1.
1907 in rail transport
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This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1907. February - Great Western Railway of England begins production of Star Class 4-6-0 locomotives at its Swindon Works, page is named president of the newly formed Virginian Railway. May 18 - The Ravenswood branch of the old Northwestern Elevated system of the Chicago L, june 22 - Opening of the Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead Railway in London, a deep tube railway which now forms part of the London Undergrounds Northern line. July 1 - All New York Central Railroad services into and out of Grand Central Terminal in New York City are electrically hauled, august 29 - Due to faulty design, the cantilever bridge over the St. Lawrence River at Quebec City collapses while being built. Between 70 and 84 workers are killed and it will take 10 years to rebuild and complete the project. October 1 - Pacific Fruit Express begins operation with a fleet of 6,600 refrigerator cars, october 1 - The Empire of Japan completes the nationalization of nationwide 17 private railroads. October 27 - Union Station in Washington, DC, although still unfinished, november 7 - Jesús García Corona is blown up driving a burning dynamite train away from a populated area of Nacozari, Sonora. December 14 - The Ravenswood extension on what is now the Brown Line opens between Western Avenue and the current terminal at Kimball and Lawrence Avenues in Albany Park, government of India purchases most major railway companies and leases them back to private operators. The Deepwater Railway and the Tidewater Railway combine to form the Virginian Railway, stearns Manufacturing Company is reorganized as Heisler Locomotive Works. The Apalachicola Northern Railroad runs its first train northward from Apalachicola, E. H. Harriman removes Stuyvesant Fish from the presidency of the Illinois Central. Pennsylvania Railroad builds its third experimental electric locomotive, number 10003, the Lackawanna Railroad opens its Beaux Arts station in Hoboken, NJ, which is still in use today. June 2 - Eric Treacy, British Anglican bishop and railway photographer, november 1 - Terence Cuneo, British railway artist. May 19 - Benjamin Baker, British civil engineer, designer of the Forth Railway Bridge, october 3 – Jacob Nash Victor, oversaw construction for the California Southern Railroad from San Diego through Cajon Pass to Barstow, California
2.
1909 in rail transport
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This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1909. January 1 - The Chemins de fer de lOuest in France is incorporated into the state-owned Chemins de fer de lÉtat. January 26 - The Jamestown, Franklin and Clearfield Railroad, a predecessor of the Lake Shore, january 29 - The final spike is driven in the construction of the Virginian Railway at Glen Lyn, Virginia. March 7 - The Winona Interurban Electric Railway is forced by its major creditor to begin operations on Sundays, april 1 - Great Central Railway places turbine steamships on its Grimsby-Rotterdam service. April 4 - Passenger service begins on the Chicago, Lake Shore, april 12 - Gary, Indiana, United States, a westbound Chicago, Lake Shore and South Bend Railroad train runs past a meet point and causes a head-on collision with an eastbound train, killing twelve. May 17 - Firemen on the Georgia Railroad strike to protest the hiring of African-Americans, june - George Whale retires as Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London and North Western Railway, he is succeeded by Charles Bowen-Cooke. June 19 - Shadyside, Indiana, United States, an eastbound Chicago South Shore & South Bend Railroad train runs past a meet point and causes a head-on collision with a westbound train. July 10 - The Great Northern Railway electrifies the 2. 5-mile original Cascade Tunnel and this first system and General Electric-built boxcabs are the only three-phase AC railway electrification implementation ever to be used in North America. July 25 - Opening of Tauern Railway Line in Austria, august 30 - Great Western Railway begins using its Fishguard terminus in Wales for boat trains in connection with the Cunard steamships on Atlantic routes as a first port of call. August - Canadian Pacific Railway opens the Spiral Tunnels to traffic on the line through Kicking Horse Pass, september - Robert S. Lovett succeeds E. H. Harriman as president of the Southern Pacific Company, parent company of the Southern Pacific Railroad. Lovett also assumes the position of Chairman of the Executive Committee for the railroad, september 17 - Beyer, Peacock and Company of Manchester, England, steam the first Garratt articulated steam locomotive built to the design of Herbert William Garratt, K Class No. K1 for the Tasmanian Government Railways’ North East Dundas Tramway, october 9 - The Alaska Northern Railroad Company purchases the assets of the bankrupt Alaska Central Railway and subsequently extends the line northward another 34 km. October - Blue Nile Road and Railway Bridge completed at Khartoum in Sudan, november 1 - A Golden Spike ceremony is held on the Western Pacific Railroad. As no company officials were present, the local track foreman drove the last spike, november 3 - The Lethbridge Viaduct, one of the largest railway structures in Canada on the Canadian Pacific Railway near Lethbridge, Alberta, opens. November 10 - Louis Brennan successfully demonstrates his gyroscopically-balanced monorail system, november 21 – Kagoshima Line, Mojiko of Kitakyushu, via Hakata of Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Hitoyoshi to Kagoshima route officially completed in Kyushu Island, Japan. December 1 - The London, Brighton and South Coast Railway publicly inaugurates Englands first suburban surface railway electrification system on its South London line, december 20 - Henry Fowler is appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Midland Railway of England, succeeding Richard Deeley. The Nickel Plate Road begins a massive grade separation project in Cleveland, Ohio, albert Hunt invents the wigwag grade crossing protection signal for the Pacific Electric in Los Angeles, California. Opening of the Jingzhang railway connecting Beijing with Zhangjiakou, first section of the Jingbao railway in northwestern China, august 4 – Isabel Benham, American railroad financial expert, is born
3.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
4.
Train wreck
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A train wreck or train crash is a type of disaster involving one or more trains. Train wrecks have often been covered in popular media and in folklore. A head-on collision between two trains is called a cornfield meet in the US. Because train wrecks usually cause widespread property damage as well as injury or death, for example, in the U. S. state of California, the penalty for intentionally causing a non-fatal train wreck is life imprisonment with the possibility of parole. For a fatal train wreck, the legal consequences are either life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. The willful wrecking of a train is punishable by death or life imprisonment without parole by the United States federal government, the unusual harshness of Californias train wrecking statute has been expressly recognized by its appellate courts. The Supreme Court of California explained in 1972 that train wrecking is one of only eight crimes in the California Codes for which a sentence is authorized. Death Rode the Rails, American Railroad Accidents and Safety, 1828-1965 excerpt BBC News, a voice from the signal-box, or, railway accidents and their causes
5.
Derailment
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A derailment is said to take place when a vehicle such as a train runs off its rails. This does not necessarily mean that it leaves its track, although many derailments are minor, all result in temporary disruption of the proper operation of the railway system, and they are potentially seriously hazardous to human health and safety. In emergency situations, deliberate derailment with derails or catch points is used to prevent a more serious accident. During the 19th century derailments were commonplace, but progressively improved safety measures have resulted in a lower level of such incidents. In the US, derailments have dropped dramatically since 1980 from over 3,000 annually to 1,000 or so in 1986, a traditional track structure consists of two rails, fixed at a designated distance apart, and supported on transverse sleepers. Some advanced track structures support the rails on a concrete or asphalt slab, the running surface of the rails is required to be practically continuous and of the proper geometrical layout. 170 broken rails were reported on Network Rail in the UK in 2008, in jointed track, rails are usually connected with bolted fishplates. The web of the rail experiences large shear forces and these are enhanced around the bolt hole, where track maintenance is poor, metallurgical fatigue can result in the propagation of star cracking from the bolthole. In extreme situations this can lead to a piece of rail at the joint becoming detached. Local embrittlement of the parent metal may take place due to wheel spin, the fishplates in jointed track may fail, allowing the rails to pull apart in extremely cold weather, this is usually associated with uncorrected rail creep. Derailment may take place due to excessive gauge widening, in which the sleepers or other fastenings fail to maintain the proper gauge, the crabbing effect referred to above is more marked in dry conditions, when the coefficient of friction at the wheel to rail interface is high. The running gear — wheelsets, bogies, and suspension — may fail, modern technologies have reduced the incidence of these failures considerably, both by design and intervention. The last condition applies if the suspension springing has a stiffness optimised for the condition, or for a compromise loading condition. The vehicle wheelsets become momentarily unloaded vertically so that the guidance required from the flanges or wheel tread contact is inadequate, a special case is heat related buckling, in hot weather the rail steel expands. This is managed by stressing continuously welded rails and by providing proper expansion gaps at joints, in addition, lateral restraint is provided by an adequate ballast shoulder. If any of these measures are inadequate, the track may buckle, a large lateral distortion takes place, junctions and other changes of routing on railways are generally made by means of points. In the early days of railways these were moved independently by local staff, accidents — usually collisions — took place when staff forgot which route the points were set for, or overlooked the approach of a train on a conflicting route. If the points were not correctly set for either route — set in mid-stroke — it is possible for a passing to derail
6.
PATH (rail system)
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The PATH is operated by, and named after, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. PATH trains run 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, the system has a route length of 13.8 miles, not including any route overlap. As of October 2016, PATH had a weekday ridership of 276,417. PATH trains only use tunnels in Manhattan, Hoboken and downtown Jersey City, the tracks cross the Hudson River through century-old cast iron tubes that rest on the river bottom under a thin layer of silt. PATHs route from Grove Street in Jersey City west to Newark runs in open cuts, at grade level, PATH does accept the same pay-per-ride MetroCard used by the New York City Transit system, but it does not accept unlimited ride, reduced fare, or EasyPay MetroCards. The history of PATH predates the New York City Subways first underground line, PATH was originally known as the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad. Although the railroad was first planned in 1874, existing technologies could not safely tunnel under the Hudson River, construction began on the existing tunnels in 1890, but stopped shortly thereafter when funding ran out. Construction resumed in 1900 under the direction of William Gibbs McAdoo, McAdoo later became president of what was known, for many years, as the H&M, Hudson Tubes or McAdoo Tunnels. Haskins plan was to excavate the tunnel, then fill it with compressed air to expel the water and to hold the iron plate lining in place. When the New York & Jersey Tunnel Company resumed construction on the tunnels in 1902, an enormous mechanical shield was pushed through the silt at the bottom of the river. The displaced mud was placed into a chamber, where it was later shoveled into small cars that hauled it to the surface. In some cases, the silt was baked with kerosene torches to facilitate removal of the mud. The southern tunnel of the pair was constructed using the tubular cast iron method. Construction of the tunnels was completed in 1906. A second pair of tunnels was built about 1 1⁄4 miles south of the first pair, construction began in 1906 and was completed in 1909, also using the tubular cast iron method. Each track enjoys its own tunnel, which enables a better ventilation via the piston effect. By contrast, the ends of the tunnels, located underneath Manhattan, employed cut. On July 19,1909, service began between the Hudson Terminal in Lower Manhattan and Exchange Place in Jersey City, through the downtown tubes, the connection between Exchange Place and the junction near Hoboken Terminal opened on August 2,1909
7.
