vietnamese also bid for Chinese support, Vietnam had long been a vassal state of China, and China agreed to arm and support the Black Flags, and to covertly oppose French operations in Tonkin. The Qing court also sent a signal to the French that China would not allow Tonkin to fall under French control. In the summer of 1882, troops of the Chinese Yunnan and Guangxi armies crossed the border into Tonkin, occupying Lạng Sơn, Bắc Ninh, Hung Hoa, neither of the parties to these negotiations consulted the Vietnamese. Rivière, disgusted at the cut by Bourée, decided early in 1883 to force the issue. He had recently sent a battalion of marine infantry from France. On 27 March 1883, to secure his line of communications from Hanoi to the coast, Rivière captured the citadel of Nam Định with a force of 520 French soldiers under his personal command. During his absence at Nam Định, the Black Flags and Vietnamese made an attack on Hanoi, Rivière jubilantly reacted, This will force them to take forward their Tonkin Question. He had expected to be cashiered for his Capture of Nam Định, there had recently been a change of government in France, and the new administration of Jules Ferry strongly favoured colonial expansion. It therefore decided to back Rivière, Ferry and Foreign Minister Paul-Armand Challemel-Lacour denounced Bourées agreement with Li Hongzhang and recalled the hapless French minister. They also made it clear to the Chinese that they were determined to place Tonkin under French protection and this resulted in a year of Liu Yongfus forces fighting an unconventional war. On 10 May 1883 Liu Yongfu challenged the French to battle in a taunting message widely placarded on the walls of Hanoi, on 19 May Rivière confronted the Black Flags in the Battle of Paper Bridge, and the French suffered a disastrous defeat. Rivières small force attacked a strong Black Flag defensive position near the village of Cầu Giấy, after initial successes the French were eventually enveloped on both wings, only with difficulty could they regroup and fall back to Hanoi
34.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
35.
Sioux
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The Sioux /ˈsuː/ are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nations many language dialects. The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on divisions, the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota. The Santee Dakota reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota, the Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota, collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota, the actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton, are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting, the name Sioux was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640, the name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning little snakes. The spelling in -x is due to the French plural marker, the Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa, meaning Northern Iroquoian, has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake. An alternative explanation is derivation from an exonym na·towe·ssiw, from a verb meaning to speak a foreign language. The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag, presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper, the historical Sioux referred to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, meaning Seven Council Fires. Each fire was a symbol of an oyate, the seven nations that comprise the Sioux are, Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, Sisíthuŋwaŋ, the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ, Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, and the Thítȟuŋwaŋ. The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, the seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850, today the Teton, Santee and the Minnesota Dakota, and Yankton/Yanktonai are usually known, respectively, as the Lakota, Eastern Dakota, or Western Dakota. In any of the three dialects, Lakota or Dakota translate to mean friend or ally, referring to the alliance that once bound the Great Sioux Nation. The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River during the seventeenth century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60
36.
Sitting Bull
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Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, Sitting Bulls leadership inspired his people to a major victory. S. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain, after working as a performer with Buffalo Bills Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement and his body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bulls great-grandson asserted from family tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or Slow, said to describe his careful, when the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotaŋka, which in the Lakota language means Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down, thereafter, Sitting Bulls father was known as Jumping Bull. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, in 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta, the Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August. In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region. By early 1868, the U. S. government desired a settlement to Red Clouds War. It agreed to Red Clouds demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny, Gall of the Hunkpapa signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2,1868 at Fort Rice
37.
Fort Buford
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Fort Buford was a United States Army Post at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers in Dakota Territory, present day North Dakota, and the site of Sitting Bulls surrender in 1881. The fort was named after the late Major General John Buford, the second night after arrival the camp was attacked by a band of the Hunkpapa Lakota led by Sitting Bull, they were driven off with one soldier wounded. The next day, the group attacked and attempted to drive off the companys herd of beef cattle. Parties of men cutting and rafting logs from the mouth of the Yellowstone were often attacked and driven to camp, three civilian wood cutters were killed at the mouth of the Yellowstone in December. Hiram H. Ketchum with sixty men reacted, drove off the Indians, according to the regimental history, the Lakota boasted that they intended to annihilate the soldiers and during the winter they besieged the post. The siege cut off the garrison from the nearby Missouri River, the shallow well water they drank was contaminated, by the posts livestock and/or human waste, and caused dysentery. From December 21–24 a large group of the Hunkpapas repeatedly attacked and captured the posts ice house and sawmill located near the river, the attackers were not repelled until Rankin ordered his two 12 pound Napoleons to return fire. Captain Rankins wife spent the winter in camp, enduring the hardships, the episode began when the Philadelphia Inquirer ran a story April 1,1867, based on a letter allegedly written from the fort, which was then picked up and run the next day nationwide. It was given legs by a letter published April 6 in the Army and Navy Journal, attributed to the wife of a prominent Army officer, the hoax was eventually exposed by Rankin himself in correspondence to the war department. Although the general harassing by the Lakota of Fort Buford lasted until the early 1870s, the worst was during that first