1.
Trumpeldor Cemetery
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Trumpeldor cemetery, often referred to as the Old Cemetery, is a historic cemetery on Trumpeldor Street in Tel Aviv, Israel. The cemetery covers 10.6 acres, and contains approximately 5,000 graves, the cemetery was founded in 1902 on a tract of unoccupied land in Jaffa, six years before the founding of Ahuzat Bayit, the first neighborhood of Tel Aviv. Buried there are the founders, early residents, and cultural and historical figures, including Moshe Sharett. The eastern gate is the oldest, the main gate was opened in 1926 with the interment of the remains of Max Nordau. Today, only persons holding plots purchased long ago and a small number willing to pay thousands of dollars are buried there. The eastern section is the oldest and includes the tombs of the leaders in Tel Aviv. The remains of persons may be found in the southwest corner. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission, who list the cemetery as Tel Aviv Jewish Cemetery, maintain one Commonwealth service war grave, issai Schur, a mathematician Shaul Tchernichovsky, one of the greatest Hebrew poets Yisrael Hazan, victim of the 1936 Tulkarm shooting
2.
Tel Aviv
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Tel Aviv-Yafo is a major city in Israel, located on the countrys Mediterranean coastline. It is the center and the technology hub of Israel, with a population of 432,892. Tel Aviv is the largest city in the Gush Dan region of Israel, Tel Aviv is also a focal point in the high-tech concentration known as the Silicon Wadi. Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Ron Huldai, Tel Aviv is a global city, and is the thirty eighth most important financial center in the world. Tel Aviv is known to have the third-largest economy of any city in the Middle East after Abu Dhabi and Kuwait City, the city receives over a million international visitors annually. Known as The City that Never Sleeps and a party capital, it has a lively nightlife, the city was founded in 1909 by Jewish immigrants on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa. It is named after the Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzls 1902 novel, Altneuland, the modern citys first neighbourhoods had already been established in 1886, the first being Neve Tzedek. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffas, Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Avivs White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzls Altneuland, translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including Herzliya and it was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for spring, symbolizing renewal, and tel is a man-made mound accumulating layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a settlement on the sand dunes North of Jaffa. The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment in 1906, wrote, In this city we will build the streets so they have roads and sidewalks and electric lights. Every house will have water wells that will flow through pipes as in every modern European city. Since 1886, Jewish settlers had founded new neighborhoods outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv, the first was Neve Tzedek, built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche and inhabited primarily by Mizrahi Jews. Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom, Yafa Nof, Achva, Ohel Moshe, Kerem HaTeimanim, once Tel Aviv received city status in the 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. The Second Aliyah led to further expansion, in 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit society. The societys goal was to form a Hebrew urban centre in an environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics
3.
Jaffa
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Jaffa or Yafo, is the southern and oldest part of Tel Aviv-Yafo, an ancient port city in Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the stories of Jonah, Solomon and Saint Peter as well as the mythological story of Andromeda. The town was mentioned in Egyptian sources and the Amarna letters as Yapu, mythology says that it is named for Japheth, one of the sons of Noah, the one who built it after the Flood. The Hellenist tradition links the name to Iopeia, or Cassiopeia, an outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to have been the place where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus. Pliny the Elder associated the name with Iopa, daughter of Aeolus, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi referred to it as Yaffa. The tell of Jaffa rises to a height of 40 metres, with a view of the coastline. The accumulation of debris and landfill over the centuries made the even higher. Archaeological evidence shows that Jaffa was inhabited roughly 7500 BCE, the natural harbour of Jaffa has been in use since the Bronze Age. The city is mentioned in the Amarna letters under its Egyptian name Ya-Pho. The city was under Egyptian rule until around 800 BCE, Jaffa is mentioned in the Book of Joshua as the territorial border of the Tribe of Dan, hence the modern term Gush Dan for the center of the coastal plain. The tribe of Dan did not manage to dislocate the Philistines from Jaffa, in the Song of Deborah the prophetess asks, דן למה יגור אוניות, Why doth Dan dwell in ships. After Canaanite and Philistine dominion, King David and his son King Solomon conquered Jaffa, the city remained in Israelite hands even after the split of the united Kingdom of Israel. In 701 BCE, in the days of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, after a period of Babylonian occupation, under Persian rule, Jaffa was governed by Phoenicians from Tyre. Alexander the Greats troops were stationed in Jaffa and it later became a port of the Seleucid Empire until it was taken over by the Maccabees and ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty. During the First Jewish–Roman War, Jaffa was captured and burned by Cestius Gallus, the Roman Jewish historian Josephus writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred. Pirates operating from the rebuilt port incurred the wrath of Vespasian, the New Testament account of Saint Peter bringing back to life the widow Dorcas (recorded in Acts of the Apostles,9, 36–42, takes place in Jaffa, then called in Greek Ἰόππη. Peter retells the story of his vision in Acts 11, 4-17, in Midrash Tannaim in its chapter Deuteronomy 33,19, reference is made to Jose ben Halafta traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in the 4th and 5th century, the Jerusalem Talmud in Moed Ketan references Rav Acha of Jaffa, and in Pesachim chapter 1 refers to Rav Phineas of Jaffa
4.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
5.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
6.
Romanization of Hebrew
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Hebrew uses the Hebrew alphabet with optional vowel points. The romanization of Hebrew is the use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate Hebrew words, for example, the Hebrew name spelled יִשְׂרָאֵל in the Hebrew alphabet can be romanized as Yisrael or Yiśrāʼēl in the Latin alphabet. Romanization includes any use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate Hebrew words, usually it is to identify a Hebrew word in a non-Hebrew language that uses the Latin alphabet, such as German, Spanish, Turkish, and so on. Transliteration uses an alphabet to represent the letters and sounds of a word spelled in another alphabet, to go the other way, that is from English to Hebrew, see Hebraization of English. Both Hebraization of English and Romanization of Hebrew are forms of transliteration, where these are formalized these are known as transliteration systems, and, where only some words, not all, are transliterated, this is known as transliteration policy. Transliteration assumes two different script systems, the use of a French word in English without translation, such as bourgeois is not transliteration. The use of a Hindi word in English such as khaki is transliteration and these terms were in many cases also first transliterated into Greek and Latin before English. Different publishers have different transliteration policies, for example ArtScroll publications generally transliterate more words relative to sources such as the Jewish Encyclopedia 1911, or Jewish Publication Society texts. There are various standards or systems for Hebrew-to-English, no one system has significant common usage across all fields. Conflicting systems of transliteration often appear in the text, as certain Hebrew words tend to associate with certain traditions of transliteration. For example, For Hanukkah at the synagogue Beith Sheer Chayyim, Isaac donned his talis that Yitzchak sent him from Bet Qehila in Tsfat, Israel. Similarly, the Hebrew letter ת is transliterated as th in the word Beith, s in the word talis, the Hebrew letter ק is transliterated as c in Isaac, k in Yitzchak, and q in Qehila. Finally, the Hebrew letter צ is transliterated variously as s, tz and these inconsistencies make it impossible for the non-Hebrew-speaking reader to recognize related word forms, or even to properly pronounce the Hebrew words thus transliterated. Early romanization of Hebrew occurred with the contact between the Romans and the Jews and it was influenced by earlier transliteration into the Greek language. For example, the name of the Roman province of Iudaea was apparently derived from the Greek words Ἰούδα and these words can be seen in Chapter 1 of Esdras in the Septuagint, a Hellenistic translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The Greek words in turn are transliterations of the Hebrew word יהודה that we now know adapted in English as the names Judah, Judas, in the 1st century, Satire 14 of Juvenal uses the Hebraic words sabbata, Iudaicum, and Moyses, apparently adopted from the Greek. The 4th-century and 5th-century Latin translations of the Hebrew Bible romanize its proper names, the familiar Biblical names in English are derived from these romanizations. The Vulgate, of the early 5th century, is considered the first direct Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible, apart from names, another term that the Vulgate romanizes is the technical term mamzer
7.
Petah Tikva
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Petah Tikva known as Em HaMoshavot, is a city in the Central District of Israel,10.6 km east of Tel Aviv. It was founded in 1878, mainly by religious orthodox Jews, also known as the Old Yishuv, in 2015 the city had a population of 230,984. The population density is approximately 6,277 inhabitants per square kilometre, Petah Tikvas jurisdiction covers 35,868 dunams. It is part of the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area, Petah Tikvas emblem appears on a postage stamp designed by Yitzhak Goldenhirsch, a founding member of Petah Tikva. Originally intending to establish a new settlement in the Achor Valley, near Jericho, however, Abdülhamid II cancelled the purchase and forbade them from settling there, but they retained the name Petah Tikva as a symbol of their aspirations. Undaunted, the purchased a modest area from the village of Mulabbis. The town suffered heavily as it lay between the Ottoman and British fronts during the war, Petah Tikva became the school for thousands of pioneer workers, who studied the craft of farming there before they ventured out to establish dozens of settlements in all parts of the country. The agricultural schools are still active to this day, Petah Tikva was also the birthplace of the Labor Zionist Movement, inspired and encouraged by the writings of A. D. Gordon who lived in the town. The first recorded Arab attack on Jews in what would become Israel took place in Petah Tikva in 1886, Petah Tikva was also the scene of Arab rioting in May 1921, which left four Jews dead. In the early 1920s, industry began to develop in the Petah Tikva region, in 1921, Petah Tikva was given the status of a local council by the British authorities. According to a census conducted in 1931 by the British Mandate authorities, Petah Tikva had a population of 6880 inhabitants, in 1937 it was recognized as a city. Its first mayor, Shlomo Stampfer, was the son of one of its founders, Petah-Tikva, which largely depended on citrus farming, was considered by both the British government and the Jaffa Electric Company as a potentially important consumer of electricity for irrigation. The Auja Concession, which was given to the Jaffa Electric Company on 1921, but it was only in late 1929 that the company submitted an irrigation scheme for Petah-Tikva, and it was yet to be approved by the government in 1930. Refining the agricultural skills they learned in Germany, these began in 1941 to build their kibbutz in its intended location in the south of Israel. Nowadays, with a population of two hundred thousand inhabitants Petah Tikva is the third most populous city in the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area. Petah Tikva is divided into 33 neighborhoods for municipal purposes, Petah Tikva is the second-largest industrial sector in Israel after the northern city of Haifa. The industry is divided into three zones—Kiryat Aryeh, Kiryat Matalon, and Segula, and includes textiles, metalwork, carpentry, plastics, processed foods, tires and other rubber products, and soap. The largest data center in Israel, operated by the company TripleC, is located in Petah Tikva
8.