Hoboken, New Jersey
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Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Hoboken is part of the New York metropolitan area and is the site of Hoboken Terminal, Hoboken was first settled as part of the Pavonia, New Netherland colony in the 17th century. During the early 19th century the city was developed by Colonel John Stevens, first as a resort and it became a township in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1855. Hoboken is the location of the first recorded game of baseball and of the Stevens Institute of Technology, located on the Hudson Waterfront, the city was an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey and home to major industries for most of the 20th century. The character of the city has changed from a blue collar town to one of upscale shops, the name Hoboken was chosen by Colonel John Stevens when he bought land, on a part of which the city still sits. Like Weehawken, its neighbor to the north, Communipaw and Harsimus to the south, Hoebuck, old Dutch for high bluff and likely referring to Castle Point, was used during the colonial era and later spelled as Hobuck, Hobock, Hobuk and Hoboocken. The origin of Hobokens name was not related to the Hoboken district of Antwerp, however, in the nineteenth century, a folk etymology had emerged linking the town of to the similarly-named Flemish town. Hoboken was originally an island, surrounded by the Hudson River on the east and it was a seasonal campsite in the territory of the Hackensack, a phratry of the Lenni Lenape, who used the serpentine rock found there to carve pipes. Soon after it part of the province of New Netherland. Three Lenape sold the land that was to become Hoboken for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, variously dated as July 12,1630 and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. Pauw failed to settle the land, and he was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633 and it was later acquired by Hendrick Van Vorst, who leased part of the land to Aert Van Putten, a farmer. In 1643, north of what would be known as Castle Point, Van Putten built a house. In series of Indian and Dutch raids and reprisals, Van Putten was killed and his buildings destroyed, deteriorating relations with the Lenape, its isolation as an island, or relatively long distance from New Amsterdam may have discouraged more settlement. In 1664, the English took possession of New Amsterdam with little or no resistance, english-speaking settlers interspersed with the Dutch, but it remained scarcely populated and agrarian. At the end of the Revolutionary War, Bayards property was confiscated by the Revolutionary Government of New Jersey, in 1784, the land described as William Bayards farm at Hoebuck was bought at auction by Colonel John Stevens for £18,360. In the early 19th century, Colonel John Stevens developed the waterfront as a resort for Manhattanites, on October 11,1811, Stevens ship the Juliana, began to operate as a ferry between Manhattan and Hoboken, making it the worlds first commercial steam ferry. In 1825, he designed and built a locomotive capable of hauling several passenger cars at his estate. Sybils Cave, a cave with a spring, was opened in 1832
8.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
9.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
10.
Annapolis, Maryland
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Annapolis is the capital of the U. S. state of Maryland, as well as the county seat of Anne Arundel County. Its population was measured at 38,394 by the 2010 census, the city served as the seat of the Continental Congress in 1783–84 and was the site of the 1786 Annapolis Convention and the Annapolis Peace Conference, held in 2007. Annapolis is the home of St. Johns College as well as the United States Naval Academy, a settlement in the Province of Maryland named Providence was founded on the north shore of the Severn River in 1649 by Puritan exiles from Virginia led by Governor William Stone. The settlers later moved to a harbor on the south shore. The settlement on the shore was initially named Town at Proctors, then Town at the Severn. In 1654, after the Third English Civil War, Parliamentary forces assumed control of Maryland, per orders from Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore, Stone returned the following spring at the head of a Cavalier force. On March 25,1655, in what is known as the Battle of the Severn, Stone was defeated, taken prisoner, Fendall governed Maryland during the latter half of the Commonwealth. In 1660, he was replaced by Phillip Calvert as fifth/sixth Governor of Maryland), Annapolis was incorporated as a city in 1708. Water trades such as oyster-packing, boatbuilding and sailmaking became the chief industries. Annapolis is home to a number of recreational boats that have largely replaced the seafood industry in the city. Dr. Alexander Hamilton was a Scottish-born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis, Annapolis became the temporary capital of the United States after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. For the 1783 Congress, the Governor of Maryland commissioned John Shaw, the flag is slightly different from other designs of the time. The blue field extends over the height of the hoist. Shaw created two versions of the flag, one started with a red stripe and another that started with a white one. In 1786, delegates from all states of the Union were invited to meet in Annapolis to consider measures for the regulation of commerce. Delegates from only five states—New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, New Jersey, the Philadelphia convention drafted and approved the Constitution of the United States, which is still in force. During this period, a prisoner of war camp, Camp Parole, was set up in Annapolis. As the war continued, the camp expanded to a location just west of the city
11.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
12.
Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway
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The Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway was a United States-based railroad incorporated in 1905. It was a joint venture by the Great Northern Railway and the Northern Pacific Railway to build a railroad along the bank of the Columbia River. Remnants of the line are operated by BNSF Railway. The railroad was chartered in 1905 by James J. H. Harrimans Union Pacific, construction began in 1906 under the name Portland & Seattle Railway, proceeding eastward from Vancouver, Washington. 1906 also saw the start of construction of the line between Vancouver and Portland, including work on three new bridges, crossing the Columbia River, the Oregon Slough and the Willamette River. The northernmost of these was the first bridge of any kind to be built across the lower Columbia River, despite legal challenges from Harriman, within a year the line had been built as far as Pasco, Washington along the Columbia River, where it connected with NP. The first section to open was from Pasco west to Cliffs, operation was extended west to Lyle, another 145 miles, on January 15,1908, as construction continued on the 221-mile section from there to Vancouver. In January 1908 Spokane was added to the name, making it the Spokane. SP&S freight and passenger service to Portland was inaugurated in November 1908, by 1909 the railroad had completed construction of its line up to Spokane along the Snake River. In 1910 SP&S gained control of the Oregon Electric interurban railway, under the control of the SP&S the railroad was extended southward to Eugene, Oregon by 1912. SP&S also operated a subsidiary railroad in western Oregon, the Oregon Traction Company. A third route on which the SP&S operated extended southward from Wishram, Washington to Bend, Oregon was the Oregon Trunk Railroad. In the end, the railroad opened using mostly the track of the Oregon Trunk, with a portion of the Oregon & Washington Railway & Navigation Company track. During World War II the SP&S carried war materials to the Pacific Theatre, new industries located along the Columbia River, new industries served by the SP&S included aluminum plants, sawmills, chemical factories and grain elevators. In 1954 an SP&S train derailed after hitting a rockslide on the route to Bend, part of the train landed in the Deschutes River, including a boxcar, which landed in a rapid that was later named Boxcar Rapids after the incident, which killed all crew members. The SP&Ss passenger operations mostly involved hosting connections with trains, such as the Empire Builder and North Coast Limited. Oriental Limited, Mainstreeter, and Western Star connected with, however, some of these SP&S trains were named. The Inland Empire Express and North Bank Limited provided daily, through service between Portland and Spokane, the Columbia River Express operated between Portland and Pasco, connecting at Pasco with Northern Pacific #5/#6 for service to/from Spokane
13.
Chicago "L"
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The Chicago L is the rapid transit system serving the city of Chicago and some of its surrounding suburbs in the U. S. state of Illinois. It is operated by the Chicago Transit Authority, Chicagos L provides 24-hour service on some portions of its network, being one of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to do so. The oldest sections of the Chicago L started operations in 1892, making it the second oldest rapid transit system in the Americas, the L has been credited with fostering the growth of Chicagos dense city core that is one of the citys distinguishing features. The L consists of eight rapid transit lines laid out in a spoke–hub distribution paradigm focusing transit towards the Loop. Although the L gained its name because large parts of the system are elevated, portions of the network are also in subway tunnels, at grade level, or open cut. In 2014, the L had an average of 752,734 passenger boardings each weekday,486,267 each Saturday, over the next year service was extended to 63rd Street and Stony Island Avenue, then the Transportation Building of the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Jackson Park. In 1893, trains running on the Lake Street Elevated Railroad and in 1895 on the Metropolitan West Side Elevated, which had lines to Douglas Park, Garfield Park, Humboldt Park. Two years later the South Side L introduced multiple-unit control, in which the operator can control all the cars in a train. Electrification and MU control remain standard features of most of the rapid transit systems. A drawback of early L service was none of the lines entered the central business district. The Union Loop opened in 1897 and greatly increased the rapid transit systems convenience, insull instituted many improvements, including free transfers and through routing, although he did not formally combine the original firms into the Chicago Rapid Transit Company until 1924. The construction of the Subway created the necessity to tunnel under the Chicago River, the State Street Subway opened on October 17,1943, the Dearborn Subway, on which work had been suspended during World War II, opened on February 25,1951. The subways were constructed with a purpose of serving as bomb shelters. The subways bypassed a number of curves and circuitous routings on the original elevated lines. In 1947, the Chicago Transit Authority acquired the assets of the Chicago Rapid Transit Company and the Chicago Surface Lines, operator of the citys streetcars. Over the next few years CTA modernized the L, replacing wooden cars with new ones and closing lightly used branch lines and stations. Later, after assuming control of the L, the CTA introduced a service known as the A/B skip-stop service. Under this service, trains were designated as either A or B trains, a trains would only stop at A or AB stations, and B trains would only stop at B or AB stations
14.
