1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
6.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
7.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
8.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
9.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
10.
1884
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As of the start of 1884, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – The Fabian Society is founded in London, january 5 – Gilbert and Sullivans Princess Ida has its première at the Savoy Theatre, London. January 18 – Dr. William Price attempts to cremate his dead son, Iesu Grist. Later tried and acquitted on the grounds that cremation is not contrary to English law, he is able to carry out the ceremony on March 14. February 1 – A New English Dictionary on historical principles, part 1, edited by James A. H. Murray, February 5 – Derby County Football Club is founded in England. March 13 – The siege of Khartoum, Sudan begins, april 20 – Pope Leo XIII publishes the encyclical Humanum genus, denouncing Freemasonry and certain liberal beliefs which he considers to be associated with it. April 22 German protectorate in South-West Africa, the Colchester earthquake, England, the UKs most destructive, occurs. May 1 – The eight-hour workday is first proclaimed by the Federation of Organized Trades and this date, called May Day or Labour Day, becomes a holiday recognized in almost every industrialized country. May 16 – Angelo Moriondo of Turin is granted a patent for an espresso machine, may 16, Swedens Finance Minister Robert Themptander becomes his countrys Prime Minister June 4 The future flag of Estonia is consecrated as the flag of the Estonian Students Society. June 13 – LaMarcus Adna Thompson opens the Gravity Pleasure Switchback Railway at Coney Island, july 3 – The Dow Jones Transportation Average, consisting of eleven transportation-related companies, nine railroads and two non-rail companies, was created. The index is the oldest stock index still in use, july 5 – Germany takes possession of Togoland. July 14 – German administration in Cameroon, july 23 – Todays Courier records the first tennis tournaments held on the grounds of Shrubland Hall, Leamington Spa, England. August 5 – The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty is laid on Bedloes Island in New York Harbor, August 10 – An earthquake measuring 5.5 Mfa affected a very large portion of the eastern United States. The shock had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII, chimneys were toppled in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Property damage was severe in Jamaica and Amityville in New York, August 22 – Sino-French War breaks out. August 23 – Sino-French War, Battle of Fuzhou, French Admiral Amédée Courbets Far East Squadron virtually destroys Chinas Fujian Fleet, september 5 – Staten Island Academy is founded. September 15 –Medicine, The invention of local anesthesia by Karl Koller is made public at a congress in Heidelberg. October 6 – The United States Naval War College is established in Newport, october 18 – The University of Wales, Bangor is founded
11.
1885
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As of the start of 1885, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3–4 – Sino-French War – Battle of Núi Bop, French troops under General Oscar de Négrier defeat a numerically superior Qing Chinese force in northern Vietnam, january 4 – The first successful appendectomy is performed by Dr. William W. Grant on Mary Gartside. January 17 – Mahdist War in Sudan, British victory at the Battle of Abu Klea, january 20 – LaMarcus Adna Thompson patents a roller coaster. January 24 – Irish terrorists damage Westminster Hall and the Tower of London with dynamite, january 26 – Mahdist War in Sudan, Troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad conquer Khartoum. The British commander Charles George Gordon is killed, February 5 – King Léopold II of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State as a personal possession. February 7 – The play La vida alegre y muerte triste by dramatist José Echegaray opens, February 9 – The first Japanese arrive in Hawaii. February 16 – Charles Dow publishes the first edition of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the index stood at a level of 62.76, and represented the dollar average of 14 stocks,12 railroads and two leading American industries. February 21 – United States President Chester A. Arthur dedicates the Washington Monument, February 23 Sino-French War, France gains an important victory over China in the Battle of Đồng Đăng in the Tonkin region of modern-day Vietnam. An English executioner fails after several attempts to hang John Babbacombe Lee, sentenced for the murder of his employer Emma Keyse, February 26 – The final act of the Berlin Conference regulates European colonization and trade in the scramble for Africa. February 28 – February concludes without having a full moon, march 3 – A subsidiary of the American Bell Telephone Company, American Telephone and Telegraph, is incorporated in New York. March 4 – Grover Cleveland is sworn in as President of the United States, march 7 – The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Madrid is founded. March 14 – Gilbert and Sullivans comic opera The Mikado opens at the Savoy Theatre in London, march 26 The Prussian government, motivated by Otto von Bismarck, expels all ethnic Poles and Jews without German citizenship from Prussia in the Prussian deportations. North-West Rebellion in Canada by the Métis people, led by Louis Riel, first legal cremation in England, Mrs Jeannette C. Pickersgill of London, well known in literary and scientific circles, is cremated by the Cremation Society at Woking, march 30 – The Battle for Kushka triggers the Panjdeh Incident, which nearly gives rise to war between the British Empire and Russian Empire. March 31 – The United Kingdom establishes the Bechuanaland Protectorate, april 2 – Frog Lake Massacre, Cree warriors led by Wandering Spirit kill 9 settlers at Frog Lake in the Northwest Territories. April 3 – Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for his single-cylinder water-cooled engine design, april 11 – Luton Town Football Club are created by the merger of Wanderers F. C. and Luton Excelsior F. C. in England. April 14 – Final engagement of Sino-French War, with a French victory at Kép, China withdraws its forces from Tonkin. April 30 – A bill is signed in the New York State legislature forming the Niagara Falls State Park, may 2 Good Housekeeping magazine goes on sale for the first time in the United States
12.