year, June 1866 to May 1867. The South side, while not being walled off, was enclosed by the portion of a reverse L of adobe barracks buildings. The reconstructed barracks on the site today is on the location of where the original that formed the short leg of the L was. The reason being that the there had 30 years worth of age and was of superior quality to the green cottonwood available along the Yellowstone. The post was expanded again in 1871–1872 with the arrival of Colonel William B, at that time the fighting had moved further westward into Montana Territory and the garrison was large enough to no-longer need the perimeter stockade. The original Commanding Officers Quarters at the site today was part of expansion and originally built in 1871–1872. This structure sits at the end of what once was a double row of Officers Quarters that ran towards the North. Beyond this double row the stone Powder Magazine was built in 1875 out of sandstone quarried from an area located to the North of the fort. When in use the magazine held over a million rounds of ammunition for the forts garrison, at this time Fort Buford became a key element in the supply route for the military campaigns of 1876–1877 in Montana Territory
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Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
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Lynching
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Lynching is an extrajudicial punishment by an informal group. It is most often used to characterise informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate a group. It is a form of informal group social control such as charivari, skimmington, riding the rail, and tarring and feathering. Lynchings have been frequent in times of social and economic tension. However, it has resulted from long-held prejudices and practices of discrimination that have conditioned societies to accept this type of violence as normal practices of popular justice. Indeed, instances of it can be found in societies long antedating European settlement of North America, the legal and cultural antecedents of American lynching were carried across the Atlantic by migrants from the British Isles to colonial North America. Collective violence was an aspect of the early modern Anglo-American legal landscape. In the United States, during the decades before the Civil War, assertive free-Blacks, Latinos in the South West, Violence rose even more at the end of the 19th century, after southern white Democrats regained their political power in the South in the 1870s. Nearly 3,500 African Americans and 1,300 whites were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968, mostly from 1882 to 1920, the origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial, two Americans during this era are generally credited for the phrase, Charles Lynch and William Lynch, who both lived in Virginia in the 1780s. Charles Lynch has the claim, as he was known to have used the term in 1782. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men, in 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynchs law to Tories for Dealing with negroes, &c. In the United States, the origin of the terms lynching, Charles Lynch was a Virginia planter and American Revolutionary who headed a county court in Virginia which incarcerated Loyalist supporters of the British for up to one year during the war. While he lacked proper jurisdiction, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity, subsequently, he prevailed upon his friends in the Congress of the Confederation to pass a law which specifically exonerated him and his associates from wrongdoing. He was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those so incarcerated, Lynch was not accused of racist bias, and indeed acquitted blacks accused of murder on three separate occasions, as dictated by the facts brought before him. He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his abuse of Welsh miners, William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used for a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County. While Edgar Allan Poe claimed that he found this document, this was likely a hoax, however, linguistic evidence is strongly against it, and the story was likely invented in the 19th century. Racist extremism with an eye to viciousness and public spectacle was frequently evident, in the South, members of the abolitionist movement or other people opposing slavery were usually targets of lynch mob violence before the Civil War
40.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
41.
1880s in Western fashion
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Fashion in the 1880s in Western and Western-influenced countries is characterized by the return of the bustle. The long, lean line of the 1870s was replaced by a full, fashionable waists were low and tiny below a full, low bust supported by a corset. The Rational Dress Society was founded in 1881 in reaction to the extremes of fashionable corsetry, as in the previous decade, emphasis remained on the back of the skirt, with fullness gradually rising from behind the knees to just below the waist. The fullness over the bottom was balanced by a fuller, lower chest and these gowns typically did not have a long train in the back, which was different from the gowns worn in the 1870s, and were extremely tight. They were known as the due to the tightness of them. Winter gowns were made in darker hues whereas summer ones were made in lighter colors, velvet was also a very popular fabric used during this period. Skirts were looped, draped, or tied up in various ways, the polonaise was a revival style based on a fashion of the 1780s, with a fitted, cutaway overdress caught up and draped over an underskirt. Long, jacket-like fitted bodices called basques were also popular for clothing during the day, evening gowns were sleeveless and low-necked, and were worn with long over the elbow or shoulder length gloves of fine kidskin or suede. Choker necklaces and jewelled collars were fashionable under the influence of Alexandra, Princess of Wales, bodices were very tight fitted as a result of darts and princess seams. In the early 19th century dropped waists were common, creating a long torso. Most ended in a point just below the waist, collars that were very high and banded were very popular. These types of collars were called officers collars, the bustle returned to fashion and reached its greatest proportions c. 1886–1888, extending almost straight out from the back waist to support a profusion of drapery, frills, swags, the fashionable corset created a low, full bust with little separation of the breasts. A usual type of undergarment was called combinations, a camisole with attached knee- or calf-length drawers, worn under the corset, bustle, woolen combinations were recommended for health, especially when engaging in fashionable sports. Riding habits had become a uniform of matching jacket and skirt worn with a shirt or chemisette, with a top hat. They were worn without bustles, but the cut of the jacket followed the silhouette of the day, in contrast, hunting costumes were far more fashionably styled, with draped ankle-length skirts worn with boots or gaiters. Tailored costumes consisting of a jacket and skirt were worn for travel or walking, these were worn with the bustle. Travelers wore long coats like dusters to protect their clothes from dirt, rain, artistic or Aesthetic dress remained an undercurrent in Bohemian circles throughout the 1880s
42.