Stock Yards branch (CTA)
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The Stock Yards branch was a rapid transit line which was part of the Chicago L system from 1908 to 1957. The branch served the Union Stock Yards and the Canaryville neighborhood of Chicago and it opened on April 8,1908, and closed on October 6,1957. The Stock Yards branch was a 2. 9-mile elevated line which served eight stations, the branch began at the Indiana station, which was a transfer point for the South Side Elevated and Kenwood branch. The freight line began service in 1882. Passenger service along the line from the Stock Yards to Kenwood continued until 1904, in 1903, the Chicago City Council passed a measure requiring the 40th Street line be elevated as part of a larger effort to remove grade crossings from Chicago railroads. The Stock Yards L branch opened on April 8,1908, as the Union Stock Yards declined after World War II, so did ridership on the line. The Wallace station closed on May 3,1952, and all service on the branch and the remaining stations closed on October 6,1957
15.
Union Stock Yards
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The Union Stock Yard & Transit Co. or The Yards, was the meatpacking district in Chicago for more than a century, starting in 1865. The district was operated by a group of companies that acquired swampland. By the 1890s, the money behind the Union Stockyards was Vanderbilt money. The Union Stockyards operated in the New City community area for 106 years, helping Chicago become known as hog butcher for the world, the stockyards became the focal point of the rise of some of the earliest international companies. These companies refined novel industrial innovations and influenced financial markets, both the rise and fall of the district owe their fortunes to the evolution of transportation services and technology in America. The stockyards have become an part of the popular culture of Chicagos history. From the Civil War until the 1920s and peaking in 1924, construction began in June 1865 with an opening on Christmas Day in 1865. The Yards closed at midnight on Friday, July 30,1971, the Union Stock Yard Gate was designated a Chicago Landmark on February 24,1972, and a National Historic Landmark on May 29,1981. Before construction of the various private stockyards, tavern owners provided pastures, with the spreading service of railroads, several small stockyards were created in and around the City of Chicago. In 1848, a called the Bulls Head Market was opened to the public. The Bulls Head Stock Yards were located at Madison Street and Ogden Avenue, in the years that followed, several small stockyards were scattered throughout the city. Between 1852 and 1865, five railroads were constructed to Chicago, the stockyards that sprang up were usually built along various rail lines of these new railroad companies. Some railroads built their own stockyards in Chicago, the Illinois Central and the Michigan Central railroads combined to build the largest set of pens on the lake shore east of Cottage Grove Avenue from 29th Street to 35th Street. In 1878, the New York Central Railroad managed to buy a controlling interest in the Michigan Central Railroad, in this way, Cornelius Vanderbilt, owner of the New York Central Railroad, got his start in the stockyard business in Chicago. The United States government purchased a great deal of beef and pork to feed the Union troops fighting the Civil War, with an influx of butchers and small meat packing concerns, the number of businesses greatly increased to process the flood of livestock being shipped to the Chicago stockyards. The goal was to butcher and process the livestock locally rather than transferring it to northern cities for butchering and processing. Keeping up with the number of animals arriving each day proved impossible until a new wave of consolidation and modernization altered the meatpacking business in the post-Civil War era. The Union Stock Yards, designed to consolidate operations, was built in 1864 on swampland south of the city, the stockyards were connected to the citys main rail lines by 15 miles of track
16.
Sunshine rail disaster
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The Sunshine rail disaster occurred on 20 April 1908 at the junction at Sunshine railway station when a Melbourne-bound train from Bendigo collided with the rear of a train from Ballarat. 44 people were killed and over 400 injured, almost all of them from the Ballarat train, a temporary mortuary was set up at Melbournes Spencer Street Station to deal with the dead and wounded, who were transported from Sunshine by special relief trains. The disaster is Victorias worst railway accident in terms of deaths, at 6,30 pm and 7,15 pm on 20 April, two heavily loaded passenger trains left the regional cities of Ballarat and Bendigo respectively. 20 April was an Easter Monday and therefore the end of a weekend in Victoria. Fine weather had encouraged large numbers of people to leave Melbourne by train on the Saturday, as a result, both trains were crowded, and the Ballarat train had been extended beyond its normal length. The Ballarat train was drawn by two locomotives – AA534 and Old A202, and consisted of a post van, guards van and 11 passenger carriages. The Bendigo train was drawn by AA564 and AA544, and consisted of a post van, horse box,6 passenger carriages and a guards van. The Ballarat train reached Sunshine at 10,47 pm,43 minutes behind schedule, the driver allowed passengers at the front of the train to disembark, then moved the train forward so the rear carriages were at the platform. The Ballarat and Bendigo lines were controlled by absolute block signalling from the Sunshine signalbox. At Sydenham, the signalbox on the Bendigo line, Milburn was given a line clear signal, because the Sunshine signaller had indicated the line was clear up to. The distant signal,970 yards from the point of impact, Milburn stated the following day that when he sighted the distant signal set to danger, he applied the brakes, but they did not have any effect. He subsequently set the locomotive in reverse and applied as much power as possible in an attempt to slow the train, as the Ballarat train began to move away from Sunshine, it was struck by the Bendigo train. The impact destroyed the van and four rearmost carriages of the Ballarat train. Debris from the collision was thrown across both tracks and platforms of the station, immediately after the crash, lighting gas escaping from the damaged carriages caused a fire, which was extinguished by bystanders and the volunteer Sunshine fire brigade. The fire delayed attempts to rescue injured passengers trapped inside the train, rescue efforts were further hampered by the lack of available equipment such as axes or stretchers, which had to be sourced from areas surrounding the station. Uninjured occupants of the two trains and railway officials began to extricate others from the immediately after the crash. In addition, a number of residents who had seen or heard the accident ran to the station to assist with the rescue efforts. Immediately after news of the crash reached Melbourne, railway officials began organising a relief train to carry supplies and rescue workers, as well as 4 doctors, to the scene of the crash
17.
St. Clair Tunnel
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The St. Clair Tunnel is the name for two separate rail tunnels which were built under the St. Clair River between Sarnia, Ontario and Port Huron, Michigan. It was the first full-size subaqueous tunnel built in North America and it is a National Historic Landmark of the United States, and has been designated a civil engineering landmark by both US and Canadian engineering bodies. The St. Clair Tunnel Company opened the first tunnel in 1891, the company was a subsidiary of the Grand Trunk Railway, which used the new route to connect with its subsidiary Chicago and Grand Trunk Railway, predecessor to the Grand Trunk Western Railroad. Before the tunnels construction, Grand Trunk was forced to use time-consuming rail ferries to transfer cargo, the tunnel was an engineering marvel in its day and designed by Joseph Hobson. The development of techniques were achieved for excavating in a compressed air environment. The Beach tunnelling shield, designed by Alfred Ely Beach, was used to assist workmen in removing material from the route of the tunnel, freight trains used the tunnel initially with the first passenger trains using it in 1892. The tunnel measured 6,025 feet from portal to portal, the actual width of the St. Clair River at this crossing is only 2,290 feet. The tube had a diameter of 19 feet 10 inches and hosted a single standard gauge track and it was built at a cost of $2.7 million. The first use of electric locomotives through the tunnel in regular service occurred on May 17,1908, the locomotives were built by Baldwin-Westinghouse. In 1923, the GTR was nationalized by Canadas federal government, CN also assumed control of Grand Trunk Western as a subsidiary and the tunnel company and continued operations much as before. The electric-powered locomotives were retired in 1958 and scrapped in 1959 after CN retired and scrapped its last steam-powered locomotives on trains passing through the tunnel, new diesel-powered locomotives did not cause the same problems with air quality in this relatively short tunnel. After the Second World War, railways in North America started to see the dimensions of freight cars increase, the tunnel was designated a Civil Engineering Landmark by both the Canadian and the Societies of Civil Engineers in 1991. The tunnel was declared a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1993, by the early 1990s, CN had commissioned engineering studies for a replacement tunnel to be built adjacent to the existing St. Clair River tunnel. In 1992, new CN president Paul Tellier foresaw that CN would increase its traffic in the Toronto–Chicago corridor, Free Trade Agreement was implemented in 1989 and discussions for a North American Free Trade Agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico discussions were underway at that time. It was only logical that import/export traffic on CNs corridor would increase dramatically, in 1993 CN began construction of the newer and larger tunnel. It started on the Canadian side and dug its way to the U. S, the tunnel opened later in 1994 whereupon freight and passenger trains stopped using the adjacent original tunnel, whose bore was sealed. The new tunnel was dedicated on May 5,1995 and measures 6,129 feet from portal to portal with a diameter of 27 feet 6 inches with a single standard gauge track. It could accommodate all freight cars currently in service in North America, thus the rail ferries were also retired in 1994 at the time of the tunnels completion, a sign now hangs over each tunnel portal with this name
18.