1886
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As of the start of 1886, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Upper Burma is formally annexed to British Burma, january 5 – Publication of Robert Louis Stevensons novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. January 18 – Modern field hockey is born with the formation of The Hockey Association in England, january 29 – Karl Benz patents the first successful gasoline-driven automobile, the Benz Patent-Motorwagen. February 14 – The first train load of oranges leaves Los Angeles via the transcontinental railroad, march 3 – The Treaty of Bucharest ends the Serbo-Bulgarian War in the Balkans. March 8 – Anti-Chinese sentiments result in riots in Seattle, USA, march 16 – A law establishing the Kiel Canal is adopted. March 17 – Carrollton Massacre,20 African Americans are killed in Mississippi, march 29 – Wilhelm Steinitz becomes first recognized World Chess Champion. April 4 – William Ewart Gladstone introduces the First Irish Home Rule Bill in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, april 6 – Vancouver in British Columbia is incorporated. April 25 – Easter occurs on the latest possible date, may 4 A general strike begins in the United States, which escalates into the Haymarket Riot and eventually wins the eight-hour day for workers. Emile Berliner starts work that leads to the invention of the gramophone, may 8 – American pharmacist Dr. John Pemberton invents a carbonated beverage that will be named Coca-Cola. May 15 – Portugal and France agree to regulate the borders of their colonies in Guinea, may 17 Motherwell Football Club is founded in Scotland. Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad, The U. S. Supreme Court rules that corporations have the rights as living persons. May 29 – John Pemberton begins to advertise Coca-Cola, June 2 – U. S. President Grover Cleveland marries Frances Folsom in the White House, becoming the only President of the United States to wed in the executive mansion. She is 27 years his junior, June 3 – Uganda Martyrs, Charles Lwanga, twelve other Catholic boys and men and nine Anglicans are burned to death at the orders of Kabaka Mwanga II of Buganda in Namugongo. June 10 – The Mount Tarawera volcano erupts in New Zealand, resulting in the deaths of over 150 people, June 12 – King Ludwig II of Bavaria is detained as part of a deposition, drowning the following day under mysterious circumstances. Six weeks later his unfinished Neuschwanstein Castle is opened to the public, June 13 – The Great Vancouver Fire devastates much of Vancouver, British Columbia. June 30 – The Royal Holloway College for women is opened by Queen Victoria near London in England, july 3 – Karl Benz officially unveils the Benz Patent Motorwagen. July 9 – Charles Hall files a patent for his process of turning aluminium oxide into molten aluminium, july 23 – Steve Brodie fakes a jump from the Brooklyn Bridge. July 25 – Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury becomes Great Britains 30th Prime Minister, july 31 – Death of Hungarian composer Franz Liszt
13.
