1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
6.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
7.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
8.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
9.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
10.
1878
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As of the start of 1878, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – Battle of Shipka Pass IV, Russian and Bulgarian forces defeat the Ottoman Empire, January 9 – Umberto I becomes King of Italy. January 17 – Battle of Philippopolis, Russian troops defeat the Turks, January 23 – Benjamin Disraeli orders the British fleet to the Dardanelles. January 24 – The revolutionary Vera Zasulich shoots at Fyodor Trepov, January 28 – The Yale News becomes the first daily college newspaper in the United States. January 31 – Turkey agrees to an armistice at Adrianople, february 2 – Greece declares war on Turkey. February 7 – Pope Pius IX dies after a 31½ year reign, february 8 – The British fleet enters Turkish waters and anchors off Istanbul, Russia threatens to occupy Istanbul but does not carry out the threat. February 18 – The Lincoln County War begins in Lincoln County, february 19 – The phonograph is patented by Thomas Edison. February 20 – Pope Leo XIII succeeds Pope Pius IX as the 256th pope, february 23 - Sadguru Shri Gajanan Maharaj appeared at Shegaon, Dist, Buldhana, Maharashtra. February 24 – Anti-Russian demonstrations occur in Hyde Park, London, february 28 – Mississippi State University is created by the Mississippi Legislature. March 25 – Russia rejects a British proposal to lay the San Stefano treaty before a European congress, march 27 – In anticipation of war with Russia, Disraeli mobilizes the reserves and calls up Indian troops to Malta. April 20 – The Stawell Gift is run for the first time in Australia, may 2 – The Washburn A Mill in Minneapolis explodes, killing 18. May 15 – The Tokyo Stock Exchange is established, may 25 – Gilbert and Sullivans comic opera H. M. S. Pinafore debuts in London at the Opera Comique with a first run of 571 performances, june 1 – General Postal Union renamed Universal Postal Union. June 4 – Cyprus Convention, The Ottoman Empire cedes Cyprus to the United Kingdom, june 13–July 13 – The Congress of Berlin convenes to discuss the Ottoman Empire. Coastal Survey renamed U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, july 4 – A match race between champion thoroughbred racehorses Ten Broeck and Mollie McCarty draws more than 30,000 fans to Louisville and inspires the folk song, Molly and Tenbrooks. July 26 – In California, the poet and American West outlaw calling himself Black Bart makes his last clean getaway when he steals a box from a Wells Fargo stagecoach. The empty box is later with a taunting poem inside. August 7 – The Salvation Army foundation deed is signed, august 9 – The Wallingford Tornado of 1878, the deadliest tornado in Connecticut history, destroys the town of Wallingford, killing 34 people and injuring 70 or more
11.
1879
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As of the start of 1879, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – The current constitution of the State of California in the United States is ratified, January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold for the first time since the American Civil War, January 11 – Anglo-Zulu War begins. January 22 – Battle of Isandlwana, the first major encounter in the Anglo-Zulu War between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom, a force of 1,200 British soldiers was wiped out by the 20, 000+ Zulu warriors. January 23 – Battle of Rorkes Drift – following the days defeat. February 8 – At a meeting of the Royal Canadian Institute, engineer, march 11 – The Ryukyu Domain is incorporated into the Okinawa Prefecture of Japan and the last ruler, Shō Tai, is exiled to Tokyo. March 28 – Anglo-Zulu War – Battle of Hlobane, British forces suffer a defeat, march 29 – Anglo-Zulu War – Battle of Kambula, British forces defeat 20,000 Zulus. April – Postman Ferdinand Cheval begins to build his Palais Idéal at Hauterives in France, april 5 – War of the Pacific, Chile formally declares war on Bolivia and Peru. April 26 – The National Park, later renamed the Royal National Park, is declared in New South Wales, Australia, may 2 – The Spanish Socialist Workers Party is founded clandestinely at the Casa Labra pub in Madrid by printer Pablo Iglesias. May 10 – The Archaeological Institute of America is formed, may 12 – The English Catholic convert John Henry Newman is elevated to Cardinal. May 14 – The first group of 463 Indian indentured labourers arrive in Fiji aboard the Leonidas, may 26 – Russia and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Gandamak, establishing an Afghan state. May 30 – New York Citys Gilmores Garden is renamed Madison Square Garden by William Henry Vanderbilt, and is opened to the public at 26th Street and Madison Avenue. June 1 – Napoléon, Prince Imperial, great-nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, june 4 – Yasukuni Shrine, officially renamed from Tokyo Shokonsha Shrine in Japan. June 6 – William Denny and Brothers launch the worlds first ocean-going steamer to be built of mild steel, the SS Rotomahana, on the River Clyde in Scotland. On October 2 they launch the first transatlantic steamer of the same material, june 14 – Sidney Faithorn Green, a priest in the Church of England, is tried and convicted for using Ritualist practices. June 21 – German company Linde is founded by Carl von Linde, july 4 – Anglo-Zulu War, The Anglo-Zulu War effectively ends with British victory at the Battle of Ulundi. August 16 – Fulham F. C. is founded in London as a soccer team. August 21 – Claimed apparition to local people at Knock, County Mayo, Ireland of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, Saint John the Evangelist, september – Henry George self-publishes his major work Progress and Poverty
12.