St. Clair River
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The river is a significant component in the Great Lakes Waterway, with shipping channels permitting cargo vessels to travel between the upper and lower Great Lakes. The river, which consider a strait, flows in a southerly direction. It branches into several channels near its mouth at Lake St. Clair, the river is 40.5 miles long and drops 5 feet in elevation from Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair. The flow rate averages around 182,000 cubic feet per second, and this takes into account the combined drainage areas of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. In the 18th century, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois travelled on the river to trade with Native Americans and transport furs in canoes to major posts of French, European demand for American furs, especially beaver, was high until the 1830s. Ships built at Marine City, Michigan, during the mid-19th century carried immigrants up the river on their way to new homes in the American West, lumber harvested on The Thumb of Michigan was shipped downriver as log rafts to Detroit. In the early 20th century, lake steamers carried passengers and traveled among the towns along the St. Clair and Detroit rivers. During the 20th century, freighters traveled throughout the Great Lakes transporting commodities such as ore from the Mesabi Range, copper. Iron was taken to Ashtabula, Ohio and other cities for processing and steel manufacture. The St. Clair River and its Lambton County tributaries in Ontario contributes 103,210 acres to the watershed, stag Island lies between Corunna, Ontario and Marysville, Michigan. Fawn Island is near Port Lambton, Ontario and Marine City, Walpole, Seaway, Bassett, Squirrel, Pottowatamie, St. Anne, Dickinson, Russell and Harsens islands are located where the St. Clair River flows into Lake St. Clair near Algonac, Michigan. These islands are part of the St. Clair Flats, the major river delta in the Great Lakes. Six of the islands in this delta are unceded territory that are part of the Walpole Island First Nations, whose members include Ojibwe, Potowatomi and they call this delta area Bkejwanong, meaning where the waters divide. Most of the watershed away from the river in Ontario and Michigan is used for agriculture, there were numerous sugar beet farms in the flatlands, and an annual beet market was held in Marine City, Michigan, for years at harvest time. Many of the 19th-century English immigrants to this came from Lincolnshire, England. A few forest and wetland areas have survived, although their area has declined significantly since European settlement, clearing, much of the shoreline on both sides of the St. Clair River is urbanized and heavily industrialized. Intensive development has occurred in and near the adjacent cities of Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario, the heaviest concentration of industry, including a large petrochemical complex, lies along the Ontario shore south of Sarnia. Several communities along the St. Clair rely on the river as their source of drinking water
19.
Sarnia
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Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario, Canada, and had a 2011 population of 72,366. It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County, Clair River on 23 August 1679. Located in the harbour, the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake freighters and oceangoing ships carrying cargoes of grain. The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley, while in 2011, the city had the highest level of particulates air pollution of any Canadian city, it has since dropped down to 30th. About 60 percent of the matter, however, comes from the neighboring United States. In the winter, Sarnia occasionally experiences lake-effect snow from Arctic air blowing across the waters of Lake Huron. Culturally, Sarnia is a part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario. The citys International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011, Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy. Sarnia Bayfest, which used to be the largest event in Sarnia annually, was a music festival that took place during the summer. In 2013, organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but are taking a hiatus while planning for the future. The name Sarnia is Latin for Guernsey, which is a British Channel Island, in 1829 Sir John Colborne, a former governor of Guernsey, was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. In this capacity, he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had laid out on the shores of Lake Huron. One of these, named The Rapids, consisted then of 44 taxpayers, nine houses, four log houses. The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative, the English settlers favoured the name Buenos Aires and the Scottish New Glasgow. Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia, on 4 January 1836, the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16, and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore. Sarnia adopted the nickname The Imperial City on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canadas Governor General, the Duke of Connaught, and his daughter Princess Patricia. First Nations peoples have lived, hunted, and traveled across the area for at least 10,000 years, as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island. These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of Ojibwa, Odawa, and Potowatami clans and these clans came together through common links in both language and culture, developing a self-sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members
20.
Port Huron, Michigan
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Port Huron is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan and the county seat of St. Clair County. The population was 30,184 at the 2010 census, the city is adjacent to Port Huron Township but is administratively autonomous. Located along the St. Clair River, it is connected to Point Edward, the city lies at the southern end of Lake Huron and is the easternmost point on land in Michigan. Port Huron is home to two mills, Mueller Brass, and many businesses related to tourism and the automotive industry. The city features a downtown area, boardwalk, marina, museum, lighthouse. In 1814 following the War of 1812, the United States established Fort Gratiot at the base of Lake Huron, French colonists had a temporary trading post and fort at this site in the 17th century, but this developed as the first settled European-American population in the area. Until 1836, an Ojibwa reservation occupied land in part of the area of Port Huron. They were removed to west of the Mississippi in Wisconsin and Minnesota, in 1857, Port Huron became incorporated. Its population grew rapidly after the 1850s due a high rate of immigration attracted by the successful shipbuilding, in 1859 the city had a total of 4.031 residents,1855 were of foreign birth or their children. By 1870, Port Hurons population exceeded that of surrounding villages, in 1871, the State Supreme Court designated Port Huron as the county seat. On October 8,1871, the city, as well as places north in Sanilac and Huron counties, a series of other fires leveled Holland and Manistee, Michigan, as well as Peshtigo, Wisconsin and Chicago on the same day. The Thumb Fire that occurred a decade later, also engulfed Port Huron, in 1895 the village of Fort Gratiot, in the vicinity of the former Fort Gratiot, was annexed by the city of Port Huron. The following historic sites have been recognized by the State of Michigan through its historic marker program, the fort was built in 1686 by the French explorer Duluth. This fort was the second European settlement in lower Michigan and this post guarded the upper end of the St. Clair River, the vital waterway joining Lake Erie and Lake Huron. Intended by the French to bar English traders from the upper lakes, in 1688 the French abandoned this fort. The site was incorporated into Fort Gratiot in 1814, a park has been established at the former site of the fort. The Fort Gratiot Lighthouse was built in 1829 to replace a tower destroyed by a storm, in the 1860s workers extended the tower to its present height of 84 feet. The light, automated in 1933, continues to guide shipping on Lake Huron into the narrow and it was the first lighthouse established in the State of Michigan
21.
Electric locomotive
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An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board energy storage such as a battery or fuel cell. Electricity is used to smoke and take advantage of the high efficiency of electric motors. One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives, electrification results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs and lower energy costs. Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive engines, the power can come from clean or renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power and wind turbines. Electric locomotives are quiet compared to locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means electric locomotives are easier on the track, Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. They are used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the U. S. Shinkansen in Japan, China Railway High-speed in China, Electric locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently high traffic volumes, or in areas with advanced rail networks. Electric locomotives benefit from the efficiency of electric motors, often above 90%. Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows energy to be recovered during braking to put power back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems provide for regenerative braking. The chief disadvantage of electrification is the cost for infrastructure, overhead lines or third rail, substations, public policy in the U. S. interferes with electrification, higher property taxes are imposed on privately owned rail facilities if they are electrified. In Europe and elsewhere, railway networks are considered part of the transport infrastructure, just like roads, highways and waterways. Operators of the rolling stock pay fees according to rail use and this makes possible the large investments required for the technically and, in the long-term, also economically advantageous electrification. Because railroad infrastructure is owned in the U. S. railroads are unwilling to make the necessary investments for electrification. The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen and it was powered by galvanic cells. Davidson later built a locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a cylinder on each axle. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour for a distance of one and it was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use
22.
Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
23.
Railway electrification system
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A railway electrification system supplies electric power to railway trains and trams without an on-board prime mover or local fuel supply. Electrification has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure, selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas, some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation, Electric railways use electric locomotives to haul passengers or freight in separate cars or electric multiple units, passenger cars with their own motors. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network, some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines but most purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own lines, switches and transformers. Power is supplied to moving trains with a continuous conductor running along the track usually takes one of two forms. The first is a line or catenary wire suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings. Locomotives or multiple units pick up power from the wire with pantographs on their roofs that press a conductive strip against it with a spring or air pressure. Examples are described later in this article, the second is a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding pickup shoe. Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the rails as the return conductor. In comparison to the alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions. Electric locomotives are usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and they have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service, the limited clearances available under catenaries may preclude efficient double-stack container service. Possible lethal electric current due to risk of contact with high-voltage contact wires, overhead wires are safer than third rails, but they are often considered unsightly. These are independent of the system used, so that. The permissible range of voltages allowed for the voltages is as stated in standards BS EN50163. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation, railways must operate at variable speeds. Until the mid 1980s this was only practical with the brush-type DC motor, since such conversion was not well developed in the late 19th century and early 20th century, most early electrified railways used DC and many still do, particularly rapid transit and trams
24.
Colorado and Southern Railway
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The railway began as the consolidation of bankrupt railroads on 1898. The Colorado Central Railroad and Cheyenne and Northern Railway were brought together to form the Union Pacific, Denver, in 1908 the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad bought control of the C&S. It would later merge into the Burlington Northern Railroad in 1981, at the end of 1970 it operated 692 miles of road on 1116 miles of track, that year it reported 1365 million ton-miles of revenue freight. In 1980 route-miles had dropped to 678 but ton-miles had ballooned to 7230 million, C&S was also the parent company of the Fort Worth and Denver Railway, which ran from a connection at Texline south and east into Texas. The FW&D was established as a company because Texas law required that railroads operating within its borders must be incorporated within that state. The Colorado and Southern narrow gauge lines were formed in 1898 from the Colorado Central, the Colorado and Southern narrow never owned a new engine, all motive power coming from the former companies. The Colorado and Southern narrow gauge was slowly abandoned piece by piece for 33 years between 1910 and 1943, the first line to close was part of the Gunnison Line between Hancock and Quartz. This included Alpine Tunnel, rail was not removed until the 1940s though, the isolated track between Quartz and Gunnison and Gunnison to Baldwin was leased and later sold to the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad. Quartz to Gunnison survived until 1936 and the Baldwin Branch lasted until 1954, the next line to be ripped up was between Garos and Buena Vista, Colorado. This left another isolated line between Buena Vista and Hancock which was abandoned four years later, also in 1926 the Morrison Branch was removed. In 1931 part of the Blackhawk branch between Central City, Colorado and Blackhawk, Colorado was removed, times were tough during the Great depression and by the end the narrow gauge was worn out. The next line to fall was between Silver Plume and Idaho Springs, Colorado in 1939 and this included the famous Georgetown Loop. In 1941 the last of the Clear Creek lines began being torn up in May of that year between Golden, Colorado and Idaho Springs, the dual gauge third rail that allowed narrow gauge trains to run between Denver and Golden was also removed. The segment between Denver and Golden still exists today to serve the Coors Brewery, most of the track was removed from Waterton to Chatfield, Colorado in 1942 and the rest was converted to standard gauge, ending all narrow gauge service out of Denver. The last narrow gauge operation between Leadville and the Climax mines was converted to standard gauge due to traffic from World War II. The last Colorado and Southern narrow gauge train, pulled by engine 76, the next day standard gauge trains began hauling the load. The C&S narrow gauge was now part of history, not much of the narrow gauge survives today. Two roundhouses survive in Como, Colorado and Leadville, Colorado, rolling stock has been scattered across the US
25.