1888
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As of the start of 1888, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. In Germany,1888 is known as the Year of the Three Emperors, currently, it is the year that, when written in Roman numerals, has the most digits. This will be surpassed as late as 2888, january 3 – The 91-centimeter telescope is first used at Lick Observatory in California. January 12 – The Schoolhouse Blizzard hits Dakota Territory, the states of Montana, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, january 13 – The National Geographic Society is founded in Washington, D. C. January 21 –– Amateur Athletic Union is founded by William Buckingham Curtis in the United States, january 26 –– The Lawn Tennis Association is founded in England. February 6 –– Gillis Bildt becomes Prime Minister of Sweden, february 27 – In West Orange, New Jersey, Thomas Edison meets with Eadweard Muybridge, who proposes a scheme for sound film. March 8 – The Agriculture College of Utah, is founded in Logan, march 9 – Frederick III becomes German Emperor and King of Prussia. March 11 – The Great Blizzard of 1888 begins along the seaboard of the United States, shutting down commerce. March 13 – De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. is founded in Kimberley, march 15 – Start of the Sikkim Expedition, a British military expedition to expel the Tibetans from northern Sikkim. March 16 – Foundation stone for a new National Library of Greece is laid in Athens, march 20 – The very first Romani language operetta premieres in Moscow, Russia. March 23 – A meeting called by William McGregor to discuss establishment of The Football League is held in London, march 27 – The Rescue of the Renown, Dorus Rijkers saves the 30-man crew of the Renown off the Netherlands coast, risking his own life. March 29 – Death of French-Jewish composer Charles-Valentin Alkan, march – International Council of Women formed, a key event in the international womens movement. April 3 The Brighton Beach Hotel in Coney Island is moved 520 feet using six steam locomotives by civil engineer B. C. Miller to save it from ocean storms. April 6 – First New Years Day of the solar calendar adopted by Siamese King Chulalongkorn with the 106th anniversary of Bangkoks founding in 1782 as its epoch, April 11 – The Concertgebouw in Amsterdam is inaugurated. April 16 – The German Empire annexes the island of Nauru, April 21 – The Texas State Capitol building, completed at a cost of 3 million dollars, opens to the public in Austin. May 1 – The United States Congress establishes the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, may 8 – Royal opening of the International Exhibition of Science, Art and Industry in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow. May 12 – The North Borneo Chartered Companys territories become the British protectorate of North Borneo, may 13 – In Brazil, the Lei Áurea abolishes the last remnants of slavery. May 28 – In Scotland, Celtic F. C. plays its first official match winning 5–2 against Rangers F. C, may 30 – Hong Kongs Peak Tram begins operation
14.
1889
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As of the start of 1889, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 A total eclipse of the Sun is seen over parts of California, wovoka experiences a vision leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the Dakotas. January 4 – An Act to Regulate Appointments in the Marine Hospital Service of the United States is signed by President Grover Cleveland and it establishes a Commissioned Corps of officers as a predecessor to the modern-day U. S. January 5 – Preston North End F. C. is declared the winner of the inaugural Football League in England, january 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a patent for his electric tabulating machine in the United States. January 15 – The Coca-Cola Company is originally incorporated as the Pemberton Medicine Company in Atlanta, january 22 – Columbia Phonograph is formed in Washington, D. C. January 30 – Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, and his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera commit a suicide in the Mayerling hunting lodge. February 5 – The first issue of Glasgow University Magazine is published, February 15 – The first issue of La Solidaridad is published. February 11 – The Meiji Constitution of Japan is adopted, the 1st Diet of Japan convenes in 1890, February 22 – President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U. S. states. March 4 – Benjamin Harrison is sworn in as President of the United States, March 9 – Yohannes IV, Emperor of Ethiopia, is killed in the Battle of Metemma, Sudanese forces, who had been almost defeated, rally and destroy the Ethiopian army. Yohannes is probably the worlds last ruler ever to die in battle, Menelik II proclaims himself as the successor on March 25. March 11 – The North Carolina Legislature issues a charter for the creation of Elon College, March 15 – Samoan crisis, German and American warships keep each other at bay in a standoff in Apia harbor, ending when a cyclone blows in and sinks them all. March 22 – English Association football team Sheffield United F. C. formed at the Adelphi Hotel, March 23 – Claiming to be the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founds the Ahmadiyya Muslim community in Punjab Province. March 31 – The Eiffel Tower is inaugurated, at 300 m, its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m. Contemporary critics regard it as aesthetically displeasing, april 1 – Following a failed attempt at a coup, French defense minister Georges Boulanger is forced to flee the country. April 10 – The Hammarby Roddförening is founded in Sweden, april 16 – Charlie Chaplin is born in London, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. April 20 – Adolf Hitler is born at Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary on the border with Bavaria, april 22 – At high noon in Oklahoma Territory, thousands rush to claim land in the Land Rush of 1889. Within hours the cities of Oklahoma City and Guthrie are formed, may 2 – Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia, signs a treaty of amity with Italy, giving Italy control over what will become Eritrea. May 6 – The Exposition Universelle opens in Paris with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, the Galerie des machines, at 111 m, spans the longest interior space in the world at this time
15.