Colonization
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Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. The term is derived from the Latin word colere, which means to inhabit, Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers formed a majority of the population. Examples include the Americas, Australia and New Zealand and these colonies were occasionally called neo-Europes. In other places, Western European settlers formed minority groups, who were dominant in their places of settlement. When Britain started to settle Australia, New Zealand and various smaller islands. Terra nullius meaning empty land in Latin, due to the absence of European farming techniques, the land was deemed unaltered by man and therefore treated as uninhabited, despite the presence of indigenous populations. In the 19th century, laws and ideas such as Mexicos General Colonization Law, in ancient times, maritime nations such as the city-states of Greece and Phoenicia often established colonies to farm what they believed was uninhabited land. Land suitable for farming was often occupied by migratory barbarian tribes who lived by hunting and gathering, to ancient Greeks and Phoenicians, these lands were regarded as simply vacant. However, this did not mean that conflict did not exist between the colonizers and local/native peoples, Greeks and Phoenicians also established colonies with the intent of regulating and expanding trade throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. Another period of colonization in ancient times was during the Roman Empire, the Roman Empire conquered large parts of Western Europe, North Africa and West Asia. In North Africa and West Asia, the Romans often conquered what they regarded as civilized peoples, as they moved north into Europe, they mostly encountered rural peoples/tribes with very little in the way of cities. In these areas, waves of Roman colonization often followed the conquest of the areas, the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw the large-scale movement of people in Eastern Europe and Asia. During this period there were the movements of peoples establishing new colonies all over western Europe. The events of time saw the development of many of the modern day nations of Europe like the Franks in France and Germany. In West Asia, during Sassanid Empire, some Persians established colonies in Yemen, the Vikings of Scandinavia also carried out a large-scale colonization. The Vikings are best known as raiders, setting out from their homelands in Denmark, southern Norway and southern Sweden. In time, the Vikings began trading, and established colonies, the Vikings discovered Iceland and established colonies before moving onto Greenland, where they briefly held some colonies
43.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
44.
Indochina
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Indochina, originally Indo-China, is a geographical term originating in the early nineteenth century and referring to the continental portion of the region now known as Southeast Asia. The name refers to the lands historically within the influence of India and China. It corresponds to the areas of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam. The term was adopted as the name of the colony of French Indochina. However, Indo-China had already gained traction and soon supplanted alternative terms such as Further India, in biogeography, the Indochinese Region is a major biogeographical region in the Indomalaya ecozone, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Paleotropical Kingdom. It includes the flora and fauna of all the countries above. The adjacent Malesian Region covers the Maritime Southeast Asian countries, and straddles the Indomalaya, suvarnabhumi Golden Chersonese Indochina Time List of butterflies of Indochina Media related to Indochina at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Flora of Indo-China at Wikimedia Commons
45.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
46.
Berlin Conference
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The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance. Before the conference, European diplomacy treated African indigenous people in the manner as the New World natives. By the mid-19th century, Europeans considered Africa to be disputed territory ripe for exploration, trade, with the exception of trading posts along the coasts, the continent was essentially ignored. In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium, who had founded the International African Society in 1876. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, with more economic goals, Léopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the African Society serving primarily as a philanthropic front. From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo, not as a reporter, French intelligence had discovered Leopolds plans, and France quickly engaged in its own colonial exploration. Finally, Portugal, which already had a long, but essentially abandoned colonial Empire in the area through the mostly defunct proxy state Kongo Empire and its claims were based on old treaties with Spain and the Roman Catholic Church. It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its former ally, stanleys charting of the Congo River Basin removed the last terra incognita from European maps of the continent, and delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French, and Belgian control. The powers raced to push these rough boundaries to their furthest limits, France moved to take over Tunisia, one of the last of the Barbary Pirate states, under the pretext of another piracy incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly solidified with French taking control of todays Republic of the Congo in 1881, Italy became part of the Triple Alliance, upsetting Bismarcks carefully laid plans with the state and forcing Germany to become involved in Africa. Through it, the UK also ruled over the Sudan and what would later become British Somaliland, owing to the European race for colonies, Germany started launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe this brewing conflict, King Leopold II convinced France, the conference was convened on Saturday, November 15,1884 at Bismarcks official residence on Wilhelmstrasse. The British representative was Sir Edward Malet, Henry Morton Stanley attended as a U. S. delegate. The General Act fixed the following points, To gain public acceptance, thus, an international prohibition of the slave trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European members. Because of this point the writer Joseph Conrad sarcastically referred to the conference as the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs in his novella Heart of Darkness. The Congo Free State was confirmed as the property of the Congo Society. The territory of todays Democratic Republic of the Congo, some two square kilometers, was confirmed by the European powers as essentially the property of Léopold II. The 14 signatory powers would have free trade throughout the Congo Basin as well as Lake Malawi, the Niger and Congo rivers were made free for ship traffic
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