Harlem River
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The Harlem River is an 8-mile tidal strait flowing between the Hudson River and the East River and separating the island of Manhattan from the Bronx on the New York mainland. The northern stretch, also called the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, has significantly altered for navigation purposes. Originally it curved round the north of Marble Hill, but in 1895 the Harlem River Ship Canal was dug between Manhattan and Marble Hill, and in 1914 the original course was filled in. The Harlem River forms a part of the Hudson estuary system, approximately 18,000 years ago the Laurentide ice sheet receded northward across the continent leaving behind a large escarpment creating the modern day Hudson River. The Harlem River is therefore affected by the actions of the ocean, the ebb and flow of the tides causes the Harlem River’s currents to fluctuate dramatically throughout the day. The effects of the tides have influenced the spread of silts, pollutants, Sherman Creek is a small inlet off the Harlem River at 10th Avenue and Dyckman Street in Inwood. Named for a family settled there in 1807, it was once the site of a number of racing shell clubs boathouses along scullers row. The last, belonging to Fordham University, was lost to suspected arson in 1978, as a name for the several blocks around it, Sherman Creek is something of a historical relic, although many regard it as a part of Washington Heights. The Manhattan Institute held a forum, Saving Sherman Creek, in January 2006 at the Harvard Club of New York, the Daily News has written about the project. There has been an initiative among politicians over the last few years to re-zone this area for residential and commercial use, currently, Con Ed and the City of New York own some of the property in this area. The channel was difficult to navigate, resulting in the construction of the Harlem River Ship Canal in 1895 and this turned the watercourse west approximately where 222nd Street would be in the Bronx, which had the effect of isolating Marble Hill. Almost two decades later, the original creekbed was filled in, physically attaching Marble Hill to the Bronx, another channel was dug in 1937 to the west of the 1895 realignment straightening the Spuyten Duyvil towards the Hudson. It pared off a protruding tip of the Bronx, which was absorbed into Manhattans Inwood Hill Park, home today to its Nature Center. It was in this era that the first crossing on the Harlem was built, at the Old Albany Road in 1693, beginning a history of bridge construction. This came to be called King’s Bridge, where a toll was assessed for access to the island, the shallow waters of the creek along this stretch were thus spanned. The issue of navigability became a topic of early in the river’s history. In 1813, the Macomb family built a dam to power a mill, however it created a millpond and impeded the river’s flow and open navigation. While this condition was tolerated for years, a vessel manned by principal landholders and politicians, including Gouverneur and Lewis Morris
26.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
27.
Midland Railway
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The Midland Railway was a railway company in the United Kingdom from 1844 to 1922, when it became part of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. It had a network of lines managed from its headquarters in Derby. It became the third-largest railway undertaking in the British Isles, the Midland Railway Consolidation Act was passed in 1844 authorising the merger of the Midland Counties Railway, the North Midland Railway, and the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway. These met at the Tri-Junct station at Derby, where the MR established its locomotive and later its carriage, leading it were George Hudson from the North Midland, dynamic but unscrupulous, and John Ellis from the Midland Counties, a careful businessman of impeccable integrity. James Allport from the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway found a place elsewhere in Hudsons empire with the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway, though he later returned. Almost immediately it took over the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway and the Erewash Valley Line in 1845, passengers from Sheffield continued to use Rotherham Masborough until a direct route was completed in 1870. Meanwhile, it extended its influence in the Leicestershire coalfields, by buying the Leicester and Swannington Railway in 1846, after the merger, London trains were carried on the shorter Midland Counties route. The former Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway was left with the traffic to Birmingham and Bristol, the line south was the Birmingham and Bristol Railway, which reached Curzon Street via Camp Hill. These two lines had been formed by the merger of the standard gauge Birmingham and Gloucester Railway and they met at Gloucester via a short loop of the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway. In the event all that was necessary was for the later LNWR to share Birmingham New Street with the Midland when it was opened in 1854, the MR controlled all the traffic to the North East and Scotland from London. The LNWR was progressing slowly through the Lake District, and there was pressure for a line from London to York. Permission had been gained for the Northern and Eastern Railway to run through Peterborough and Lincoln, two obvious extensions of the Midland Counties line were from Nottingham to Lincoln and from Leicester to Peterborough. They were approved while the bill for the line was still before Parliament, forming the present day Lincoln Branch. The Leeds and Bradford Railway had been approved in 1844, by 1850 it was losing money but a number of railways offered to buy it. In spite of the objections of Hudson, for the MR and others, the London and York Railway led by Edmund Denison persisted, after Hudsons departure, the MR was in financial difficulties. Opposition to the Great Northern bill had cost a fortune, a deal of maintenance was overdue. Added to this, the Great Northern was taking much of the traffic from the North East, in 1851 the Ambergate, Nottingham, Boston and Eastern Junction Railway completed its line from Grantham as far as Colwick, from where a branch led to the MR Nottingham station. The Great Northern Railway by then passed through Grantham and both railway companies paid court to the fledgling line, meanwhile, Nottingham had woken up to its branch line status and was keen to expand
28.
Lancaster, Lancashire
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Lancaster /ˈlæŋkəstər/, or /ˈlæŋˌkæstər/ is a city and the county town of Lancashire, England. It is situated on the River Lune and has a population of 45,952, long existing as a commercial, cultural and educational centre, Lancaster is the settlement that gives Lancashire its name. Lancaster was granted city status in 1937 for its association with the crown. With its history based on its port and canal, Lancaster is an ancient settlement, dominated by Lancaster Castle, Lancaster Priory Church and it is also home to the campus-based Lancaster University and a campus of the University of Cumbria. The coin evidence also suggests that the fort was not continuously inhabited in early years. The fort was rebuilt in stone around 102 AD, the fort underwent a few more extensions, and at its largest area it was 9–10 acres. The evidence suggests that the fort remained active into the early 5th century, little is known about Lancaster between the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century and the Norman Conquest in the late 11th century. Despite a lack of documentation from this period, it is likely that Lancaster was still inhabited, Lancaster was on the fringes of the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, and over time control may have changed from one to the other. Archaeological evidence suggests there was a monastery on or near the site of todays Lancaster Priory by the 700s or 800s. For example, an Anglo-Saxon runic cross found at the Priory in 1807, Lancaster was probably one of the numerous monasteries founded under Wilfrid. The founding charter of the Priory, dated 1094, is the first known document which is specific to Lancaster, by this time William had given Lancaster and its surrounding region to Roger de Poitou. This document also suggests that the monastery had been refounded as a church at some point prior to 1066. Lancaster became a borough in 1193 under King Richard I and its first charter, dated 12 June 1193, was from John, Count of Mortain, who later became King of England. Lancaster Castle, partly built in the 13th century and enlarged by Elizabeth I, Lancaster Castle is well known as the site of the Pendle witch trials in 1612. It was said that the court based in the castle sentenced more people to be hanged than any other in the country outside London, earning Lancaster the nickname, Lancaster also figured prominently in the suppression of Catholicism during the reformation with the execution of at least eleven Catholic priests. A memorial to the Lancaster Martyrs is located close to the city centre, the traditional emblem for the House of Lancaster is a red rose, the red rose of Lancaster, similar to that of the House of York, which is a white rose. These names derive from the emblems of the Royal Duchies of Lancaster and this erupted into a civil war over rival claims to the throne during the Wars of the Roses. In more recent times, the term Wars of the Roses has been applied to rivalry in sports teams representing Lancashire and Yorkshire, not just the cities of Lancaster and York
29.
Morecambe
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Morecambe /ˈmɔːkəm/ is a town on Morecambe Bay in Lancashire, England, which had a population of 34,768 at the 2011 Census. The first use of the name Morecambe in modern times was by Whitaker in his History of Manchester and it next appears four years later in Antiquities of Furness where the bay is described as the Bay of Morecambe. That name is derived from the Roman name shown on maps prepared for them by Claudius Ptolemœus from his original Greek maps, at this distance in time it is impossible to say if the name was originally derived from an earlier language or from Greek. The Latin version describes the fourth inlet north from Wales on the west coast of England as Moriancabris Æsturis, the name next crops up as early as March 1862 on a steam locomotive built for the South Durham and Lancashire Union Railway. It was not until 1889 that the legislation was passed to officially name the area as Morecambe, comprising the hamlets of Poulton, Bare. In 1894 the Urban District Council was formed, thus freeing Morecambe completely from its governance by the Borough of Lancaster until 1974 when Lancaster again took charge. Before the creation of Morecambe, Poulton acquired two suffixes, le Sands and briefly on Sands shown on at least one map, the reason for these additions stems from the dearth of names of townships in earlier times with the same name recurring over again. In the days before free movement of people, this was not so important, as travel became easier through first the turnpikes and later the railways, it became necessary to differentiate between the various towns with the same name, hence the additions. On 3 August 1928 the name changed again when the Corporation of Morecambe amalgamated with Heysham Urban District Council to form the borough of Morecambe and Heysham. In 1846, the Morecambe Harbour and Railway Company was formed to build a harbour on Morecambe Bay, close to the village of Poulton-le-Sands. The settlement expanded to absorb Poulton and the villages of Bare, the settlement started to be referred to as Morecambe, possibly after the harbour and railway. In 1889 the new name was officially adopted, Morecambe was a thriving seaside resort in the mid-20th century. While the resort of Blackpool attracted holiday-makers predominantly from the Lancashire mill towns, Morecambe had more visitors from Yorkshire, mill workers from Bradford and further afield in West Yorkshire would holiday at Morecambe, with some retiring there. This gave Morecambe the nickname Bradford On Sea, between 1956 and 1989 it was the home of the Miss Great Britain beauty contest. Morecambe suffered a decline after a series of incidents that damaged tourism. Two piers were lost, West End Pier was partly washed away in a storm in November 1977, in 1994, The World of Crinkley Bottom attraction in Happy Mount Park closed only thirteen weeks after opening. The ensuing Blobbygate scandal led to a battle between Lancaster City Council and TV star Noel Edmonds. The closures of Bubbles, Morecambes swimming pool, and the known as Frontierland soon followed
30.