1890
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As of the start of 1890, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The Kingdom of Italy establishes Eritrea as its colony in the Horn of Africa, in Michigan, the wooden steamer Mackinaw burns in a fire on the Black River. January 2 The steamship Persia is wrecked off Corsica,130 lives are lost, alice Sanger becomes the first female staffer in the White House. January 25 The United Mine Workers of America is founded, nellie Bly completes her round-the-world journey in 72 days. February 9 – The Weather Bureau is established within the United States Department of Agriculture, february 17 – The British steamship Duburg is wrecked in the South China Sea,400 lives are lost. February 24 – Chicago is selected to host the Columbian Exposition March 1 The British steamship Quetia founders in the Torres Straits,124 lives are lost, léon Bourgeois succeeds Jean Antoine Ernest Constans as French Minister of the Interior. March 3 – The first American football game in Ohio State University history is played in Delaware, Ohio, against Ohio Wesleyan, March 4 – The Forth Bridge across the Firth of Forth in Scotland is opened to rail traffic. March 8 – North Dakota State University is founded in Fargo, March 17 – The first railway in Transvaal, the Randtram, opens between Boksburg and Braamfontein in Johannesburg. March 20 – Kaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Otto von Bismarck, March 27 – The March 1890 middle Mississippi Valley tornado outbreak,24 significant tornadoes are spawned by one system killing least 146 people. March 28 – Washington State University is founded in Pullman, april 2 – Kashihara Shrine, a landmark spot in Nara Prefecture, Japan, officially built by Emperor Mutsuhito. April 14 – First International Conference of American States in Washington DC, may 1 – A coordinated series of mass rallies and one-day strikes held throughout many cities and mining towns in Europe and North America to demand an eight-hour workday. May 2 – Oklahoma Territory becomes effective, may 12 – The first ever official English County Championship cricket match begins in Bristol, Yorkshire beats Gloucestershire by 8 wickets. May 20 – Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh moves to Auvers-sur-Oise on the edge of Paris in the care of Dr Paul Gachet where he will produce around seventy paintings in as many days, may 31 – The 5-story skylight Arcade opens in Cleveland, Ohio. June 1 – The United States Census Bureau begins using Herman Holleriths tabulating machine to tabulate census returns using punched card input, june 12 – In Michigan, the wooden steamer Ryan is lost near Thunder Bay Island. June 20 – The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde published by Philadelphia-based Lippincotts Monthly Magazine, june 27 – Canadian-born boxer George Dixon defeats the British bantamweight champion in London, giving him claim to be the first black world champion in any sport. July 1 – Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty is signed by Great Britain and Germany, July 2 – The Sherman Antitrust Act and Sherman Silver Purchase Act become United States law. July 3 – Idaho is admitted as the 43rd U. S. state, July 10 – Wyoming is admitted as the 44th U. S. state. July 13 – In Minnesota, storms result in the Sea Wing disaster on Lake Pepin, July 14 – First recorded use of lime-green to describe a color
16.