Palestine Communist Party
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The Palestine Communist Party was a political party in British Mandate of Palestine formed in 1923 through the merger of the Palestinian Communist Party and the Communist Party of Palestine. In 1924 the party was recognized as the Palestinian section of the Communist International, in its early years, the party was predominantly Jewish. The Party was also opposed to Zionist settlement in Palestine and to the Histadrut, during the mid-1920s the party began recruiting Arab members. According to British intelligence sources, the first Arab joined the party in 1924, by 1925 the party had 8 Arab members. In that year the party was in contact with the Palestine Arab Workers Society, simultaneously the party establish relations with elite sections of the local Arab society. According to Halliday, many Christian Arabs were attracted towards the party since they, being Orthodox, in 1930 the Comintern did yet another sharp turn, urging its Palestinian section to speedily increase the Arab representation amongst its cadres and leaders. In December 1930, PCP ran in the elections for the Jewish Assembly of Representatives in Mandate Palestine, during the rule of Joseph Stalin, the party militants in the Soviet Union suffered from heavy purges, including numerous people close to party leader Leopold Trepper. Daniel Averbach, one of the founders of the party, was brutally beaten, tepper, himself, was expelled from Palestine by the British in 1929 and moved to Europe. During World War II, he led the Red Orchestra spy ring, in 1943 the party split, with the Arab members forming the National Liberation League in 1944. The PCP and NLL both initially opposed the 1947 UN Partition Plan, but accepted it after the Soviet Union endorsed it, the PCP changed its name to MAKEI, the Communist Party of Eretz Israel, after endorsing partition in October 1947. This was the first time the communists had used the term Eretz Israel, however, it had been a widespread practice in Mandate Palestine to translate Palestine as Eretz Israel when translating into Hebrew. The party still viewed partition as a detour on the road to a binational state. The two parties maintained contact during the 1948 war, and after the war the NLL merged with Maki within the new states borders, from 1951 the Jordanian Communist Party organized Palestinians in the West Bank while a new Palestinian Communist Organization mobilized members in Gaza City. In 1975 a Palestinian Communist Organization was formed in the West Bank as a branch of the Jordanian party, in 1982 it severed ties with Jordan and merged with the organization in Gaza to become the new Palestine Communist Party. This Party later became the Palestinian Peoples Party, in 1987, it joined the Palestine Liberation Organization. Hebrew Communists - a 1945 split that later merged with the PCP in 1948 before splitting again in 1949 Palestinian Communist Party Suliman Bashear Communism in the Arab East, london, Ithaca Press,1980 Bernstein, Deborah S. Constructing Boundaries, Jewish and Arab Workers in Mandatory Palestine. Was the Red Flag Flying There, marxist Politics and the Arab-Israeli Conflict in Egypt and Israel, 1948-1965. Berkeley, University of California Press Connell, Dan, rethinking Revolution, New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice, The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine and Nicaragua
9.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
10.
Yiddish
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Yiddish is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews. Yiddish is written with a fully vocalized alphabet based on the Hebrew script, the earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language לשון־אַשכּנז or טײַטש, a variant of tiutsch, the contemporary name for Middle High German. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called מאַמע־לשון, distinguishing it from לשון־קדש, the term Yiddish, short for Yiddish-Teitsch, did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century the language was commonly called Jewish, especially in non-Jewish contexts. Modern Yiddish has two major forms, Eastern Yiddish is far more common today. It includes Southeastern, Mideastern, and Northeastern dialects, Eastern Yiddish differs from Western both by its far greater size and by the extensive inclusion of words of Slavic origin. Western Yiddish is divided into Southwestern, Midwestern, and Northwestern dialects, the term Yiddish is also used in the adjectival sense, synonymously with Jewish, to designate attributes of Ashkenazi culture. Prior to the Holocaust, there were over 10 million speakers of Yiddish, 85% of the Jews who died in the Holocaust were Yiddish speakers, assimilation following World War II further decreased the use of Yiddish both among survivors and Yiddish-speakers from other countries. However, the number of speakers is increasing in global Hasidic communities, the established view is that, as with other Jewish languages, Jews speaking distinct languages learned new co-territorial vernaculars, which they then Judaized. Exactly what German base lies behind the earliest form of Yiddish is disputed, both Weinreich and Solomon Birnbaum developed this model further in the mid-1950s. In Weinreichs view, this Old Yiddish substrate later bifurcated into two versions of the language, Western and Eastern Yiddish. They retained the Semitic vocabulary needed for religious purposes and created a Judeo-German form of speech, recent linguistic research has finessed, contested, or challenged the Weinreich model, providing alternative approaches to the origins of Yiddish. Some theorists argue that the fusion occurred with a Bavarian dialect base, the two main candidates for the germinal matrix of Yiddish, the Rhineland and Bavaria, are not necessarily incompatible. There may have been developments in the two regions, seeding the Western and Eastern dialects of Modern Yiddish. Dovid Katz proposes that Yiddish emerged from contact between speakers of High German and Aramaic-speaking Jews from the Middle East, wexlers model has met with little academic support, and strong critical challenges, especially among historical linguists. Alternative theories recognize the extent of Yiddishs Germanic vocabulary. Ashkenaz was centered on the Rhineland and the Palatinate, in what is now the westernmost part of Germany and its geographic extent did not coincide with the German principalities of the time, and it included northern France. Ashkenaz bordered on the inhabited by another distinctive Jewish cultural group, the Sephardim or Spanish Jews
11.
Flyer (pamphlet)
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A flyer is a form of paper advertisement intended for wide distribution and typically posted or distributed in a public place, handed out to individuals or sent through the mail. In the 2010s, flyers range from inexpensively photocopied leaflets to expensive, glossy, a flyer is also called a flier, circular, handbill, pamphlet, poster, lit, weekly ad, catalogue or leaflet. Persuade people about a social, religious, or political message, Flyers have been used in armed conflict, for example, airborne leaflet propaganda has been a tactic of psychological warfare. Recruit members for organizations or companies, like postcards, pamphlets and small posters, flyers are a low-cost form of mass marketing or communication. There are many different flyer formats, some examples include, A4 A5 DL A6 Flyers are inexpensive to produce and they required only a basic printing press from the 18th century to the 20th century. Their widespread use intensified in the 1990s with the spread of less expensive desktop publishing systems, in the 2010s, inexpensive black and white flyers can be produced with just a personal computer, computer printer and photocopier. In the 2010s, the ordering of flyers through traditional printing services has been supplanted by Internet services, customers send designs, review proofs online or via e-mail and receive the final products by mail. Flyers are not a new medium, prior to the War of American Independence some colonists were outraged with the Stamp Act and gathered together in anti-stamp act congresses and meetings. In these congresses they had to win support, and issued handbills and leaflets, pamphlets, along with other written paraphernalia, in the 2000s, some jurisdictions have laws or ordinances banning or restricting leafleting or flyering in certain locations. Owners of private property may put up signs saying Post No Bills, bulletin boards are found on college campuses, in cafés, community meeting houses, laundromats and small markets. The electronic flyer may be embedded into the body of the e-mail or added as an attachment to be opened, Jordan, Summer Forest Hoeckel, Jason A. Forest Jordan & Neil Strauss, ISBN 0-8230-4751-2 Media related to Hand bills at Wikimedia Commons
12.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
13.
May Day
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May Day is a public holiday usually celebrated on May 1. It is an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival and it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures. Dances, singing, and cake are usually part of the celebrations that the day includes, in the late 19th century, May Day was chosen as the date for International Workers Day by the Socialists and Communists of the Second International to commemorate the Haymarket affair in Chicago. International Workers Day may also be referred to as May Day and it is also associated with the Gaelic Beltane, most commonly held on April 30. The day was a summer holiday in many pre-Christian European pagan cultures. While February 1 was the first day of spring, May 1 was the first day of summer, hence, as Europe became Christianised, the pagan holidays lost their religious character and May Day changed into a popular secular celebration. A significant celebration of May Day occurs in Germany where it is one of days on which St. Walburga. The secular versions of May Day, observed in Europe and America, may be best known for their traditions of dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the giving of May baskets, small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours doorsteps. May 1 is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and surrogate father of Jesus. Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers Day celebrations on May Day. In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing traditions, traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations, much of this tradition derives from the pagan Anglo-Saxon customs held during Þrimilci-mōnaþ along with many Celtic traditions. May Day has been a day of festivities throughout the centuries. May Day is most associated with towns and villages celebrating springtime fertility and revelry with village fetes, seeding has been completed by this date and it was convenient to give farm labourers a day off. Perhaps the most significant of the traditions is the maypole, around which traditional dancers circle with ribbons, the spring bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978, May Day itself – May 1 – is not a public holiday in England. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from schools by itself and this is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, may 1,1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain
14.
Palestine Police Force
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The Egyptian Expeditionary Force had won the decisive Battle of Gaza in November 1917 under the newly appointed Commander-in-Chief of Palestine, Edmund Allenby. Following a decisive British victory at the Battle of Megiddo, the Ottoman Empire formally surrendered on 30 October 1918, headquarters of the police in Jerusalem were initially set up in the Russian Compound, along Jaffa Road, where assistant provost marshal was assisted by the British Military Police. Initially Palestine was administered in the district of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. The Palestine Police was founded with the establishment in July 1920 of the administration of the British Mandate under high commissioner Herbert Samuel. The first police commander was Lieutenant Colonel P. B, Bramley, OBE, with the title of Director of Public Security and with the rank of Commandant of Police and Prisons. Legislative authority was granted eight months after-the-fact with Police Ordinance 1921, by 1928 the Force had 2,143 officers,321 Jews,1293 Muslim Arabs and 471 Christian Arabs. It was a confidential document which it was considered impossible to publish at the time. Each colony was provided with a telephone and the network was improved to give the Police greater mobility. The Colonial Office wanted Charles Tegart to become Inspector-General of the Force in 1937 and he refused but joined Sir David Petrie in visiting the territory to advise on dealing with Arab guerrillas. Tegart forts are a style of militarized police fortress constructed throughout Palestine during the British mandate, the forts are named after British police officer and engineer Sir Charles Tegart, who designed them in 1938 based on his experiences in the Indian insurgency. Many of them stand to this day, and some continue to be used as jails, on 27 May,1942 the Police became a military force eligible to be deployed on military operations inside Palestine and in Syria and Iraq. In 1944 the Police Mobile Force was created as a fully militarized strike force, established with 800 British servicemen, who had been on active wartime service in Italy, North Africa and Britain, the PMF was organized, trained and equipped along military lines. Members wore battle dress and were trained in a training depot based in Jenin. By the time of the 1947 UN Partition Plan the British members of the Force alone numbered 4,000. The British mandate over Palestine was due to expire on 15 May 1948, members of the Palestine Police Force withdrew with the remainder of the British Forces in Palestine. However, the influence of the Palestine Police reached its peak after the force was disbanded on 15 May as around 1,400 policeman obtained postings elsewhere. In particular, a Special Constabulary of 500 former Palestine Police was established in Malaya after the state of emergency was declared in June 1948, officers who served in Malaya also transferred to colonial police forces in Kenya), Hong Kong and Tanganyika. Percy Bramley, Commandant of Police, July 1920 - March,1923, arthur Mavrogordato, Commandant of Police, March 1923 - July,1931
15.
Hostel
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Hostels provide budget-oriented, sociable accommodation where guests can rent a bed, usually a bunk bed, in a dormitory and share a bathroom, lounge and sometimes a kitchen. Rooms can be mixed or single-sex, and private rooms may also be available, in a few countries, such as the UK, Ireland, India and Australia, the word hostel sometimes also refers to establishments providing longer-term accommodation. In India, Pakistan and South Africa, hostel also refers to boarding schools or student dormitories in resident colleges and universities, in other parts of the world, the word hostel mainly refers to properties offering shared accommodation to travellers or backpackers. Backpackers Hostels began in Australia and New Zealand and differ from Hostels by being open during the day time, in 1912, in Altena Castle in Germany, Richard Schirrmann created the first permanent Jugendherberge or Youth Hostel. These first youth hostels were an exponent of the vision of the German Youth Movement to let poor city youngsters breathe fresh air outdoors. The youths were supposed to manage the hostel themselves as much as possible, doing chores to keep the costs down and build character, because of this, many youth hostels closed during the middle part of the day. While most hostels still close during the day no longer require chores beyond washing up after self-catered meals. The words hotel, hostel, and hostal are etymologically related, coming into the English language from Old French hostel, itself from Late Latin hospitale, nowadays, however, they each refer to distinct types of accommodation. In particular, hostal is used in Spanish either with the sense as hostel. For those who prefer an environment, hostels do not usually have the same level of formality as hotels. For those who prefer to socialise with their guests, hostels usually have more common areas. The dormitory aspect of hostels also increases the social factor, Hostels normally close during the day to keep down cost. There is less privacy in a hostel than in a hotel, sharing sleeping accommodation in a dormitory is very different from staying in a private room in a hotel or bed and breakfast, and might not be comfortable for those requiring more privacy. Hostels encourage more interaction between guests due to the shared sleeping areas and communal areas such as lounges, kitchens. Care should be taken with personal belongings, as guests may share a living space. Noise can make sleeping difficult on occasions, whether from snoring, talking, sexual activity, someone either returning late or leaving early, to mitigate this, some wear earplugs and/or sleeping masks. Some hostels may include a hot meal in the price, the traditional hostel format involved dormitory style accommodation. Some newer hostels also include en-suite accommodation with single, double or quad occupancy rooms, in recent years, the numbers of independent and backpackers hostels have increased greatly to cater for the greater numbers of overland, multi-destination travellers
16.
Zionist Commission
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The Zionist Commission for Palestine was a group chaired by Chaim Weizmann, president of the British Zionist Federation following British promulgation of the pro-Zionist, Balfour Declaration of 1917. The Commission was formed in March 1918 and went to Palestine to study conditions and make their recommendations to the British authorities. It consisted of Weizmann with Israel Sieff as secretary, and Joseph Cowen, Dr. M. D. Eder, Leon Simon from Britain, Commandante Levi Bianchini from Italy, there were no representatives from America or Russia. The Commission reached Palestine on 14 April 1918, it ran into difficulties with the British military administration, the Commission had gone to Palestine with the consent of the British Government and stayed there for some years. The Commission carried out surveys of Palestine and aided the repatriation of Jews sent into exile by the Ottoman Turks during World War I. It expanded the Palestine Office, previously founded by the ZO in 1908, into small departments for agriculture, settlement, education, land, finance, immigration, and statistics. In June 1918, representing the Zionist Commission, Weizmann traveled to southern Transjordan to meet Emir Feisal, the intended purpose was to forge an agreement between Feisal and the Zionist movement to support an Arab Kingdom and Jewish settlement in Palestine, respectively. Neither side considered it necessary to consult the wishes of the Palestinian Arabs, Arab opposition to establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine was voiced by the newly formed Muslim-Christian Associations and the Palestine Arab Congress. On 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community, the Palin Report 1920 on the April riots, submitted in August 1920, though never published, was critical of both sides. By the time the Report was presented, the British Occupied Enemy Territory Administration had been replaced by a High Commissioner, Weizmann became president of the Zionist Organization in 1920. Also in 1920, Menachem Ussishkin was appointed head of the Zionist Commission, further rioting took place in Jaffa between 1 and 7 May 1921. In October 1921, the Haycraft Commission of Inquiry laid the blame for the Jaffa riots of May 1921 on the Arab community, in 1929, the Palestine Zionist Executive officially became the Jewish Agency for Palestine at the 16th Zionist Congress, held in Zurich. Jewish Agency for Israel World Zionist Organization
17.
Abu Kabir
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Abu Kabir was a satellite village of Jaffa founded by Egyptians following Ibrahim Pashas 1832 defeat of Turkish forces in Ottoman era Palestine. During the 1948 Palestine war, it was abandoned and later destroyed. After Israels establishment in 1948, the became part of south Tel Aviv. Officially named Givat Herzl, the name of an adjacent Jewish neighborhood, part or all of Abu Kabir was officially renamed Tabitha by the Tel Aviv municipality in 2011. The Egyptian troops of Ibrahim Pasha captured the city of Jaffa, an eastern suburb of Jaffa, many of the Egyptians who populated it came from the village of Tall al Kabir, and named it for their hometown. An Ottoman village list of about 1870 described Saknet Abu Kebir as a Beduin camp, with 136 houses, in The Survey of Western Palestine, its name is recorded as Sâknet Abu Kebîr and it is translated as, The settlement of Abu Kebir p. n. Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, the French archaeologist, visited in 1873-1874 and he describes Saknet Abu Kbir as a hamlet, and relates walking through the extensive gardens that close in Jaffa on every side to reach it. He notes that during the winter rains, the gardens between Jaffa and Saknet Abu Kabir became a small marshy lake that was known as al-Bassa by the locals. Laid bare by their activities were, sepulchral chambers hollowed out in the calcareous tufa and he notes that similar graves were said to found in the lands between Abu Kabir to as far as Mikveh Israel and the Catholic cemetery. Other fellahin told him of finds between Saknet Abu Kabir and Saknet al-Abid, and still others told of artifacts that they had retrieved from them, one artifact was brought to him which he purchased, a small marble titulus with a four-line Greek inscription and a seven-branched candlestick. Clermont-Ganneau identified this as Helleno-Jewish funeral epigraphy, ascribing it to Hezekiah, the Jewish necropolis was looted mainly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dating the site is a due to the lack of objects found in situ. Most of the necropolis is now in the area of the Russian Orthodox Saint Peters Church compound, according to Mark LeVine, the Biluim pioneers set up a commune among the orange and lemon groves of the Abu Kabir neighborhood between 1882 and 1884. The house used by the members is now located in the Neve Ofer neighborhood of Tel Aviv. During the 1921 Jaffa Riots, the violence reached Abu Kabir, the Jewish Yitzker family owned a dairy farm on the outskirts of the neighborhood, in which they rented out rooms. At the time of the riots, Yosef Haim Brenner, one of the pioneers of modern Hebrew literature was living at the site. On May 2,1921, despite warnings Yitzker and Brenner refused to leave the farm and were murdered, along with Yitzkers teenaged son, his son-in-law and two other renters. As Jaffa expanded during the 1920s and 1930s, Abu Kabir was incorporated within the boundaries of Jaffa
18.
Yosef Haim Brenner
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Yosef Haim Brenner was a Russian-born Hebrew-language author and one of the pioneers of modern Hebrew literature. Brenner was born to a poor Jewish family in Novi Mlini and he studied at a yeshiva in Pochep, and published his first story, Pat Lechem in HaMelitz, a Hebrew language newspaper, in 1900, followed by a collection of short stories in 1901. In 1902, Brenner was drafted into the Russian army, two years later, when the Russo-Japanese War broke out, he deserted. He was initially captured, but escaped to London with the help of the General Jewish Labor Bund, in 1905, he met the Yiddish writer Lamed Shapiro. Brenner lived in an apartment in Whitechapel, which doubled as an office for HaMeorer, in 1922, Asher Beilin published Brenner in London about this period in Brenners life. Brenner married Chaya, with whom he had a son, Uri, Brenner immigrated to Palestine in 1909. He worked as a farmer, eager to put his Zionist ideology into practice, unlike A. D. Gordon, however, he could not take the strain of manual labor, and soon left to devote himself to literature and teaching at the Gymnasia Herzliya in Tel Aviv. According to biographer Anita Shapira, he suffered depression and problems of sexual identity. He was murdered in Jaffa on May 1921 during the Jaffa riots, in his writing, Brenner praised the Zionist endeavor, but also contradicted himself, contending that the Land of Israel was just another diaspora and no different from other diasporas. Brenner was very much an experimental writer, both in his use of language and in literary form, with Modern Hebrew still in its infancy, Brenner improvised with an intriguing mixture of Hebrew, Aramaic, Yiddish, English and Arabic. In his attempt to portray life realistically, his work is full of emotive punctuation, Brenner wants the brutally depressing facts to speak for themselves, without any authorial intervention or literary heightening. This was Alters preface to Brenners story, The Way Out, published in 1919, the site of his murder is now marked by Brenner House, a center for Hanoar Haoved Vehalomed, the youth organization of the Histadrut. Kibbutz Givat Brenner was also named for him, while kibbutz Revivim was named in honour of his magazine, the Brenner Prize, one of Israels top literary awards, is named for him. It was published in Warsaw 1900, English, Colorado, Westview Press,1992 Around the Point Yiddish, Berlin, Yiddisher Literarisher Ferlag,1923 In the Winter Yiddish, Warsaw, Literarisher Bleter,1936 Shapira, Anita. Yosef Haim Brenner, A Biography, Anita Shapira, Am Oved Yosef Haim Brenner, Background, David Patterson, Ariel, A Quarterly Review of Arts and Letters in Israel, vol
19.
1920 Nebi Musa riots
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Five Jews and four Arabs were killed, and several hundred were injured. The riots coincided with and are named after the Nabi Musa festival, which place every year on Easter Sunday. The events came shortly after the Battle of Tel Hai and the pressure on Arab nationalists in Syria in the course of the Franco-Syrian War. Speeches were given by Arab religious leaders during the festival, which included slogans referencing Zionist immigration, the British military administration of Palestine was criticized for withdrawing troops from inside Jerusalem and because it was slow to regain control. As a result of the riots, trust between the British, Jews, and Arabs eroded, One consequence was that the Jewish community increased moves towards an autonomous infrastructure and security apparatus parallel to that of the British administration. In its wake, sheikhs of 82 villages round the city and Jaffa, claiming to represent 70% of the population and this condemnation may have been procured with bribes. The riots also preceded the San Remo conference which was held from 19 to 26 April 1920 at which the fate of the Middle East was to be decided, under the Balfour Declaration, a homeland for the Jewish people was to be created in Palestine. The principle of self-determination affirmed by the League of Nations was not to be applied to Palestine, given the foreseeable rejection by the people of Zionism and these post-World War I arrangements both for Palestine and other Arab societies led to a radicalization of the Arab world. Communiqués had been issued about foreseeable troubles among Arabs, and between Arabs and Jews, to Weizmann and the Jewish leadership, these developments were reminiscent of instructions that Russian generals had issued on the eve of pogroms. On 7 and 8 March, demonstrations took place in all cities of Palestine, shops were closed, attackers carried slogans such as Death to Jews or Palestine is our land and the Jews are our dogs. Jewish leaders requested that OETA authorise the arming of the Jewish defenders to make up for the lack of adequate British troops, many of the volunteers were members of the Maccabi sports club and some of them were veterans of the Jewish Legion. Their month of training consisted of calisthenics and hand to hand combat with sticks. By the end of March, about 600 were said to be performing military drills daily in Jerusalem, Jabotinsky and Rutenberg also began organizing the collection of arms. The Nebi Musa festival was an annual spring Muslim festival that began on the Friday before Good Friday and it had apparently existed since the time of Saladin. Arab educator and essayist Khalil al-Sakakini described how tribes and caravans would come with banners, the Ottoman Turks usually deployed thousands of soldiers and even artillery to keep order in the narrow streets of Jerusalem during the Nebi Musa procession. However, Storrs issued a warning to Arab leaders, but deployed only 188 policemen. By 10,30 a. m. on Sunday,4 April 1920,60, 000–70,000 Arabs had congregated in the city square for the Nebi Musa festival, inflammatory anti-Zionist rhetoric was delivered by Amin al-Husayni from the balcony of the Arab Club. Another inciter was Musa al-Husayni, his uncle, the mayor, the editor of the newspaper Suriya al-Janubia, Aref al-Aref, another Arab Club member, delivered his speech on horseback at the Jaffa Gate
20.
Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel
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Herbert Louis Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel GCB OM GBE PC, was a British Liberal politician who was the party leader from 1931-35. He was the first nominally practising Jew—although noted for his personal atheism—to serve as a Cabinet minister, Samuel was the last member of the Liberal Party to hold one of the four Great Offices of State. He also served as a diplomat, one of the adherents of New Liberalism, Samuel helped to draft and present social reform legislation while serving as a Liberal cabinet member. Herbert Samuel was born at Claremont No.11 Belvidere Road, Toxteth, Liverpool, Lancashire, the building now houses part of the Belvedere Academy. He was the brother of Sir Stuart Samuel, educated at University College School in Hampstead, London and Balliol College, Oxford. He had a Jewish upbringing, but in 1892, while at Oxford he renounced all religious belief, Samuel worked through the influence of Charles Darwin and the book On Compromise by senior Liberal politician John Morley. He remained a member of the Jewish community, however, to please his wife, and kept kosher, Samuel unsuccessfully fought two general elections before being elected a Member of Parliament at the Cleveland by-election,1902, as a member of the Liberal Party. He put forward the idea of establishing a British Protectorate over Palestine in 1915, in December 1916 Asquith was replaced as Prime Minister by Lloyd George. Lloyd George asked Samuel to continue as Home Secretary, but Samuel chose to resign instead and he attempted to strike a balance between giving support to the new government while remaining loyal to Asquith. At the end of the war he sought election at the election of 1918 as a Liberal in support of the Coalition government. However, the endorsement was given to his Unionist opponent. Initially he had not been a supporter of womens suffrage but changed his position, in 1917 a Speakers Conference was charged with looking into giving women the vote but did not have as its terms of reference, consideration to women standing as candidates for parliament. However, Samuel moved a motion on 23 October 1918 to allow women to be eligible as Members of Parliament. The vote was passed by 274 to 25 and the government rushed through a Bill to make it law in time for the 1918 General Election, according to Weizmanns memoirs, Samuel was already an avid believer in Zionism, and believed that Weizmanns demands were too modest. Samuel did not want to enter into a discussion of his plans. One month later, Samuel circulated a memorandum entitled The Future of Palestine to his cabinet colleagues, in 1917, Britain occupied Palestine during the course of the First World War. Samuel lost his seat in the election of 1918 and became a candidate to represent British interests in the territory and he was appointed to the position of High Commissioner in 1920, before the Council of the League of Nations approved a British mandate for Palestine. Nonetheless, the government withdrew to Cairo in preparation for the expected British Mandate
21.
State of emergency
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A government or division of government may declare that their area is in a state of emergency. This means that the government can suspend and/or change some functions of the executive and it alerts citizens to change their normal behavior and orders government agencies to implement emergency plans. Justitium is its equivalent in Roman law, where Senate could put forward senatus consultum ultimum and it can also be used as a rationale for suspending rights and freedoms guaranteed under a countrys constitution or basic law. The procedure for and legality of doing so varies by country, under international law, rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency, for example, a government can detain persons and hold them without trial. All rights that can be derogated from are listed in the International Covenant for Civil, non-derogable rights are listed in Article 4 of the ICCPR, they include the rights to freedom from arbitrary deprivation of liberty and to freedom from torture and/or ill-treatment. Constitutions are contracts between the government and the individuals of that country. The International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights is an international law document signed by states, therefore, the Covenant only applies to persons acting in an official capacity, not private individuals. However, signatories to the Covenant are expected to integrate it into national legislation, although this is common protocol stipulated by the ICCPR often this is not strictly followed, enforcement is better regulated by European Convention of human rights. In some situations, martial law is declared, allowing the military greater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government. Ms. Nicole Questiaux and Mr. Article 4 to the International Covenant on Civil, the European Convention on Human Rights and American Convention on Human Rights have similar derogatory provisions. No derogation is permitted to the International Labour Conventions, some political theorists, such as Carl Schmitt, have argued that the power to decide the initiation of the state of emergency defines sovereignty itself. The state of emergency can, and often has been, abused by being invoked, an example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respect human rights. An example was the August 1991 attempted coup in the Soviet Union where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency and this provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition. State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia, in Victoria, the premier can declare a state of emergency if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order. The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House of Parliament may revoke it earlier, under the Public Safety Preservation Act, a declared state of emergency allows the premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. However, these regulations expire if Parliament does not agree to them within 7 days. Also, under the Essential Services Act, the premier may operate or prohibit operation of, as desired, a State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted
22.
Censorship
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Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which case it is referred to as soft censorship. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, there are no laws against self-censorship. In 399 BC, Greek philosopher, Socrates, defied attempts by the Greek state to censor his philosophical teachings and was sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock. Socrates student, Plato, is said to have advocated censorship in his essay on The Republic, in contrast to Plato, Greek playwright Euripides defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766, Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law, the rationale for censorship is different for various types of information censored, Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, Military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage, which is the process of gleaning military information, political censorship occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion. Religious censorship is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones, alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion. Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc, throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers. Cultural products there reflected the needs of the state. Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years, in the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine on May Day. Under Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania, weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop. Independent journalism did not exist in the Soviet Union until Mikhail Gorbachev became its leader, pravda, the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available if they were published by Communist Parties sympathetic to the Soviet Union. Possession and use of copying machines was tightly controlled in order to hinder production and distribution of samizdat, illegal self-published books, possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book by Andrei Sinyavsky was a serious crime which might involve a visit from the KGB
23.
Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby
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Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, GCB, GCMG, GCVO was an English soldier and British Imperial Governor. The British succeed in capturing Beersheba, Jaffa, and Jerusalem from October to December 1917, subsequently, the EEF Pursuit by Desert Mounted Corps captured Damascus and advanced into northern Syria. During this pursuit, he commanded T. E and he continued to serve in the region as High Commissioner for Egypt and Sudan from 1919 until 1925. Allenby was born in 1861, the son of Hynman Allenby and he had no great desire to be a soldier, and tried to enter the Indian Civil Service but failed the entry exam. He sat the exam for the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1880, was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 6th Dragoons on 10 May 1882, and joined his regiment in South Africa later that year. After serving at the depot in Canterbury, he was promoted to captain on 10 January 1888. Allenby returned to Britain in 1890 and he sat – and failed – the entry exam for the Staff College in Camberley, not deterred, he sat the exam again the next year and passed. Captain Douglas Haig of the 7th Hussars also entered the Staff College at the same time, Allenby was more popular with fellow officers, even being made Master of the Draghounds in preference to Haig who was the better rider, Allenby had already developed a passion for polo. He was promoted to major on 19 May 1897 and was posted to the 3rd Cavalry Brigade, then serving in Ireland, as the Brigade-Major in March 1898. At the outbreak of the Second Boer War, Allenby was returned to his regiment, while camped beside the Australian Light Horse outside Bloemfontein with Lord Roberts army, the New South Wales Lancers with the rest of Frenchs cavalry, waited to move. At this time men and horses suffered continuously rainy weather and cases of enteric were taken away every day. Major Allenby, appointed to command the squadron of New South Wales Lancers and he was about to walk in on a rum soaked officers mess, when he was intercepted by an acquaintance, who informed Allenby the mess were just drinking his health. But thats no excuse for keeping the whole camp awake and you tell them to be in bed with all lights out, in five minutes, or Ill have to do something about it. He was promoted to local lieutenant-colonel on 1 January 1901, in a despatch dated 23 June 1902, Lord Kichener, Commander-in-Chief during the latter part of the war, described him as a popular and capable Cavalry Brigadier. For his services during the war, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the South Africa honours list published on 26 June 1902 and he was promoted to the substantive rank of colonel and to the temporary rank of brigadier general on 19 October 1905. He assumed command of the 4th Cavalry Brigade in 1906 and he was promoted again to the rank of major-general on 10 September 1909 and was appointed Inspector-General of Cavalry in 1910 due to his extensive cavalry experience. He was nicknamed The Bull due to a tendency for sudden bellowing outbursts of explosive rage directed at his subordinates. Allenby stood 62 with a barrel chest and his bad temper made The Bull a figure who inspired much consternation under those who had to work under him
24.
Destroyer
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Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations, typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, the advent of the missile allowed destroyers to take on the surface combatant roles previously filled by battleships. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation, the emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy an enemy battle fleet using steam launches to launch torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats, the first seagoing vessel designed to fire the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons, these were replaced in 1879 by a torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, in response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called catchers were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Czech, Greek, Dutch and, up until the Second World War, Polish. At that time, and even into World War I, the function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future, an important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB81. This was a torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns. At 23.75 knots, while still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably. Another forerunner of the torpedo boat destroyer was the Japanese torpedo boat Kotaka, designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, in her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, the first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes, by the end of the 1890s torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the torpedo boat destroyers, which were much faster. The first example of this was HMS Rattlesnake, designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, the gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet long and 23 feet in beam, she displaced 550 tons, built of steel, Rattlesnake was un-armoured with the exception of a 3⁄4-inch protective deck
25.
Haifa
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Haifa, is the third-largest city in the State of Israel, with a population of 278,903 in 2015. The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area and it is also home to the Baháí World Centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Bahai pilgrims. Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel, the settlement has a history spanning more than 3,000 years, the earliest known settlement in the vicinity was Tell Abu Hawam, a small port city established in the Late Bronze Age. In the 3rd century CE, Haifa was known as a dye-making center, over the centuries, the city has changed hands, being conquered and ruled by the Phoenicians, Persians, Hasmoneans, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, British, and the Israelis. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Haifa Municipality has governed the city, as of 2016, the city is a major seaport located on Israels Mediterranean coastline in the Bay of Haifa covering 63.7 square kilometres. It lies about 90 kilometres north of Tel Aviv and is the regional center of northern Israel. According to researcher J. Kis-Lev Haifa is considered a haven for coexistence between Jews and Arabs. Two respected academic institutions, the University of Haifa and the Technion, are located in Haifa, in addition to the largest k-12 school in Israel, the city plays an important role in Israels economy. It is home to Matam, one of the oldest and largest high-tech parks in the country, Haifa also owns the underground rapid transit system located in Israel. Haifa Bay is a center of industry, petroleum refining. Haifa formerly functioned as the terminus of an oil pipeline from Iraq via Jordan. With locals using it to refer to a tell at the foot of the Carmel Mountains that contains its remains. The name Efa first appears during Roman rule, some time after the end of the 1st century, Haifa is also mentioned more than 100 times in the Talmud, a work central to Judaism. Hefa or Hepha in Eusebius of Caesareas 4th-century work, Onomasticon, is said to be another name for Sycaminus, references to this city end with the Byzantine period. Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century, Haifa was used to refer to a site established on Tel Shikmona upon what were already the ruins of Sycaminon. Haifa is mentioned by the mid-11th-century Persian chronicler Nasir Khusraw, the Crusaders, who captured Haifa briefly in the 12th century, call it Caiphas, and believe its name related to Cephas, the Aramaic name of Simon Peter. Other spellings in English have included Caipha, Kaipha, Caiffa, Kaiffa and Khaifa.5 miles to the east. The new village, the nucleus of modern Haifa, was first called al-imara al-jadida by some, but others residing there called it Haifa al-Jadida at first, the ultimate origin of the name Haifa remains unclear
26.
Musa al-Husayni
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Musa Kazim Pasha al-Husayni held a series of senior posts in the Ottoman administration. He belonged to the prominent al-Husayni family and was mayor of Jerusalem and he was dismissed as mayor by the British authorities and became head of the nationalist Executive Committee of the Palestine Arab Congress from 1922 until 1934. His death was believed to have been caused by injuries received during an anti-British demonstration, born in Jerusalem, as a boy Musa Kazim was sent to Istanbul and attended the Maktab Malkiya and graduated third amongst students from all over the Ottoman Empire. His first posting was in the Department of Health, but he was promoted in an exceptionally successful career and was given the title Pasha. He became Governor of a series of Ottoman municipalities and regions and these included Safed, Akkar, Irbid, Asir, Najd, Thalis, Hauran. His highest position was as Governor of the region of Iraq. His status can be judged by his purchase in 1872 of 1,000 acres of land around Jericho. In 1905 he was the governor of Jaffa and his career was spanned by the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II at a time when the empire was being challenged by expanding European powers and it ended when he retired on the eve of World War I. In 1918 the British Military Governor of Jerusalem, Ronald Storrs and his brother, Hussein al-Husayni, had been mayor for eight years to 1918 and had died shortly after the surrender of the city to the British. Initially Musa Kazems relationship with the Storrs was good and he spoke English fluently and joined the Governors pet project, The Association for Jerusalem, which was set up to raise the architectral standards of city buildings. In November 1918 he led a demonstration against British policy for the first time. It was to protest the jailing of two Arabs following disturbances during counter-demonstrations over Jewish celebrations of the anniversary of the Balfour Declaration. A year and a half later at the climax of the Nabi Musa celebrations, Easter 1920, the mood of his audience was nationalistic with chants of Faisal is our king. In the anti-zionist violence that followed 12 people were killed, the British set up courts-martial to punish those they believed responsible. Haj Amin al-Husseini and Arif al-Arif were sentenced in absentia to ten years hard labour, khalil Baydas and Zeev Jabotinsky were sentenced to fifteen years. Musa Kazim was briefly held in Acre prison, following the riots Storrs ordered Musa Kazims dismissal as mayor. According to Storrs own account he made sure he had Ragib Nashishibis signed acceptance of the post before he fired Musa Kazim, some account claim the mayor resigned in protest of the adoption of Hebrew as an official language. The Executive Committee then met the new High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, the 4th Congress, May 1921, decided to send a delegation led by Musa Kazim to London
27.
Aliyah
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Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel. Also defined as the act of going up—that is, towards Jerusalem—making Aliyah by moving to the Land of Israel is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism, the opposite action, emigration from the Land of Israel, is referred to in Hebrew as yerida. The State of Israels Law of Return gives Jews and their descendants automatic rights regarding residency, the large-scale immigration of Jews to Palestine began in 1882. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, more than 3 million Jews have moved to Israel, as of 2014, Israel and the Palestinian territories together contain 42. 9% of the worlds Jewish population. Successive waves of Jewish settlement are an important aspect of the history of Jewish life in Israel, Eretz Yisrael is the Hebrew name for the region known in English as Israel. This traditional Hebrew toponym, in turn, has lent its name to the modern State of Israel, pre-Zionist Aliyah refers to small-scale return migration of Diaspora Jews to the Land of Israel. Since the birth of Zionism, its advocates have striven to facilitate the settlement of Jewish refugees in Ottoman Palestine, Mandatory Palestine, Aliyah in Hebrew means ascent or going up. Jewish tradition views traveling to the land of Israel as an ascent, anyone traveling to Eretz Israel from Egypt, Babylonia or the Mediterranean basin, where many Jews lived in early rabbinic times, climbed to a higher altitude. Visiting Jerusalem, situated 2,700 feet above sea level, Aliyah is an important Jewish cultural concept and a fundamental component of Zionism. It is enshrined in Israels Law of Return, which accords any Jew and eligible non-Jews, someone who makes aliyah is called an oleh or olah. Many religious Jews espouse aliyah as a return to the Promised land, and regard it as the fulfillment of Gods biblical promise to the descendants of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, nachmanides includes making aliyah in his enumeration of the 613 commandments. In the Talmud, at the end of tractate Ketubot, the Mishnah says, A man may compel his entire household to go up with him to the land of Israel, but may not compel one to leave. Sifre says that the mitzvah of living in Eretz Yisrael is as important as all the other mitzvot put together, there are many mitzvot such as shmita, the sabbatical year for farming, which can only be performed in Israel. In Zionist discourse, the term includes both voluntary immigration for ideological, emotional, or practical reasons and, on the other hand. The vast majority of Israeli Jews today trace their familys recent roots to outside the country, while many have actively chosen to settle in Israel rather than some other country, many had little or no choice about leaving their previous home countries. While Israel is commonly recognized as a country of immigrants, it is also, in large measure, a country of refugees. 2 Chronicles 36,23 Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD God of heaven given me, and he hath charged me to him an house in Jerusalem. Who among you of all his people, the LORD his God with him, and let him go up
28.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
29.
Amin al-Husseini
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Mohammed Amin al-Husseini was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in Mandatory Palestine. Al-Husseini was the scion of a family of Jerusalemite notables, who trace their origins to the grandson of Muhammad. After receiving an education in Islamic, Ottoman, and Catholic schools, at wars end he stationed himself in Damascus as a supporter of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. From as early as 1920 he actively opposed Zionism, and was implicated as a leader of the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, al-Husseini was sentenced to ten years imprisonment for incitement but was pardoned by the British. In 1921 the British High Commissioner appointed him Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, during the period 1921-36 he was considered an important ally by the British Mandatory authorities. His opposition to the British peaked during the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine, during World War II he collaborated with both Italy and Germany by making propagandistic radio broadcasts and by helping the Nazis recruit Bosnian Muslims for the Waffen-SS. Also, as he told the recruits, Germany had not colonized any Arab country while Russia, on meeting Adolf Hitler he requested backing for Arab independence and support in opposing the establishment in Palestine of a Jewish national home. At the wars end he came under French protection, and then sought refuge in Cairo to avoid prosecution for war crimes, in September 1948 he participated in the establishment of an All-Palestine Government. Seated in Egyptian-ruled Gaza, this government won limited recognition by Arab states but was dissolved by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1959. He died in Beirut, Lebanon in July 1974, Husseini was and remains a highly controversial figure. Historians dispute whether his fierce opposition to Zionism was grounded in nationalism or antisemitism or a combination of both, opponents of Palestinian nationalism have used Husseinis wartime residence and propaganda activities in Nazi Germany to associate the Palestinian national movement with European-style anti-Semitism. Amin al-Husseini was born around 1897 in Jerusalem, the son of the mufti of that city and prominent early opponent of Zionism, the al-Husseini clan consisted of wealthy landowners in southern Palestine, centered around the district of Jerusalem. Thirteen members of the clan had been Mayors of Jerusalem between 1864 and 1920, another member of the clan and Amins half-brother, Kamil al-Husayni, also served as Mufti of Jerusalem. He also studied at the Alliance Israélite Universelle with its non-Zionist Jewish director Albert Antébi, though groomed to hold religious office from youth, his education was typical of the Ottoman effendi at the time, and he only donned a religious turban in 1921 after being appointed mufti. In 1913, approximately at the age of 16, al-Husseini accompanied his mother Zainab to Mecca, prior to World War I, he studied at the School of Administration in Constantinople, the most secular of Ottoman institutions. In November 1916 he obtained a three-month disability leave from the army and he was recovering from an illness there when the city was captured by the British a year later. The British and Sherifian armies, for which some 500 Palestinian Arabs were estimated to have volunteered, completed their conquest of Ottoman-controlled Palestine, the post-war Palin Report noted that the English recruiting officer, Captain C. D. Nothing in his career to this point suggests he had ambitions to serve in a religious office
30.
Grand Mufti of Jerusalem
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The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem is the Sunni Muslim cleric in charge of Jerusalems Islamic holy places, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The position was created by the British military government led by Ronald Storrs in 1918, since 2006 it has been held by Muhammad Hussein. While Palestine was under British Mandate, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem was a created by the British Mandate authorities. The creation of the new title was intended by the British to enhance the status of the office, when Kamil al-Husayni died in 1921, the British High Commissioner Herbert Samuel appointed Mohammad Amin al-Husayni to the position. Amin al-Husayni, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. In 1948, after Jordan occupied Jerusalem, Abdullah I of Jordan officially removed al-Husayni from the post, banned him from entering Jerusalem, on the death of Jarallah in 1952, the Jordanian Waqf appointed Saad al-Alami as his replacement. When he died in 1994, Arafat appointed Ekrima Said Sabri, Sabri was removed in 2006 by Palestinian National Authority president Mahmoud Abbas, who was concerned that Sabri was involved too heavily in political matters. Abbas appointed Muhammad Ahmad Hussein, who was perceived as a political moderate, however, shortly after his appointment, Hussein made comments which suggested that suicide bombing was an acceptable tactic for Palestinians to use against Israel
31.
Rehovot
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Rehovot is a city in the Central District of Israel, about 20 kilometers south of Tel Aviv. In 2015 it had a population of 132,671, Rehovot was established in 1890 by Polish Jewish immigrants on land purchased from a Christian Arab. The biblical town of Rehoboth is located in the Negev Desert, Rehovot was established near a site called Khirbat Deiran, which now lies in the center of the built-up area of the city. Evidence of Jewish and possibly Samaritan occupants during the Roman and Byzantine periods has been found, the moshava of Rehovot was founded on the coastal plain by Polish Jews seeking to establish a township independent of the Baron Edmond James de Rothschild. The land was purchased by the Menuha Venahala society, an organization in Warsaw that raised funds for Jewish settlement in Eretz Israel and this meant that the land purchase represented a disruption to the livelihoods and lifestyles of those who had viewed it as theirs for generations. In March 1892, a dispute over pasture rights erupted between the residents of Rehovot and the village of Zarnuqa, which took two years to resolve. Another dispute broke out with the Suteriya Bedouin tribe, which had been cultivating some of the land as tenant farmers, according to Moshe Smilansky, one of the early settlers of Rehovot, the Bedouins had received compensation for the land, but refused to vacate it. In 1893, they attacked the moshava, through the intervention of a respected Arab sheikh, a compromise was reached, with the Bedouins receiving an additional sum of money, which they used to dig a well. In 1890, the region was a wasteland with no trees, houses or water. The settlers of Rehovot planted vineyards, almond orchards and citrus groves, but grappled with agricultural failures, plant diseases, the first citrus grove was planted by Zalman Minkov in 1904. Minkovs grove, surrounded by a wall, included a house, stables, a packing plant. The well was 23 meters deep, the height of an eight-story building, the water was channeled via an aqueduct to an irrigation pool, and from there to a network of ditches dug around the bases of the trees. By 1908, the idea was conceived of settling new Jewish immigrants on the land as agricultural laborers, only a few dozen Yemenite families had joined Rehovot by 1908. They built houses for themselves in a given to them at the south end of the town. In 1910, Shemuel Warshawsky, with the support of the JNF, was sent to Yemen to recruit more agricultural laborers. Hundreds arrived starting in 1911 and were housed first in a one kilometre south of Rehovot. In February 1914, Rothschild visited Rehovot during the fourth of his five visits to the Land of Israel. According to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities, Rehovot had a population of 1,242 inhabitants, increasing in 1931 census to 3193 inhabitants, in 833 houses
32.
Kfar Saba
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Kfar Saba, officially Kefar Sava, is a city in the Sharon region, of the Central District of Israel. In 2015 it had a population of 96,922, the origins of the name are not known - in Hebrew it means grandfathers village. Kfar Saba also appears in the Talmud in connection to corn tithing, excavations on the site have revealed the remains of a large Roman bathhouse. In the Byzantine periods the ruins of the bathhouse were first converted into fish pools, in 1596, the Arab village of Kafr Saba was inhabited by 42 Muslim families. In the 1870s it was described as a mud village of moderate size with mud-ponds around it and good water in the wells of Neby Yemin, the Jewish town of Kfar Saba was established in 1898 on 7,500 dunams of land purchased from the Arab village. The Ottoman pasha of Nablus, to whose governorate the land belonged, refused to give building permits, therefore the first settlers lived in huts made of clay and they earned their living by growing almonds, grapes and olives. Most of the manual laborers on the land were peasants from Qalqilya, only in 1912 were permits given and the settlers moved to permanent housing. In the Palestine campaign of World War I, Kfar Saba was on the front line between General Allenbys British Army and the Ottoman army, and was destroyed, at the same time about a thousand residents of Tel Aviv and Jaffa came to live in the town. They had been deported from their homes by the Ottomans. Due to the Jaffa riots of 1921 these deportees returned to their original cities, in 1922 the original residents returned and in 1924 additional settlers joined them. In this period the cultivation of citrus fruit developed, the first elections for the local council were held. In August 1947, a Jewish man was shot to death outside the village. In December 1947, Arab and Jewish leaders in the area pledged to keep the peace between the local communities, in the months leading up to the 1948 war, Kfar Saba was attacked by local militia from Arab Kafr Saba. The Arab Liberation Army, an army consisting of volunteers from several neighboring Arab countries, in 1962 Kfar Saba was awarded city status, with head of the local council, Mordechai Surkis, becoming its first mayor. Located just across the Green Line from Kalkilya, Kfar Saba has been a frequent target of terrorist attacks, in May 2001, a Palestinian Arab suicide bomber wearing an explosive belt killed a doctor and wounded 50 at a bus stop in Kfar Saba. In March 2002, a Palestinian terrorist opened fire on passersby at an intersection, killing an Israeli girl. In April 2003, a Palestinian suicide bomber blew himself up at the Kfar Saba train station during the rush hour, killing a security guard. The census of 1922 listed the population of Kfar Saba as 14 Jews, by the census of 1931 it had grown to 1405 inhabitants, in 395 houses
33.
Hadera
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Hadera is a city located in the Haifa District of Israel, in the northern Sharon region, approximately 45 kilometers from the major cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa. The city is located along 7 km of the Israeli Mediterranean Coastal Plain, the city has a population of about 91,634, which includes a high proportion of immigrants arriving since 1990, notably from Ethiopia and the former Soviet Union. In 2015 it had a population of 88,783, Hadera was established in 1891 as a farming colony by members of the Zionist group, Hovevei Zion, from Lithuania and Latvia. By 1948, it was a center with a population of 11,800. In 1952, Hadera was declared a city, with jurisdiction over an area of 53,000 dunams. Hadera was founded in 1891, in the early days modern Zionism by Jewish immigrants from Lithuania and Latvia on land purchased by Yehoshua Hankin, the land was purchased from a Christian effendi, Selim Khuri. This was the largest purchase of land in Eretz Israel by a Zionist group, although the land was of low quality, the only inhabitants prior to the purchase were a few families raising water buffaloes and selling reeds. The town may derive its name from the Arabic word khadra, the first settlers lived in a house known as the Khan near Haderas main synagogue. Initially, Hadera was a lonely outpost of 10 families and 4 guards, in its early years, however, the town had issues with land ownership having drained the swamps with the aid of Egyptian workers sent to them by Baron Edmond de Rothschild. Old tombstones in the local cemetery reveal that out of a population of 540,210 died of malaria, relations between the residents of Hadera and neighboring Bedouins were poor and HaShomer organization was assigned to guarding the fields. By the early century, the town had become a regional economic center. Land disputes in the area were resolved by the 1930s, by which time, free schooling was introduced in the city in 1937 in all schools apart from the Histadrut school. Haderas population began to grow dramatically after Israeli independence in 1948 as immigrants flocked to the country, among the immigrants to the city were Russian and other European immigrants and also 40 Yemenite families. In 1953, Israels first paper mill opened in the town, sponsored by investors from within Israel as well as from the United States, Brazil, and Australia, the mill was designed to meet all of Israels paper needs. It was also at this time that the Givat Olga neighborhood was constructed on the coast, in 1964, Hadera was declared a city. The city grew dramatically during the 1990s as it absorbed large numbers of Russian and Ethiopian immigrants, in addition, four civilians were killed when a terrorist opened fire on pedestrians at a bus stop on October 28,2001. However, since the construction of the nearby West Bank barrier, on August 4,2006, three rockets fired by Hezbollah hit Hadera. Hadera is 50 miles south of the Lebanese border and marked the farthest point inside Israel hit by Hezbollah, Hadera has traditionally been known as a backwater
34.
Hashomer
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Hashomer was a Jewish defense organization in Palestine founded out of Bar-Giora in April 1909. It ceased to operate after the founding of the Haganah in 1920, the purpose of Hashomer was to provide guard services for Jewish settlements in the Yishuv, freeing Jewish communities from dependence upon foreign consulates and Arab watchmen for their security. It was headed by a committee of three—Israel Shochat, Israel Giladi, Bar-Giora was founded in September 1907 by Israel Shochat, Alexander Zeid and Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, among others. Less than two years later, on April 12,1909 the Bar-Giora leadership decided at a meeting in Mesha to disband their organization and create a larger one, the Hashomer. While earlier settlers had undertaken to defend their lands and communities, a serious obstacle was the lack of funds with which to buy arms. On Yehoshua Hankins advice, they asked Eliahu Krause, the manager at Sejera, the first guns were bought, several of the members refusing to part from them even for a moment. They adopted local dress, and many of the customs of the Bedouins, Druze and they also drew inspiration from the history of the Cossacks. The first few Shomrim, worked on foot, but soon acquired horses, Mendel Portugali laid down the rules of engagement. You do not seek an encounter with the thief, you chase him off, after all, he is out to steal a bag of grain, not to murder you, so dont murder him, drive him off. If you hear footsteps, fire into the distance, if you feel he is a few steps away and you can fire without him falling upon you, fire into the distance. Only if your life is in danger—fire, guns used were the same as the locals, which included the jift, a single, or double-barrelled shotgun, the yunani and osmanli single-shot muskets, various rifles and Mauser pistols. Modern rifles, known as Abu-Hamsa, were the most prestigious, the shibriyeh and nabut were carried by all. Ammunition was expensive and hard to come by, so primitive production centers were set up, some of the older settlers were also worried that Hashomer might upset the status-quo with the local population. During World War I many of its members were exiled to Anatolia by the Ottoman government because they were enemy nationals, when the Turks caught Yosef Lishanski of the Nili group, he told all he knew, implicating twelve members of Hashomer. In 1920 it was decided to organize the Haganah, a much broader-based group, to cope with new defense challenges and needs of the growing Jewish community in Palestine. Many members of Hashomer joined the Jewish Legion, while others joined the mounted police, in June 1920 HaShomer ceased to exist as a separate body. Its members, however, maintained contact and made an important contribution to the Yishuvs defense, the Haganah itself became the core of the Israel Defense Forces. In addition to their role as watchmen of the Jewish settlements in the country, members of Hashomer established a number of settlements of their own, including Tel Adash, Tel Hai, Israel Shochat—One of the founders and leaders of the movement
35.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
36.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements
37.
Balfour Declaration
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The text of the letter was published in the press one week later, on 9 November 1917. The Balfour Declaration was later incorporated into both the Sèvres peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire, and the Mandate for Palestine, the original document is kept at the British Library. The Sharif of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi and other Arab leaders considered the Declaration a violation of agreements made in the McMahon-Hussein correspondence. The British claimed that the McMahon letters did not apply to Palestine, the issuance of the Declaration had many long lasting consequences, and was a key moment in the lead-up to the Arab–Israeli conflict, often referred to as the worlds most intractable conflict. Early British political support was precipitated in the late 1830s and led by Lord Palmerston, following the Eastern Crisis after Muhammad Ali occupied Syria, Zionism arose in the late 19th century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. In 1896 Herzl published Der Judenstaat, in which he asserted that the solution to the Jewish Question in Europe. This marked the emergence of political Zionism, a year later, Herzl founded the Zionist Organization, which at its first congress called for the establishment of a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law. Herzl died in 1904 without the political standing that was required to carry out his agenda of a Jewish home in Palestine. According to Weizmanns memoir, the conversation went as follows, Mr. Balfour, supposing I was to offer you Paris instead of London and he sat up, looked at me, and answered, But Dr. Weizmann, we have London. That is true, I said, but we had Jerusalem when London was a marsh and he. said two things which I remember vividly. The first was, Are there many Jews who think like you, I answered, I believe I speak the mind of millions of Jews whom you will never see and who cannot speak for themselves. To this he said, If that is so you will one day be a force, shortly before I withdrew, Balfour said, It is curious. The Jews I meet are quite different, I answered, Mr. Balfour, you meet the wrong kind of Jews. In 1914, war broke out in Europe between the Triple Entente and the Central Powers, on 10 December 1914 he met with the British cabinet member Herbert Samuel, a Zionist, who believed Weizmanns demands were too modest. Two days later, Weizmann met Balfour again, for the first time since 1906, a month later, Samuel circulated a memorandum entitled The Future of Palestine to his cabinet colleagues. It was the first time in a record that enlisting the support of Jews as a war measure was proposed. Lloyd-George described in his War Memoirs that Weizmann, explained his aspirations as to the repatriation of the Jews to the sacred land they had made famous. That was the fount and origin of the declaration about the National Home for the Jews in Palestine
38.
Ronald Storrs
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Sir Ronald Henry Amherst Storrs KCMG CBE was an official in the British Foreign and Colonial Office. He served as Oriental Secretary in Cairo, Military Governor of Jerusalem, Governor of Cyprus, the eldest son of John Storrs, the Dean of Rochester. Ronald Storrs was educated at Charterhouse School and Pembroke College, Cambridge where he gained a first class degree in the Classical Tripos. Storrs entered the Finance Ministry of the Egyptian Government in 1904, five years later becoming Oriental Secretary to the British Agency, T. E. Storrs was always first, and the great man among us. Storrs is thought to have underestimated Arab Muslim resistance to non-Muslim rule, in 1917 Storrs became, as he said, the first military governor of Jerusalem since Pontius Pilate, for which purpose he was given the army rank of colonel. He was in fact the second British military governor of Jerusalem, succeeding Brigadier General Neville Travers Borton, also known as Borton Pasha, in 1921 he became Civil Governor of Jerusalem and Judea. In both positions he attempted to support Zionism while protecting the rights of the Arab inhabitants of Palestine and he devoted much of his time to cultural matters, including town planning, and to Pro-Jerusalem, a cultural organisation that he founded. In 1919, Storrs was appointed a Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy, the country’s first chess club was the International Chess Club founded in Jerusalem in 1918 by Sir Ronald Storrs. Unfortunately the club closed within a year of its founding, due to the tensions between the Arabs and Jews. From 1926–1932 Storrs was Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Cyprus, a period included an attempted revolt during which Government House was burned to the ground. He was then appointed Governor of Northern Rhodesia in 1932 and he retired for health reasons in 1934, at the age of 53. Storrs was one of the six pallbearers at the funeral of T. E. Lawrence in 1935, in 1937 he published his memoirs Orientations. Between 1937 and 1945 he served on the London County Council and he died in 1955 and is buried at St John the Baptist Church, Pebmarsh. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Kingdom of Iraq Ronald Storrs, Lawrence of Arabia, Zionism and Palestine. Georghallides, G. S. Cyprus and the governorship of Sir Ronald Storrs, the Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs. Middle East Politics & Diplomacy, 1904–1956, The Private Letters, marlborough, Wiltshire, England, Adam Matthew Publications. A Record of the War – The Second Quarter, works by or about Ronald Storrs at Internet Archive Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs at Internet Archive
39.
Arab nationalism
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Arab nationalism is a nationalist ideology celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language and literature of the Arabs, calling for rejuvenation and political union in the Arab world. It rose to prominence with the weakening and defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, pan-Arabism is a related concept, in as much as it calls for supranational communalism among the Arab states. Arab nationalists believe that the Arab nation existed as an entity prior to the rise of nationalism in the 19th–20th century. The Arab nation was formed through the establishment of Arabic as the language of communication and with the advent of Islam as a religion. Both Arabic and Islam served as the pillars of the nation, within the Arab nationalist movement are three differentiations, the Arab nation, Arab nationalism, and pan-Arab unity. Local patriotism centered on individual Arab countries was incorporated into the framework of Arab nationalism starting in the 1920s, the word qawmiyya has been used to refer to pan-Arab nationalism, while wataniyya has been used to refer to patriotism at a more local level. In the post-World War years, the concept of qawmiyya gradually assumed a leftist coloration, the creation of revolutionary Arab unity. Groups who subscribed to this point of view advocated opposition, violent and non-violent, against Israel, the person most identified with qawmiyya was Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, who used both military and political power to spread his version of pan-Arab ideology throughout the Arab world. While qawmiyya still remains a potent political force today, the death of Nasser, the current dominant ideology among Arab policy makers has shifted to wataniyya. Throughout the late 19th century, beginning in the 1860s, a sense of loyalty to the Fatherland developed in intellectual circles based in the Levant and Egypt and it developed from observance of the technological successes of Western Europe which they attributed to the prevailing of patriotism in those countries. The Ottomans, on the hand, had deviated from true Islam. The reforming Ottoman and Egyptian governments were blamed for the situation because they attempted to borrow Western practices from the Europeans that were seen as unnatural, arabism and regional patriotism mixed and gained predominance over Ottomanism among some Arabs in Syria and Lebanon. Ibrahim al-Yazigi, a Syrian Christian philosopher, called for the Arabs to recover their lost ancient vitality, a secret society promoting this goal was formed in the late 1870s, with al-Yazigi as a member. The group placed placards in Beirut calling for a rebellion against the Ottomans and this distinction between fatherland and nation was also made by Hasan al-Marsafi in 1881. By the beginning of the 20th century, groups of Muslim Arabs embraced an Arab nationalist self-view that would provide as the basis of the Arab nationalist ideology of the 20th century. This new version of Arab patriotism was directly influenced by the Islamic modernism and revivalism of Muhammad Abduh, Abduh believed the Arabs Muslim ancestors bestowed rationality on mankind and created the essentials of modernity, borrowed by the West. Thus, while Europe advanced from adopting the modernist ideals of true Islam, one of Abduhs followers, Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi, openly declared that the Ottoman Empire should be both Turkish and Arab, with the latter exercising religious and cultural leadership. In 1911, Muslim intellectuals and politicians throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat
40.
Palestinian nationalism
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Palestinian nationalism is the national movement of the Palestinian people for self-determination in and sovereignty over Palestine. Originally formed in opposition to Zionism, Palestinian nationalism later resisted Pan-Arabist tendencies as well, thus it has rejected the historic occupation of the Palestinian territories by Israel and the non-domestic Arab rule by Egypt over the Gaza Strip and Jordan over the West Bank. Before the development of nationalism, loyalty tended to focus on a city or a particular leader. The term Nationalismus, translated as nationalism, was coined by Johann Gottfried Herder in the late 1770s, Palestinian nationalism has been compared to other nationalist movements, such as Pan-Arabism and Zionism. Some nationalists argue that the nation was always there, indeed it is part of the natural order, even when it was submerged in the hearts of its members. In the book, Akim Olesnitskys A Description of the Holy Land, Beidas explained that the agricultural work in Palestine began in May with the wheat. He added, though, that the term Palestinian had already been used earlier in Western languages by the British James Finn, the German Ludwig Schneller. Khalidi stresses that Palestinian identity has never been a one, with Arabism, religion. He acknowledges that Zionism played a role in shaping this identity and he writes that, local patriotism could not yet be described as nation-state nationalism. Gerber describes this as embryonic territorial awareness, though the reference is to social rather than to a political one. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some other, why else would there be the need to specify who you are. And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose, even the concept of Arab nationalism in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, had not reached significant proportions before the outbreak of World War I. Daniel Pipes asserts that No Palestinian Arab people existed at the start of 1920, under the Ottomans, Palestines Arab population mostly saw themselves as Ottoman subjects. In the 1830s however, Palestine was occupied by the Egyptian vassal of the Ottomans, Muhammad Ali, the Palestinian Arab revolt was precipitated by popular resistance against heavy demands for conscripts, as peasants were well aware that conscription was little more than a death sentence. Starting in May 1834 the rebels took many cities, among them Jerusalem, Hebron, in response, Ibrahim Pasha sent in an army, finally defeating the last rebels on 4 August in Hebron. The Egyptian occupation of Palestine in the 1830s resulted in the destruction of Acre and thus, the Ottomans wrested back control of Palestine from the Egyptians in 1840-41. As a result, the Abd al-Hadi clan, who originated in Arrabah in the Sahl Arraba region in northern Samaria, loyal allies of Jezzar Pasha and the Tuqans, they gained the governorship of Jabal Nablus and other sanjaqs. In 1887 the mutassariflik of Jerusalem was constituted as part of an Ottoman government policy dividing the vilayet of Greater Syria into smaller administrative units, the administration of the mutassariflik took on a distinctly local appearance
41.
Anno Mundi
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Anno Mundi, abbreviated as AM or A. M. or Year After Creation, is a calendar era based on the biblical accounts of the creation of the world and subsequent history. That calendar is similar to the Julian calendar except that its epoch is equivalent to 1 September 5509 BC on the Julian proleptic calendar, the Hebrew calendar is based on rabbinic calculations of the year of creation from the Hebrew Masoretic text of the bible. This calendar is used within Jewish communities for religious and other purposes, on the Hebrew calendar, the day begins at sunset. The calendars epoch, corresponding to the date of the worlds creation, is equivalent to sunset on the Julian proleptic calendar date 6 October 3761 BC. The new year begins at Rosh Hashanah, roughly in September, Year anno mundi 5777, or AM5777, began at sunset on 2 October 2016 on the Gregorian calendar. While differences in biblical interpretation or in calculation methodology can produce differences in the creation date. The primary reason for the disparity seems to lie in which underlying Biblical text is chosen, most of the 1, 732-year difference resides in numerical discrepancies in the genealogies of the two versions of the Book of Genesis. The net difference between the two genealogies of Genesis is 1466 years, 85% of the total difference. During the Talmudic era, from the 1st to the 10th centuries AD, jews in these regions used Seleucid Era dating as the primary method for calculating the calendar year. Why not say that it is reckoned from the Exodus from Egypt, omitting the first thousand years, in that case, the document is really post-dated. Said Rav Nahman, In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used and he thought that Rav Nahman wanted to dispose of him anyhow, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it is indeed taught, In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used. By his calculation, based on the Masoretic Text, Adam and Eve were created on 1st of Tishrei in 3760 BC, in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe, so calculations from the Seleucid era became meaningless. From the 11th century, anno mundi dating became dominant throughout most of the worlds Jewish communities, the new system reached its definitive form in AD1178 when Maimonides completed the Mishneh Torah. In the section Sanctification of the Moon, he wrote of his choice of Epoch, from which calculations of all dates should be made, which is the year 4938 of the creation of the world. He included all the rules for the calculated calendar epoch and their basis, including the modern epochal year in his work. The first year of the Jewish calendar, Anno Mundi 1, began one year before Creation. The first five days of Jewish Creation week occupy the last five days of AM1, the sixth day of Creation, when Adam and Eve were created, is the first day of AM2, Rosh Hashanah. Its associated molad Adam occurred on Day 5 at 14 hours and this is also called molad BaHaRaD, because it occurred on Day 2,5 hours,204 parts
42.
Tom Segev
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Tom Segev is an Israeli historian, author and journalist. He is associated with Israels New Historians, a group challenging many of the countrys traditional narratives, tom Segev was born in Jerusalem to parents who had fled Nazi Germany in 1933. He earned a BA in history and political science from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Segev worked during the 1970s as a correspondent for Maariv in Bonn. He was a professor at Rutgers University, the University of California at Berkeley and Northeastern University. He writes a column for the newspaper Haaretz. His books have appeared in fourteen languages, in The Seventh Million, The Israelis and the Holocaust, Segev explores the decisive impact of the Holocaust on the identity, ideology and politics of Israel. Although controversial, it was praised by Elie Wiesel in the Los Angeles Times Book Review, Segev also doubts that the Arab neighbours would have really attacked Israel. Still, there were large segments of the Israeli population that had a fear that the Egyptians and Syrians would eliminate them. This would have increased the pressure for the Israeli government in such a way that it opted for a preemptive attack, the attack by the Jordanian army to West Jerusalem would have provided a welcoming reason to invade East Jerusalem, according to Segev. Even though the occupation of East Jerusalem was not politically planned, ethan Bronner in The New York Times Book Review wrote, It does not tell the whole story of the war, barely focusing on Arab activity. If you plan to only one book on the 1967 war. Writing in International Socialist Review, Hadas Thier found the 688-page book at times a tediously detailed read with thin analysis but called it an indispensable contribution. He also says that by disregarding the Arab dynamic and twisting his text to meet a revisionist agenda, such an understanding is vital if Arabs and Israelis are to avoid similar clashes in the future and peacefully co-exist. Benny Morris also criticized the book in a review in The New Republic, Morris writes that he is open to historical revisionism but that Segevs central argument about Israels internal condition leading up to the war is essentially false. He adds, For Segev, Arab politics and Arab society have no bearing upon the understanding of the origins of the war. Is book points readers and scholars in no worthwhile direction and its argument is not merely wrong, it also makes a small contribution of its own to the contemporary delegitimation of Israel. By Segev from The New York Review of Books
43.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
44.
Haaretz
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It was founded in 1918, making it the longest running newspaper currently still in print in Israel, and is now published in both Hebrew and English in Berliner format. The English edition is published and sold together with the International New York Times, both Hebrew and English editions can be read on the Internet. In North America, it out as a weekly newspaper. It is known for its left-wing and liberal stances on domestic, as of 2016, the newspaper had a weekday exposure rate of 3. 9% in Israel, significantly lower than the countrys other national newspapers. Haaretz was first published in 1918 as a newspaper sponsored by the British military government in Palestine, in 1919, it was taken over by a group of socialist-oriented Zionists, mainly from Russia. The newspaper was established on 18 June 1919 by a group of businessmen including prominent philanthropist Isaac Leib Goldberg, later, the name was shortened to Haaretz. The literary section of the paper attracted leading Hebrew writers of the time, the newspaper was initially published in Jerusalem. From 1919 to 1922, the paper was headed by a succession of editors and it was shut down briefly due to a budgetary shortfall and reopened in Tel Aviv at the beginning of 1923 under the editorship of Moshe Glickson, who held the post for 15 years. The Tel Aviv municipality granted the financial support by paying in advance for future advertisements. Salman Schocken, a wealthy German Jewish Zionist who owned a chain of department stores in Germany and his son, Gershom Schocken, became the chief editor in 1939 and held that position until his death in 1990. Until August 2006, the Schocken family owned 100% of the Haaretz Group, the deal was negotiated with the help of former Israeli ambassador to Germany, Avi Primor. This deal was seen as controversial in Israel as DuMont Schaubergs father, Kurt Neven DuMont, was member of the German Nazi party, while his publishing house promoted Nazi ideology. On 12 June 2011, it was announced that Russian-Israeli businessman Leonid Nevzlin had purchased a 20% stake in the Haaretz Group, buying 15% from the family and this means that the Schocken family now owns 60% and M. DuMont Schauberg and Leonid Nevzlin have 20% each. In October 2012, a union strike mobilized to protest planned layoffs by the Haaretz management, as a consequence, both the Haaretz newspaper and its TheMarker business supplement were not printed for one day. According to Israel Radio, it was the first time since 1965 that a newspaper did not go to press on account of a strike, the newspapers editorial policy was defined by Gershom Schocken, who was editor-in-chief from 1939 to 1990. Schocken was succeeded as editor-in-chief by Hanoch Marmari, in 2004 David Landau replaced Marmari and was succeeded by Dov Alfon in 2008. The current editor-in-chief of the newspaper is Aluf Benn, who replaced Alfon in August 2011, charlotte Halle became editor of the English Print Edition in February 2008. Haaretz describes itself as having a liberal outlook both on domestic issues and on international affairs
45.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