Heysham
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Heysham is a large coastal village near Lancaster, Lancashire, England, overlooking Morecambe Bay. It is a port, with services to the Isle of Man and Ireland. Together they have a population of 16,136, or 17,016, although these extend into areas beyond the village of Heysham itself, of historical interest are the stone graves in the ruins of the ancient St. Patricks Chapel, close to St Peters Church. They are thought to date from the 11th century, and are hewn from solid rock, local legend has it that St Patrick landed here after crossing from Ireland and established the chapel. However it has established that the chapel was built around 300 years after Patricks death. These stone graves appear on the cover of the Black Sabbath CD, the grounds of St Peters Church contain many Saxon and Viking remains, and the church itself contains a Viking hogback stone. Heysham also contains one of three sites in Britain and Ireland that contain a pre-Roman labyrinth carving, the others being located at Tintagel, Cornwall and Hollywood. Wicklow, Ireland Lancaster Museum holds artefacts from the area such as stone axe, many of these artefacts and their original location suggest that this was an ancient burial ground, or barrow, the area is still known locally as The Barrows. The Barrows are the only sea-cliffs in Lancashire and contain, in a small area, woodland, open grassland, sandy beaches. Heysham Heritage Centre is housed in the barn of a Longhouse in Main Street, the building is owned by the Heritage Trust for the North West, who also own the cottage part of the longhouse,22 Main Street. The Heritage Centre is run by volunteers, most of whom belong to Heysham Heritage Association, Heysham won Britain in Bloom Gold Small Village awards in both 2005 and 2007. Heysham also had a large outdoor karting track on Heysham Head where racing legend Nigel Mansell used to race in his teenage years, Heysham is the terminus of the Stanlow-Heysham oil pipeline, and of a gas pipeline that originates in Morecambe field in the Irish Sea. Heysham Port started operation in 1904 with a service to the Isle of Man, as well as freight to Ireland and services for the eastern Irish Sea. A SeaCat service to Belfast started in 1999, some ferries connect with trains from Heysham Port railway station to Lancaster via the Morecambe Branch Line. The Bay Gateway dual carriageway opened in October 2016, connecting Heysham directly to the M6, the artist J. M. W. Turner visited Heysham in the 1790s when travelling throughout Britain. Professional footballer David Perkins was born in Heysham
31.
Volt
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The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
32.
Alternating current
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Alternating current, is an electric current which periodically reverses direction, whereas direct current flows only in one direction. A common source of DC power is a cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, the usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. These types of alternating current carry information encoded onto the AC signal and these currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in power transmission. Electrical energy is distributed as alternating current because AC voltage may be increased or decreased with a transformer, use of a higher voltage leads to significantly more efficient transmission of power. The power losses in a conductor are a product of the square of the current and this means that when transmitting a fixed power on a given wire, if the current is halved, the power loss will be four times less. Power is often transmitted at hundreds of kilovolts, and transformed to 100–240 volts for domestic use, high voltages have disadvantages, such as the increased insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in their safe handling. In a power plant, energy is generated at a convenient voltage for the design of a generator, near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down to the voltages used by equipment. Consumer voltages vary somewhat depending on the country and size of load, the voltage delivered to equipment such as lighting and motor loads is standardized, with an allowable range of voltage over which equipment is expected to operate. Standard power utilization voltages and percentage tolerance vary in the different mains power systems found in the world, high-voltage direct-current electric power transmission systems have become more viable as technology has provided efficient means of changing the voltage of DC power. HVDC systems, however, tend to be expensive and less efficient over shorter distances than transformers. Three-phase electrical generation is very common, the simplest way is to use three separate coils in the generator stator, physically offset by an angle of 120° to each other. Three current waveforms are produced that are equal in magnitude and 120° out of phase to each other, if coils are added opposite to these, they generate the same phases with reverse polarity and so can be simply wired together. In practice, higher pole orders are commonly used, for example, a 12-pole machine would have 36 coils. The advantage is that lower rotational speeds can be used to generate the same frequency, for example, a 2-pole machine running at 3600 rpm and a 12-pole machine running at 600 rpm produce the same frequency, the lower speed is preferable for larger machines. If the load on a system is balanced equally among the phases. Even in the worst-case unbalanced load, the current will not exceed the highest of the phase currents
33.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
34.
Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad
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The Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, also known as the South Shore Line, is a Class III freight railroad operating between Chicago, Illinois, and South Bend, Indiana. The railroad serves as a link between Class I railroads and local industries in northeast Illinois and northwest Indiana and it built the South Shore Line electric interurban and operated it until 1990, when it transferred it to the Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District. The railroad is owned by the Anacostia Rail Holdings Company, the South Shore began in 1901 as the Chicago and Indiana Air Line Railway, a streetcar route between East Chicago and Indiana Harbor. Reorganized as the Chicago, Lake Shore and South Bend Railway in 1904, by 1908 its route had reached South Bend, Indiana via Michigan City, the company leased the Kensington and Eastern Railroad, an Illinois Central Railroad subsidiary, to gain access to Chicago. Passenger service between South Bend and Chicago began in 1909, the Lake Shore added freight service in 1916. Samuel Insull acquired the bankrupt Lake Shore in 1925 and reorganized it as the Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, the railroad experienced two more bankruptcies, in 1933 and 1938. The post-World War II decline in traffic hurt the company, and it was bought by the Chesapeake, in 1977 the Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District began subsidizing the passenger operations on the South Shore Line. In 1984 the Venango River Corporation purchased the South Shore from the C&O. Venango declared bankruptcy in 1989, in 1990 the Anacostia and Pacific Company acquired the South Shore. The NICTD purchased the passenger assets, the South Shore acquired the Kensington and Eastern Railroad from the Illinois Central Railroad in 1996. The Surface Transportation Board classes the South Shore as a Class III railroad, the railroad operates diesel locomotives on the whole line. Via trackage rights it connects to other railroads in the Chicago area, with connections to the Port of Chicago, Proviso Yard. The railroads primary businesses are coal and steel, the coal delivered to the Michigan City and it also serves many online customers along the line. South Shore Line Middleton, William D. Insulls Super-Interurban, in Cohen, Ronald D. McShane, Stephen G. Moonlight in Duneland, The Illustrated Story of the Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad. Along the Chicago South Shore & South Bend Rail Line, Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad Official Site Anacostia Rail Holding -- Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad Webpage
35.
Michigan City, Indiana
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Michigan City is a city in LaPorte County, Indiana, United States. It is one of the two cities of the Michigan City-La Porte, Indiana Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Chicago-Naperville-Michigan City Combined Statistical Area. Located in the known to locals as Michiana, it is approximately 50 miles east of Chicago and 40 miles west of South Bend. The city had a population of 31,479 at the 2010 census, Michigan City is noted for both its proximity to the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and for bordering Lake Michigan. Due to this, Michigan City receives an amount of tourism during the summer months, especially by residents of Chicago. The lighthouse is a symbol for the city and is incorporated in the heading of Michigan Citys sole newspaper, The News Dispatch. Michigan City hosted the events at the 1987 Pan American Games. Michigan City is located at 41°42′34″N 86°53′13″W, according to the 2010 census, Michigan City has a total area of 22.855 square miles, of which 19.59 square miles is land and 3.265 square miles is water. Michigan City is also home to the stream Trail Creek which flows into Lake Michigan, as of the census of 2010, there were 31,479 people,12,136 households, and 7,147 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,606.9 inhabitants per square mile, there were 14,435 housing units at an average density of 736.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 64. 9% White,28. 1% African American,0. 4% Native American,0. 7% Asian,2. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 9% of the population. 34. 3% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 3.05. The median age in the city was 37.1 years. 23. 5% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24,27. 8% were from 25 to 44,26. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51. 4% male and 48. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 32,900 people,12,550 households, and 7,906 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,678.6 inhabitants per square mile, there were 14,221 housing units at an average density of 725.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 69. 45% White,26. 31% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 51% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 10% from other races, and 2. 36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 15% of the population,30. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
36.
South Bend, Indiana
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South Bend is a city in and the county seat of St. Joseph County, Indiana, United States, on the St. Joseph River near its southernmost bend, from which it derives its name. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total of 101,168 residents, its Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 318,586 and it is the fourth-largest city in Indiana, serving as the economic and cultural hub of Northern Indiana. The highly ranked University of Notre Dame is located just to the north in unincorporated Notre Dame, the area was originally settled in the early 19th century by fur traders and was established as a city in 1865. The St. Joseph River shaped South Bends economy through the mid-20th century, River access assisted heavy industrial development such as that of the Studebaker Corporation, the Oliver Chilled Plow Company, and other large corporations. The population of South Bend declined after 1960, when it had a population of 132,445. This was chiefly due to migration to areas as well as the demise of Studebaker and other heavy industry. Today, the largest industries in South Bend are health care, education, small business, remaining large corporations include Crowe Horwath, Honeywell, and AM General. Recently, the city population has started to grow for the first time in fifty years. The old Studebaker plant and surrounding area, now called Ignition Park, is being redeveloped as a center to attract new industry. The St. Joseph Valley was long occupied by Native Americans, one of the earliest known groups to occupy what would later become northern Indiana was the Miami tribe. Later, the Potawatomi moved into the region, utilizing the rich food, the Potawatomi occupied this region of Indiana until most of them were forcibly removed in the 1840s. The South Bend area was so popular because its portage was the shortest overland route from the St. Joseph River to the Kankakee River and this route was used for centuries, first by the Native Americans, then by French explorers, missionaries and traders. The first permanent white settlers of South Bend were fur traders who established trading posts in the area, in 1820, Pierre Frieschutz Navarre arrived, representing the American Fur Company of John Jacob Astor. He settled near what is now downtown South Bend, alexis Coquillard, another agent of the AFC, established a trading post known as the Big St. Joseph Station. In 1827, Lathrop Minor Taylor established a post for Samuel Hanna and Company, in whose records the name St. Josephs, by 1829, the town was growing, with Coquillard and Taylor emerging as leaders. They applied for a post office, Taylor was appointed postmaster, and the post office was designated as Southold, Allen County, Indiana. The following year, the name was changed to South Bend, probably to ease confusion, in 1831, South Bend was laid out as the county seat and as one of the four original townships of St. Joseph County with 128 residents. Soon after, design began on what would become the town of South Bend, the town was formally established in 1835 and rapidly grew
37.