1887 in architecture
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The year 1887 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Construction work begins on Shrine of Our Lady of the Rosary, Rosario, provinciaal Hof, Bruges, Flanders, designed by Louis Delacenserie and René Buyck. Ponce de León Hotel, St. Augustine, Florida, designed by Carrère, march 29 - Peebles Old Parish Church, Scotland, designed by William Young. April 23 - Metropolitan Cathedral, Iași, Romania, completed by Alexandru Orăscu, june 20 - Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway in Bombay, designed by Frederick William Stevens. December 1 - Raffles Hotel, Singapore, cardiff Metropolitan Cathedral, designed by Pugin & Pugin. New façade of Florence Cathedral, designed by Emilio De Fabris, basilica of St. Nicholas, Amsterdam, designed by Adrianus Bleijs. St Pauls Church, Aarhus, designed by Vilhelm Theodor Walther, cluj-Napoca Neolog Synagogue, Romania, designed by engineer Izidor Hegner. Rebuilt Gare Saint-Lazare terminus of Chemins de fer de lOuest in Paris, RIBA Royal Gold Medal - Ewan Christian. MacGibbon and Ross begin publication of The Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland, G. A. Wayss publishes Das System Monier-Eisengerippe mit Cementumhüllung-in seiner Anwendung auf das gesammte Bauwesen in Berlin, one of the first books on reinforced concrete
17.
1887 in art
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The year 1887 in art involved some significant events. February – Fourth annual exhibition of Les XX, at the Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique in Brussels, artists invited to show in addition to members of the group include Walter Sickert, Camille Pissarro, Berthe Morisot and Georges-Pierre Seurat. The major work shown is Seurats A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, march 26 – June 8 – Third exhibition by the Société des Artistes Indépendants in Paris. November 14 – Paul Gauguin and Charles Laval return to Paris from Martinique, december – Vincent van Gogh arranges an exhibition of paintings by himself, Émile Bernard, Louis Anquetin, and Toulouse-Lautrec in the Restaurant du Chalet,43 Avenue de Clichy, Montmartre, Paris. Bernard and Anquetin sell their first painting, van Gogh exchanges work with Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh begins his first Sunflowers series of paintings in Paris. Walter Crane illustrates The Architecture of Art, Charles Lang Freers first Asian art purchase is a painted Japanese fan. Sir John Everett Millais painting Bubbles is acquired for advertising purposes by Pears soap, february 5 – Albert Paris Gütersloh, Austrian painter and writer. March 23 – Juan Gris, Spanish painter and sculptor, march 25 – Josef Čapek, Czech painter. April 29 – Stanley Cursiter, Scottish painter and curator, may – Jacob Steinhardt, German-born Israeli painter and woodcut artist. May 12 – Leo Michelson, Latvian-American painter and sculptor, may 21 Barker Fairley, English-born Canadian painter, writer, and educator. May 30 – Alexander Archipenko, Ukrainian sculptor, June 20 – Kurt Schwitters, German Dadaist painter and writer. July 7 – Marc Chagall, Russian-Belarusian-French painter, july 28 – Marcel Duchamp, influential French artist. September 24 – Frank Newbould, English poster artist, october 6 – Le Corbusier, French architect and painter. October 9 – Manuel Ortiz de Zárate, Chilean painter, october 13 – Kate Lechmere, English painter associated with the Vorticists and milliner. November 1 – L. S. Lowry, English painter, november 15 – Georgia OKeeffe, American painter
18.
1887 in South Africa
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June 21 – The Nederlandsche-Zuid-Afrikaansche Spoorweg-Maatschappij is floated. 21 – Zululand becomes a British colony, unknown date The town of Boksburg is laid out to serve the surrounding gold mines. The Stellenbosch Gymnasium, later to become the Stellenbosch University, changes its name to Victoria College,29 May – Xhosa chief Sandile is killed in Denge Forest in a skirmish with the Fingos under the command of Captain J. Lonsdale. Construction begins on the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line, october – Cape Central – Worcester to Roodewal,42 miles
19.
1887 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1887 in Sweden Monarch – Oscar II Prime Minister – Robert Themptander - Swedish State Railways established. - Arbetet - Old Stockholm telephone tower - Örgryte IS - First issue of the womens issue Idun,17 February – Nils Granfelt, gymnast. 16 June – Hugo Johansson, sport shooter,18 December – Algot Lönn, cyclist. 7 February – Hanna Brooman, composer, translator and educator Hedvig Willman, actress Antoinette Nording, perfume entrepreneur
20.