1880
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As of the start of 1880, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 22 Toowong State School is founded in Queensland, Australia, february – The journal Science is first published in the United States with financial backing from Thomas Edison. February 2 The first electric streetlight is installed in Wabash, Indiana, the first successful shipment of frozen mutton from Australia arrives in London aboard the SS Strathleven. March 31 – Wabash, Indiana becomes the first electrically lit city in the world, april – The government of Cape Colony sets a deadline for the surrender of weapons by the Basuto people. Non-compliance leads to the Basuto Gun War, april 18 – William Ewart Gladstone defeats Benjamin Disraeli in the United Kingdom general election to become Prime Minister for the second time. April 19 – The Prime Minister of Sweden, Louis De Geer, resigns over the defeat of a reform bill in the countrys Riksdag. April 27 – Charter founding the Royal University of Ireland, allowing the Catholic University of Ireland to re-form as University College Dublin. May 2 – After having her lights installed by Edisons personnel, may 13 – In Menlo Park, New Jersey, Thomas Edison performs the first test of his electric railway. June – The SS Columbia sets off on her voyage around Cape Horn to Portland, Oregon. June 1 – Tinius Olsen awarded a United States Patent for the Little Giant Testing Machine, june 28 – Australian police capture bank robber Ned Kelly after a gun battle at Glenrowan, Victoria. June 29 – France annexes Tahiti, july 14 – Dorchester Penitentiary opens in Canada. July 22 – Abdur Rahman Khan becomes Emir of Afghanistan, july 27 – Battle of Maiwand August 14 – Cologne Cathedral is completed, after construction began in 1248,632 years earlier. August 24 – The SS Columbia completes her maiden voyage, arriving without incident in Portland, August 26 — Competing circus owners P. T. Barnum and James A. Bailey sign a contract in Bridgeport, Connecticut to create the Barnum & Bailey Circus. In 1907, the circus will merge forces with another competitor, september 1 — Second Anglo-Afghan War, General Frederick Roberts, commanding British forces, defeats the Afghan troops of Mohammad Ayub Khan in the Battle of Kandahar, bringing an end to the war. October – The Blizzard of 1880 begins in North America, october 1 – German company Munich Re is founded in Munich. October 6 – The University of Southern California opens its doors to 53 students and 10 faculty, october 15 – Mexican soldiers kill Victorio, one of the greatest Apache military strategists. October 28 – The first stone is laid for the Clarkson Memorial in Wisbech, november 2 – U. S. presidential election,1880, James Garfield defeats Winfield S. Hancock. November 4 – The first cash register is patented by James and John Ritty of Dayton, november 9 – A major earthquake strikes Zagreb and destroys many buildings including Zagreb Cathedral
13.
1882
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As of the start of 1882, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 The Standard Oil Trust is secretly created in the United States to control multiple corporations set up by John D. Rockefeller and his associates. January 5 – Charles J. Guiteau is found guilty of the assassination of James A. Garfield and sentenced to death and he will be hanged on June 30. February 3 – American showman P. T. Barnum acquires the elephant Jumbo from London Zoo, march 2 – Roderick McLean fails in an attempt to assassinate Queen Victoria at Windsor. March 20 – British gunboats enter Monrovia, with Arthur Havelock demanding that Liberia cede disputed territory to the British colony of Sierra Leone of which he is Governor, march 22 – Polygamy is made a felony by the Edmunds Act passed by the United States Congress. March 24 – Robert Koch announces the discovery of the responsible for tuberculosis. March 28 Republican Jules Ferry makes primary education in France free, non-clerical, german medical products company Beiersdorf is founded. March 29 – The Knights of Columbus, a Catholic fraternal service organization, is founded in New Haven, april 3 – Old West outlaw Jesse James is shot in the back of the head and killed by Robert Ford. April 29 – The Elektromote, the worlds first trolleybus started in Berlin, may 1 – Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, as known well for philharmonic orchestra group in Europe, which founded in Germany. May 2 – Charles Stewart Parnell is released, may 8 – The Chinese Exclusion Act is the first important law which restricts immigration into the U. S. A. May 20 – The Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, June 6 A cyclone in the Arabian Sea causes flooding in Bombay harbor, leaving about 100,000 dead. Battle of Embabo, The Shewan forces of Menelik II defeat the Gojjame army, June 11 – The ‘Urabi Revolt breaks out in Egypt against Khedive Tewfik Pasha and European influence in that country. June 28 – Anglo-French Convention of 1882 signed marking territorial boundaries between Guinea and Sierra Leone, June 30 – U. S. presidential assassin Charles Guiteau is hanged. July 11–13 – Anglo-Egyptian War, The British Mediterranean Fleet carries out the Bombardment of Alexandria, its forces capturing the city of Alexandria in Egypt, july 26 Boers establish the republic of Stellaland in southern Africa. Richard Wagners opera Parsifal debuts at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus in Bavaria, july 31 – The Hebrew Moshava of Rishon LeZion is founded. August 3 – The U. S. Congress passes the 1882 Immigration Act, august 5 – Standard Oil of New Jersey is established. August 18 – The Married Womens Property Act 1882 receives royal assent in Britain, it enables women to buy, own and sell property, august 20 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture debuts in Moscow. September 4 – Thomas Edison flips the switch to the first commercial power plant in history
14.
1883
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As of the start of 1883, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Life magazine is founded in Los Angeles January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee kills 73 people, January 16 – The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing the United States civil service, is passed. January 19 – The first electric lighting system employing overhead wires begins service in Roselle, New Jersey, february – The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi is first published complete in book form in Italy. February 13 – The German composer Richard Wagner dies of an attack in Venice. February 16 – The Ladies Home Journal is published for the first time, february 23 – Alabama becomes the first U. S. state to enact an antitrust law. February 28 – The first vaudeville theater is opened, in Boston, march 2 – The Hong Kong Observatory is formed. March 14 – Karl Marx dies in London, march 20 – Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. April 5 – Oxygen is liquefied for the very first time, april 28 – The first sevens tournament is played at Melrose RFC in Scotland. May 23 – Robert Louis Stevensons childrens pirate adventure novel Treasure Island is first published in book format, may 24 – Brooklyn Bridge is opened to traffic after 13 years of construction. May 30 – In New York City, a rumor that the Brooklyn Bridge is going to collapse causes a stampede which crushes 12 people, June 3 – Sheikh Maktoum al Butthi takes power in Dubai. The al-Maktoum family is ruling Dubai as an Emirate ever since, June 13 – Count Arvid Posse leaves office as Prime Minister of Sweden. He is succeeded by Carl Johan Thyselius, the first non-aristocrat to serve as Swedish head of government, June 16 – Victoria Hall disaster, A rush for treats results in 183 children being asphyxiated in a concert hall in Sunderland, England. June 28 – In Milan, Italy the first central European electricity power station is inaugurated, stevenson completes writing it at the end of the summer in France. July 3 – The SS Daphne disaster in Glasgow leaves 124 dead, july 4 – The worlds first rodeo is held in Pecos, Texas. July 22 – Zulu King Cetshwayo barely escapes an attack with his life. August King Williams College is opened on the Isle of Man, august 12 – The last quagga dies at the Artis Magistra zoo in Amsterdam. August 21 – An F5 tornado strikes Rochester, Minnesota, leading to the creation of the Mayo Clinic, august 26–August 27 – Krakatoa volcano erupts at 10,02 AM,163 villages are destroyed,36,380 killed by tsunami. August 29 – Dunfermline Carnegie Library, the first Carnegie library, is opened in Andrew Carnegies hometown, Dunfermline, september 11 – Major Evelyn Baring becomes Consul-General of Egypt under British rule
15.
1884
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As of the start of 1884, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – The Fabian Society is founded in London, january 5 – Gilbert and Sullivans Princess Ida has its première at the Savoy Theatre, London. January 18 – Dr. William Price attempts to cremate his dead son, Iesu Grist. Later tried and acquitted on the grounds that cremation is not contrary to English law, he is able to carry out the ceremony on March 14. February 1 – A New English Dictionary on historical principles, part 1, edited by James A. H. Murray, February 5 – Derby County Football Club is founded in England. March 13 – The siege of Khartoum, Sudan begins, april 20 – Pope Leo XIII publishes the encyclical Humanum genus, denouncing Freemasonry and certain liberal beliefs which he considers to be associated with it. April 22 German protectorate in South-West Africa, the Colchester earthquake, England, the UKs most destructive, occurs. May 1 – The eight-hour workday is first proclaimed by the Federation of Organized Trades and this date, called May Day or Labour Day, becomes a holiday recognized in almost every industrialized country. May 16 – Angelo Moriondo of Turin is granted a patent for an espresso machine, may 16, Swedens Finance Minister Robert Themptander becomes his countrys Prime Minister June 4 The future flag of Estonia is consecrated as the flag of the Estonian Students Society. June 13 – LaMarcus Adna Thompson opens the Gravity Pleasure Switchback Railway at Coney Island, july 3 – The Dow Jones Transportation Average, consisting of eleven transportation-related companies, nine railroads and two non-rail companies, was created. The index is the oldest stock index still in use, july 5 – Germany takes possession of Togoland. July 14 – German administration in Cameroon, july 23 – Todays Courier records the first tennis tournaments held on the grounds of Shrubland Hall, Leamington Spa, England. August 5 – The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty is laid on Bedloes Island in New York Harbor, August 10 – An earthquake measuring 5.5 Mfa affected a very large portion of the eastern United States. The shock had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII, chimneys were toppled in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Property damage was severe in Jamaica and Amityville in New York, August 22 – Sino-French War breaks out. August 23 – Sino-French War, Battle of Fuzhou, French Admiral Amédée Courbets Far East Squadron virtually destroys Chinas Fujian Fleet, september 5 – Staten Island Academy is founded. September 15 –Medicine, The invention of local anesthesia by Karl Koller is made public at a congress in Heidelberg. October 6 – The United States Naval War College is established in Newport, october 18 – The University of Wales, Bangor is founded
16.
1881 in art
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Events from the year 1881 in art. April – Sixth Impressionist exhibition in Paris, at Nadars studio, august 31 – English painters Thomas Cooper Gotch and Caroline Burland Yates marry at Newlyn. The Société des Artistes Français is established, with William-Adolphe Bouguereau as its first president. Vincent van Gogh returns from study in Brussels to his parents home in Etten where he produces a number of works, including the start of his series of peasant character studies. Art Gallery of South Australia established in Adelaide, St. Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts established at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, under the direction of Halsey Ives. Dante Gabriel Rossettis Ballads and Sonnets published
17.
1881 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1881. February 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert in France, april – William Poels production of Shakespeares Hamlet at St. Georges Hall, London, reverts to the first quarto text and avoids elaborate scene changes. April 23 – Gilbert and Sullivans Patience, a satire on Oscar Wilde and aestheticism, july 29 – Law on the Freedom of the Press passed in France. August 17 – The Pushkin Prize is established by the Russian Academy of Sciences, the first of the three-volume History of Woman Suffrage, is published by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the United States, aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoys historical drama Tsar Boris receives its première, posthumously, at Anna Brenkos Pushkin Theater in Moscow. The literary review and movement La Jeune Belgique is founded by poet Max Waller, the Pali Text Society is founded by British scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids for the study of Pali texts. Dominics Mrs. G. John H. Watson first meet at Bart’s Hospital, London, prior to the events commencing on March 4 narrated in Conan Doyles A Study in Scarlet
18.
1881 in South Africa
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January 28 – The Boers defeat the British in the Battle of Laings Nek during the First Boer War. February 8 – The Boers defeat the British in the Battle of Schuinshoogte during the First Boer War,27 – The Boers defeat the British in the Battle of Majuba Hill during the First Boer War. March 21 – Peace is declared and Britain recognizes the South African Republic,26 – Reinhold Gregorowski is appointed a judge in the Orange Free State at the age of 25. May The Government of Cape Prime Minister Gordon Sprigg falls due to ruinous war expenses, Scanlen and Molteno form the Scanlen Government and begin moves to secure peace on the frontier and stabilise finances. August 3 – The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed, officially ending the war between the Boers and the Britain, unknown date The Tshwana-Kora wars break out with white mercenary involvement. The town of Roburnia is established as the capital of the Republic of New Scotland and it was renamed to Amsterdam in 1882. Gold is discovered in the Barberton area,23 April – South African Test cricket player Claude Pagdett Carter is born in Durban. 28 May – Daniël Francois Malherbe, novelist, poet and dramatist, is born in Dal Josafat, november – Benjamin Jennings Caddy, a militant trade unionist who is regarded as the doyen of the trade union movement in South Africa, is born in Australia. 21 April – Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff, 2nd president of the Orange Free State, dies in Weston,9 December – Thomas François Burgers, 4th president of the South African Republic, dies at Richmond, Transvaal at the age of 74. Construction begins on the Port Alfred-Grahamstown line,1 June – Cape Midland – Cookhouse to Cradock,54 miles 73 chains. The first of thirteen Cape Government Railways 0-4-0 saddle-tank locomotives enter dock shunting service at the Table Bay Harbour in Cape Town, two 3 ft 6 in Cape gauge 0-4-0 saddle-tank locomotives are placed in service by Teague and Company on Teague’s Tramway in Kimberley. Six 1st Class 4-4-0 side-tank-and-tender passenger locomotives enter service on the Midland System of the CGR, the first two of three Table Bay Harbour Board 0-4-0 saddle-tank locomotives, built to 7 ft 1⁄4 in Brunel gauge, enter breakwater construction service on the Table Bay Harbour improvement project
19.
1881 in the United States
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Events from the year 1881 in the United States. February 2 – The Parkfield earthquake occurs, february 5 – Phoenix, Arizona, is incorporated. February 19 – Kansas becomes the first U. S. state to all alcoholic beverages. March 4 – Inauguration of James A. Garfield as President of the United States, april 11 – Spelman College is established. April 14 – The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight erupts in El Paso, april 21 – The University of Connecticut is founded as the Storrs Agricultural School. April 28 – Billy the Kid escapes from his 2 jailers at the Lincoln County Jail in Mesilla, New Mexico, killing James Bell and Robert Ollinger before stealing a horse, may 21 The American Red Cross is established by Clara Barton. The United States Tennis Association is established by a group of tennis club members. Tennis Championships are played this year, june 12 – The USS Jeannette is crushed in an Arctic Ocean ice pack. July 2 – Assassination of James A. Garfield, James A. Garfield, President of the United States, is shot by lawyer Charles J. Guiteau at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D. C. He survives the shooting but suffers from infection of his wound, july 4 – In Alabama, the Tuskegee Institute opens. July 14 – Billy the Kid is shot and killed by Pat Garrett outside Fort Sumner, july 20 – Indian Wars, Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his fugitive people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. August 27 – The fifth hurricane of the Atlantic season hits Florida, September 5 – The Thumb Fire in the U. S. state of Michigan destroys over a million acres and kills 282 people. September 19 – U. S. President James A. Garfield dies eleven weeks after being shot, vice President Chester A. Arthur becomes the 21st President of the United States. October 5–December 31 – International Cotton Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia October 26 – The Gunfight at the O. K. Corral occurs in Tombstone, Cochise County, Arizona, October 29 – Judge is first published. December 28 – Virgil Earp is ambushed in Tombstone and loses the use of his left arm, New York Citys oldest independent school for girls, the Convent of the Sacred Heart New York, is founded. Gilded Age January 8 – Henrik Shipstead, United States Senator from Minnesota from 1923 till 1947, March 12 – Arthur Raymond Robinson, United States Senator from Indiana from 1925 to 1935. DeMille, American film director October 10 – David Baird, Jr. United States Senator from New Jersey from 1929 till 1930, november 20 – Arthur Marshall, ragtime composer and performer December 16 – Daniel F. Steck, United States Senator from Iowa from 1926 till 1931. June 18 – Henry Smith Lane, United States Senator from Indiana from 1836 to 1837, july 14 – Billy The Kid, American Old West gunfighter August 10 – Orville Hickman Browning, United States Senator from Illinois from 1866 till 1869
20.
1881 in rail transport
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This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1881. January 17 - Regular train service over the Prince of Wales Bridge on the Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa, february 3 - The Seney Syndicate met at Seneys New York bank and organized the New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railway Company. February 17 - The first train operates between Norwood, Ohio, and Lebanon, Ohio, on the Cincinnati Northern Railway, march 1 - The Mexican Southern Railroad is incorporated with Ulysses S. Grant, former President of the United States, as its president. March 8 - The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, building southwestward from Kansas, reaches Deming, New Mexico. April 13 - The New York, Chicago & St. May 16 - The Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, may 19 - Tracks of the Southern Pacific Railroad reach El Paso, Texas. May 28 - A. B. Rogers on his birthday discovers the pass through the Rocky Mountains that will bear his name, june 9 - The Canada Central Railway is merged into the Canadian Pacific Railway. June 11 - The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad connects to El Paso, july 4 - Darjeeling Himalayan Railway opened throughout to Darjeeling, India. July 6 - Kate Shelley prevents a train with 200 passengers from going over the Honey Creek Bridge after it was washed out during a flash flood near Des Moines, Iowa. July 26 - Construction crews on the Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroads Alpine Tunnel, in Colorado, august 22 - The East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad commences operation over a 14. 1-mile run through the Appalachian Mountains. August 26 - The first train operates over the Red River Bridge into Winnipeg, Manitoba, october 17 - First section of Royal Saxon State Railways narrow gauge railway opened, between Wilkau and Kirchberg in the German Empire. E. W. Clark & Co. a private banking firm in Philadelphia, purchases the Atlantic, Mississippi, the Richmond and Danville Railroad leases the Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line Railway. Henry Villard becomes president of the Northern Pacific Railroad, the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique purchases a controlling interest in the Panama Railway Company. John Souther retires from the locomotive manufacturing company that he founded. Ephraim Shay takes out the first patent on his Shay locomotive design, Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway begins. The first standard gauge railroad in China is opened from Tangshan to Xugezhuang for coal traffic, march 22 - Arturo Caprotti, Italian inventor of Caprotti valve gear for steam locomotives. July 8 - Mantis James Van Sweringen, American financier who, with his brother Oris, controlled the Nickel Plate Road, october 30 - Charles E. Johnston, president of Kansas City Southern Railway 1928-1938. Martin W. Clement, president of the Pennsylvania Railroad 1935–1948, may 21 - Thomas Alexander Scott, president of Union Pacific Railroad 1871-1872, dies. William S. Hudson, superintendent of American steam locomotive manufacturing firm Rogers, Ketchum, churcher, Colin, Significant dates in Ottawa railway history
21.
1881 in sports
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1881 in sports describes the years events in world sports. England FA Cup final – Old Carthusians 3–0 Old Etonians at The Oval in the last final to be played between two amateur sides. Blackburn Rovers and Bolton Wanderers both change their venues to enclosed grounds where gate money can be charged, a practice among clubs that are openly professional. Preston North End is founded and plays from the start at Deepdale, Burnley FC founded as Burnley Rovers RUFC which decides in May 1882 to switch codes. The Rovers suffix is dropped two years later and the renamed as Burnley AFC. Newcastle United, which has an early history, is founded as Stanley FC by a cricket club in the Byker area of Newcastle. France Foundation of FC Girondins de Bordeaux, four others lie on the northerly rail line from stalwart Chicago to stalwart Boston, Detroit, Buffalo, Troy, and Worcester. In autumn, for the first time, all eight National League clubs prepare to continue next season, events Paddy Ryan takes part in a number of exhibition bouts but does not defend his Heavyweight Championship of America title. John L. Sullivan continues his rise to the championship with a series of knockout victories, events Lancashire County Cricket Club wins its first outright title. At the end of the season, an English team led by Alfred Shaw goes to Australia for the 1881–82 Test series. England Grand National – Woodbrook 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Thebais 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Peregrine Epsom Derby – Iroquois Epsom Oaks – Thebais St. S, National Singles Championship, precursor of the US Open, won by Richard D. Sears who defeats William E. Glyn 6–0 6–3 6–2 World The 5th pre-open era 1881 Mens Tennis season gets underway 27 tournaments are staged this year. Americas Cup The New York Yacht Club retains the Americas Cup as Mischief defeats Canadian challenger Atalanta, of the Bay of Quinte Yacht Club
22.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
23.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
24.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
25.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
26.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
27.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
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Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
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