Toronto Belt Line Railway
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The Toronto Belt Line Railway was built in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in the 1890s. It consisted of two railway lines to promote and service new suburban neighbourhoods outside of the then city limits. Both lines were laid as loops, the longer Don Loop running north of the city limits, and the shorter Humber Loop ran west of the city limits. The railway was never profitable and it ran for two years. Today, as part of a project, the Beltline Trail lies on the right-of-way of the Don Loop. The railway consisted of two separate loops both starting and ending at Union Station, the larger Don loop went east on the tracks of the Grand Trunk Railway via The Esplanade to the Don River. It then turned north following the passing the Don Valley Brick Works on its west side before journeying up a steep grade through the Moore Park Ravine. It then turned west at the edge of the Mount Pleasant Cemetery along Merton St. At Yonge Street it turned northwest travelling through Forest Hill until just north of Eglinton Avenue West, there, it turned west again before returning to Union Station via the Grand Trunk Railway line west of Caledonia Road. A complete trip around the Don Loop was approximately 27 km, a second, smaller Humber loop headed west along the northwest rail corridor of the Grand Trunk Railway through Parkdale. It turned west just north of St. Clair Avenue and then turned south at Lambton Mills and it ran south following the edge of the Humber River valley. It followed a route paralleled by the South Kingsway just west of High Park and it returned east along Lake Ontario via the tracks of the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway. A complete trip around the Humber Loop from and returning to Union Station was approximately 24 km, jackes, there was a spur line north of St. Clair Avenue to link the two loops so that Belt Line trains could operate from one loop to the other. However, according to R. L. Kennedy, such a connection was proposed, entrepreneur James David Edgar lead a group of investors to develop suburban land and build a railway to service these proposed suburban residential developments. The company would promote properties in Moore Park, Forest Hill, Fairbank and Fairbank Junction, as a result of a booming real estate market in the late 1880s, two related companies were founded. The railway was to support a suburban lifestyle, the cost of railway construction was $462,000, much higher than investors had expected. There were also lawsuits over land acquisitions and difficult negotiations with the City over access through the Don Valley, the real estate boom busted before the railway could be completed resulting in bankruptcy for the company. The Belt Line was then taken over by the Grand Trunk Railway, by 1891,90 workers were building the Don Loop east of Yonge Street, and 140 workers to the west
38.
Rayside-Balfour
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Rayside-Balfour was a town in Ontario, Canada, which existed from 1973 to 2000. It was created as part of the Regional Municipality of Sudbury, on January 1,2001, the town and the Regional Municipality were dissolved and amalgamated into the city of Greater Sudbury. The Rayside-Balfour area is now divided between Wards 3 and 4 on Greater Sudbury City Council, and is represented by councillors Gerry Montpellier, in 2006, there was interest in the deamalgamation of the former town of Rayside-Balfour from the City of Greater Sudbury. However, as any referendum on the matter would require the consent of the provincial government, however, the four census tracts corresponding to the former Rayside-Balfour had a total population of 14,557. Azilda gets its name from Azilda Bélanger, the first female pioneer of the area, the community borders the eastern shore of Whitewater Lake. In addition, it shortens the time for tourists hoping to visit Sudbury Downs. There are future plans to complete the widening of Municipal Road 35 between Azilda and Chelmsford, although the start of the construction has not yet been determined, on September 12,1906, Azilda was the site of a train wreck. Azildas telephone and postal service also includes the smaller neighbourhoods of Bélanger. Founded in 1868, Chelmsford started out as an outpost on the Canadian Pacific Railway, some say Chelmsford was named by one the Canadian Pacific Railway engineers, who was from the United Kingdom. As with many communities in Northern Ontario, logging and fur trapping were the first industries, having depleted the lumber in the early 1900s, Chelmsford turned to mining and agriculture to support the towns economy. Errington Mine and Nickel Offset mine were two of the largest mines in Chelmsford and both closed in the 1930s, in 1909, Chelmsford was separately incorporated as a town. It retained this status until 1968, when it was reamalgamated with the township of Balfour, today, Chelmsford has no major industries and is mostly a residential community. Although there are some farms producing mostly potatoes, small fruits and corn, it is mostly supported by the mining activities in the nearby communities of Onaping Falls. Postal delivery and telephone service in Chelmsford also includes the neighbourhoods of Boninville, Hull. Chelmsford is host to an annual festival, Fiddle Works. There are two schools in Azilda. All anglophone students must attend a school in Chelmsford, CVDCS motto is The Place to Be. Chelmsford is also home to a new school, École Alliance St-Joseph
39.
Thamshavn Line
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The Thamshavn Line was Norways first electric railway, running from 1908 to 1974. Today it is operated as a railway and is the worlds oldest railway running on its original alternating current electrification scheme. It was built to transport pyrites from the mines at Løkken Verk to the port at Thamshavn, there were six stations, Thamshavn, Orkanger, Bårdshaug, Fannrem, Solbusøy and Svorkmo. The tracks were extended to Løkken Verk in 1910 and it is Scandinavias only railway with a rail gauge of 1,000 mm, though the nearby Trondheim Tramway also features this gauge. It is the only railway with this combination of gauge. The total length of the railway was 25.15 kilometres, the transportation of passengers ended in 1963, but the transportation of ore continued until 1974. In 1983, parts of the railway were reopened as a heritage railway, mining at Løkken Verk had its roots back to 1633 when King Christian IV of Denmark–Norway had opened the mine. At this time all mining was a privilege of the king, later, in the 1800s, the mine was privatised and owned by Løkken Kobber og Kisværks Interessentskab. In the early 1880s Wilhelms grandson, Christian Thams returned from Switzerland, Christian Thams understood that for the mine to continue operation, there had to be built an electric water pump in the mines. He also understood that it would then be feasible to build a railway between the mine and the port at Thamshavn were the pyrites were shipped out, primarily to Germany. While Thams went abroad to get capital for the new mining company, Norwegian law required permits to operate railways. To solve this, a company, Chr. Thamss Communications Aktieselskab was established in 1898 to build the railway, by 1904 the mining company had acquired the majority of stocks in S&T and soon owned the entire company. The Orkla mining company has evolved into the Orkla Group. Land was, after conflicts, acquired or expropriated and construction was started. The construction was completed in 1908 and employed between 200 and 300 people, originally the plans were to only build the line from Thamshavn to Svorkmo while the stretch from Svorkmo to Løkken was to be operated by a cable car. But Thams soon realised that this was a mistake and decided to extend the line to Løkken and this caused some problems since he needed to get permission from the Ministry of the Interior and was not allowed to operate passenger traffic all the way to Løkken before 1910. The line between Thamshavn and Svorkmo was opened on 10 July 1908 by King Haakon VII while the last section to Løkken was opened on 15, august 1910 by Prime Minister Wollert Konow
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Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
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South Manchuria Railway
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After the Russo-Japanese War, Imperial Japan seized control of all the length of the railway south of Changchun, and renamed it as the South Manchurian Railway. The South Manchuria Railway Company, or Mantetsu for short, was a founded by the Japanese in 1906. The company was referred to as Japans East India Company in China. The last station remaining in Russian hands was at Kuanchengzi in modern-day Changchun, the northernmost Japanese-controlled station was the Changchun Railway Station. The organizing committee was headed by General Kodama Gentarō, and after his death, count Gotō Shimpei, formerly the Japanese governor of Taiwan, was appointed the first president of the company, and the headquarters was established in Tokyo before relocated to Dalian in 1907. One of the first tasks of the new company was to change the railway gauge, by the end of 1907, the company employed 9,000 Japanese and 4,000 Chinese. By 1910, those numbers had increased to 35,000 and 25,000 respectively, the railway used a significant amount of U. S. -made rails and signaling equipment, as well as some steam locomotives built by the American Locomotive Company at Dunkirk, NY. Mantetsu quickly expanded the system inherited from Russia to staggering proportions, building coal mines at Fushun and Yantai, and harbor facilities at Andong, Yingkou, at each station, Mantetsu built hotels for travelers and warehouses for goods. Japanese settlers were encouraged through the construction of schools, libraries, hospitals, the Mantetsu Research Wing was the centerpiece of Japans colonial program, and instigated agricultural research into development of soybean farming. Land under cultivation expanded 70% in 20 years, until 1925, the company also operated the Korean railway system. Company assets rose from 163 million yen in 1908 to over a billion yen in 1930, Mantetsu was by far the largest corporation in Japan, and also its most profitable, averaging rates of return from 25-45 percent per year. During the 1920s, Mantetsu provided for over a quarter of the Japanese governments tax revenues, over 75% of Mantetsus income was generated by its freight business, with the key to profitability coming from soybean exports, both to Japan proper and to Europe. Soybean production increased exponentially with increasing demand for soy oil, and for soy meal for use in fertilizer, Mantetsu was also charged with a government-like role in managing the rail transportation system after the formation of Manchukuo in 1932. By 1938, Mantetsu had 72 subsidiary companies, development projects in 25 urban areas, between 1930-1940, the Japanese population of Manchukuo rose by 800,000 making ethnic Japanese the majority in many of the towns and cities served by Mantetsu. Mantetsu prided itself on state-of-the-art urban planning, with modern systems, public parks. In 1934, Mantetsu inaugurated the Asia Express, a speed train from Dalian to the Manchukuo capital of Hsinking. Reaching a top speed of 134 km/h, the Asia Express was the fastest scheduled train in Asia at the time, in 1945, the Soviet Union invaded and overran Manchukuo. Rolling stock and movable equipment was looted and taken back to the Soviet Union, Mantetsu itself was dissolved by order of the American occupation authorities in occupied Japan
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New Zealand Railways Department