1887 in the United States
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Events from the year 1887 in the United States. January 28 – In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana and they are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick. February 2 – In Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, the first Groundhog Day is observed, February 4 – The Interstate Commerce Act, passed by Congress, is signed into law, with the intention of regulating the railroad industry. February – The Atlanta Cyclorama is first displayed in Detroit as Logans Great Battle, March 3 – Anne Sullivan begins teaching Helen Keller. March 7 – North Carolina State University is established as North Carolina College of Agriculture, March 19 – Cogswell College is established as a high school by Dr. Henry D. Cogswell in San Francisco, the first technical training institution in the West. April 4 – Argonia, Kansas elects Susanna M. Salter as the first female mayor in the U. S, may 14 – The cornerstone of the new Stanford University, in northern California, is laid. June 28 – Minot, North Dakota is incorporated as a city, august – The U. S. National Institutes of Health is founded at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, New York, as the Laboratory of Hygiene. Teachers College, later part of Columbia University, is founded by Grace Hoadley Dodge as the New York School for the Training of Teachers, gilded Age January 22 – David W. Stewart, U. S. Senator from Iowa from 1926 to 1927 February 6 – Ernest Gruening, senator from Alabama in 1946 March 8 – Henry Ward Beecher, clergyman and reformer March 26 – Walt Whitman, poet, essayist and journalist May 19 – Charles E. Stuart, U. S. Senator from California from 1873 to 1879 November 8 – Doc Holliday, gunfighter and gambler Media related to 1887 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
21.
1887 in science
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The year 1887 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – Carte du Ciel project initiated by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, theodor von Oppolzers Canon der Finsternisse, a compilation of the 8,000 solar and 5,200 lunar eclipses from 1200 BC until 2161 AD, is published posthumously. Jean Pierre Mégnin publishes Faune des Tombeaux, the work of modern forensic entomology. Sergei Winogradsky discovers the first known form of lithotrophy during his research with Beggiatoa, Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection developed by Émile Guyou. January 28 – In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, in the United States and they are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick. September 28 – Start of the Yellow River floods in China,900,000 dead, june 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nations first national park, Banff National Park. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, in Hawaii, the Mauna Loa volcano eruptions subside, having begun in 1843. During the 1887 eruption, about 2½ million tons of lava per hour pours out, march 3 – Anne Sullivan begins to teach language to the deaf and blind Helen Keller. July 26 – L. L. Zamenhof publishes Lingvo internacia under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto, Joseph Louis François Bertrand rediscovers Bertrands ballot theorem. Henri Poincaré provides a solution to the three-body problem, january 11 – Louis Pasteurs anti-rabies treatment is defended in the French Academy of Medicine by Dr. Joseph Grancher. August – The U. S. National Institutes of Health is founded at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY, october 1 – Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese founded by Patrick Manson. Franz König publishes Über freie Körper in den Gelenken in the journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, the Hospitals Association establishes the first register of nurses in the United Kingdom. November – The Michelson-Morley experiment is performed, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion, heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves in radio, an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light. November – G. Stanley Hall founds The American Journal of Psychology, richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey, in the course of investigations into popular belief in parapsychology, publish one of the first descriptions of eyewitness unreliability. March 8 – Everett Horton of Connecticut patents a fishing rod of telescoping steel tubes, march 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs. June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U. S. patent for his punched card calculator, july – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk in Scotland. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U. S. patent for his comptometer, august – Anna Connelly patents the fire escape. November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U. S. patent for his Gramophone, adolf Gaston Eugen Fick invents the contact lens, made of a type of brown glass
22.
1887 in sports
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1887 in sports describes the years events in world sport. College championship College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs Events The rules are changed so that gametime is set at two halves of 45 minutes each, two paid officials, a referee and an umpire, are mandated for each game. American Association – Detroit Wolverines defeats Saint Louis Cardinals 10 games to 5 Events The two major leagues agree to a set of rules. The National Colored Base Ball League plays for a few weeks before folding, five black men play in the International League, the highest minor league, the high-water mark in racial integration of professional baseball. Lineal world champions World Heavyweight Championship – John L, the team plays 10 first-class matches, winning 6 with 2 draws and 2 defeats. England win both Test matches played by 13 runs and 71 runs respectively, the GAA seeks to promote traditional Irish sports, such as hurling and to reject foreign imports. Limerick GAA wins the inaugural All-Ireland Senior Football Championship
23.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
24.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
25.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
26.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
27.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
28.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
29.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
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