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The Department was created in 1880 and was corporatised on 1 April 1982 into the New Zealand Railways Corporation. The role of operating the network was subsequently separated from that of the networks construction. From 1895 to 1993 there was a responsible Minister, the Minister of Railways and he was often also the Minister of Public Works. Originally, New Zealands railways were constructed by provincial governments and private firms, the largest provincial operation was the Canterbury Provincial Railways, which opened the first public railway at Ferrymead on 1 December 1863. Following the abolition of the provinces in 1877, the Public Works Department took over the provincial railways. The Railways Department was formed in 1880 during the premiership of Sir John Hall and that year, the private Port Chalmers Railway Company Limited was acquired by the department and new workshops at Addington opened. Ironically, the first few years of NZR were marked by the Long Depression, as a result, the central government passed legislation to allow for the construction of more private railways. A Royal Commission, ordered by Hall, had removed plans for a line on the west coast of the North Island from Foxton to Wellington. The Act had the effect of authorising the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company to build the Wellington-Manawatu Line, the most important construction project for NZR at this time was the central section of the North Island Main Trunk. Starting from Te Awamutu on 15 April 1885, the section - including the famous Raurimu Spiral - was not completed for another 23 years, the economy gradually improved and in 1895 the Liberal Government of Premier Richard Seddon appointed Alfred Cadman as the first Minister of Railways. The Minister appointed a General Manager for the railways, keeping the operation under tight political control, apart from four periods of government-appointed commissions, this system remained in place until the department was corporatised in 1982. In 1895, patronage had reached 3. 9M passengers per annum and 2. 048M tonnes, NZR produced its first New Zealand-built steam locomotive, W class, in 1889. Along with opening new lines, NZR began acquiring a number of the railways which had built railway lines around the country. In 1886 the Waimea Plains Railway Company acquired, at the same time, a protracted legal battle with New Zealand Midland Railway Company began, and was only resolved in 1898. The partially completed Midland line was not handed over to NZR until 1900, by that time,3,200 km of railway lines were open for traffic. The acquisition in 1908 of the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company, a new locomotive class, the X class, was introduced in 1909 for traffic on the line. The X class was the most powerful locomotive at the time, gold rushes led to the construction of the Thames Branch, opening in 1898. In 1906 the Dunedin Railway Station was completed, architect George Troup, a. L. Beattie became Chief Mechanical Officer in April 1900
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North Island
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The North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the slightly larger but much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The islands area is 113,729 square kilometres, making it the worlds 14th-largest island and it has a population of 3,596,200. Twelve main urban areas are in the North Island, about 77% of New Zealands population lives in the North Island. Although the island has been known as the North Island for many years, in 2009 the New Zealand Geographic Board found that, along with the South Island, after a public consultation, the board officially named the island North Island or Te Ika-a-Maui in October 2013. In prose, the two islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite articles. It is normal to use the preposition in rather than on, for example Hamilton is in the North Island, maps, headings, tables and adjectival expressions use North Island without the. According to Māori mythology, the North and South Islands of New Zealand arose through the actions of the demigod Māui, Māui and his brothers were fishing from their canoe when he caught a great fish and pulled it from the sea. While he was not looking his brothers fought over the fish and this great fish became the North Island and thus a Māori name for the North Island is Te Ika-a-Māui. The mountains and valleys are believed to have formed as a result of Māuis brothers hacking at the fish. Until the early 20th Century, an alternative Māori name for the North Island was Aotearoa, in present usage, Aotearoa is a collective name for New Zealand as a whole. The sub-national GDP of the North Island was estimated at US$102.863 billion in 2003, the island has an extensive flora and bird population, with numerous National Parks and other protected areas. Nine local government regions cover the North Island and all its adjacent islands, healthcare in the North Island is provided by fifteen District Health Boards. Organised around geographical areas of varying sizes, they are not coterminous with the Local Government Regions
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Wellington
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Wellington is the capital and second most populous urban area of New Zealand, with 405,000 residents. It is at the tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Rimutaka Range. Wellington is the population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region. It is the worlds windiest city, with a wind speed of over 26 km/h. Situated near the centre of the country, Wellington was well placed for trade. In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand, the settlement was named in honour of the Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo. As the nations capital since 1865, the New Zealand Government and Parliament, Supreme Court, despite being much smaller than Auckland, Wellington is also referred to as New Zealands cultural capital. The city is home to the National Archives, the National Library, architectural sights include the Government Building—one of the largest wooden buildings in the world—as well as the iconic Beehive. Wellington plays host to artistic and cultural organisations, including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. It has an urban culture, with many cafés, restaurants. One of the worlds most liveable cities, the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world, Wellingtons economy is primarily service-based, with an emphasis on finance, business services, and government. It is the centre of New Zealands film and special effects industries, Wellington ranks as one of New Zealands chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The city is served by Wellington International Airport, the third busiest airport in the country, Wellingtons transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa, and ferries connect the city to the South Island. Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo, his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset. One of the founders of the settlement, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, reported that the settlers took up the views of the directors with great cordiality, in Māori, Wellington has three names. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is signed by raising the index, middle and ring fingers of one hand, palm forward, to form a W, and shaking it slightly from side to side twice. The citys location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales, legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century. The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280, European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840
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Auckland
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Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
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Hejaz railway
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The Hejaz Railway was a narrow gauge railway that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, with a branch line to Haifa on the Mediterranean Sea. It was a part of the Ottoman railway network and was built to extend the line from the Haydarpaşa Terminal in Kadikoy beyond Damascus to the city of Mecca. It got no further than Medina,400 kilometres short of Mecca, Damascus to Medina is 1,300 kilometres. Another important reason was to improve the economic and political integration of the distant Arabian provinces into the Ottoman state, the railway had no debt when completed. A railway had been suggested in 1864 to relieve the suffering of the hajis on their 40-day journey through the wilderness of Midian, the Nafud, about 20% of them commonly died from starvation, thirst and diseases. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund construction, however in 1912 the Ottoman Empire was owing the Deutsche Bank 29 million Turkey Pounds. The railway was to be a waqf, a religious endowment or charitable trust. Before the construction, German military adviser in Constantinople Auler Pasha estimated that the transportation of soldiers from Constantinople to Mecca would be reduced to 120 hours, the Berlin to Baghdad Railway was built in the same time. The railways were interrelated and aimed to strengthen the authority of the Empire over Arab provinces, another intention was to protect Hejaz and other Arab provinces from British invasion. Other than the Haydarpasa-Izmit line, the Hejaz Railway was the railway the Empire built itself in its existence. Under the helm of chief engineer Mouktar Bey the railway reached Medina on September 1,1908, compromises had to be made in order to finish by this date, with some sections of track being laid on temporary embankments across wadis. In 1913 the Hejaz Railway Station was opened in central Damascus as the point of the line. The Emir Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca viewed the railway as a threat to Arab suzerainty, since it provided the Ottomans with easy access to their garrisons in Hejaz, Asir, from its outset, the railway was the target of attacks by local Arab tribes. These were never successful, but neither were the Turks able to control areas more than a mile or so either side of the line. Due to the habit of pulling up wooden sleepers to fuel their camp-fires. During World War I, the German Army produced shale oil from the Yarmouk oil shale deposit to fuel locomotives operating on the railway. The line was damaged in fighting during the war, particularly at the hands of the guerrilla force led by T. E. Lawrence during the Arab Revolt. The Turks built a railway from the Hejaz line to Beersheba
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Damascus
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Damascus is the capital and likely the largest city of Syria, following the decline in population of Aleppo due to the ongoing battle for the city. It is commonly known in Syria as ash-Sham and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine, in addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious centre of the Levant. The city has an population of 1,711,000 as of 2009. Located in south-western Syria, Damascus is the centre of a metropolitan area of 2.6 million people. The Barada River flows through Damascus, first settled in the second millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad, Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. Today, it is the seat of the government and all of the government ministries. The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as T-m-ś-q in the 15th century BC, the etymology of the ancient name T-m-ś-q is uncertain, but it is suspected to be pre-Semitic. It is attested as Dimašqa in Akkadian, T-ms-ḳw in Egyptian, Dammaśq in Old Aramaic, the Akkadian spelling is found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC. Later Aramaic spellings of the name include a intrusive resh, perhaps influenced by the root dr. Thus, the English and Latin name of the city is Damascus which was imported from originated from the Qumranic Darmeśeq, and Darmsûq in Syriac, meaning a well-watered land. In Arabic, the city is called Dimašqu š-Šāmi, although this is shortened to either Dimašq or aš-Šām by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbours. Aš-Šām is an Arabic term for Levant and for Syria, the latter, the Anti-Lebanon mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon. The range has peaks of over 10,000 ft. and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean sea, however, in ancient times this was mitigated by the Barada River, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow. Damascus is surrounded by the Ghouta, irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals, maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada river emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus. Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake, because in years of severe drought it does not even exist, the modern city has an area of 105 km2, out of which 77 km2 is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest. The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, to the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages, Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighbourhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city and these new neighbourhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule
