1.
1 (number)
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1, is a number, a numeral, and the name of the glyph representing that number. It represents a single entity, the unit of counting or measurement, for example, a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1. It is also the first of the series of natural numbers. The word one can be used as a noun, an adjective and it comes from the English word an, which comes from the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz. The Proto-Germanic root *ainaz comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no-, compare the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz to Old Frisian an, Gothic ains, Danish een, Dutch een, German eins and Old Norse einn. Compare the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no- to Greek oinos, Latin unus, Old Persian aivam, Old Church Slavonic -inu and ino-, Lithuanian vienas, Old Irish oin, One, sometimes referred to as unity, is the first non-zero natural number. It is thus the integer before two and after zero, and the first positive odd number, any number multiplied by one is that number, as one is the identity for multiplication. As a result,1 is its own factorial, its own square, its own cube, One is also the result of the empty product, as any number multiplied by one is itself. It is also the natural number that is neither composite nor prime with respect to division. The Gupta wrote it as a line, and the Nagari sometimes added a small circle on the left. The Nepali also rotated it to the right but kept the circle small and this eventually became the top serif in the modern numeral, but the occasional short horizontal line at the bottom probably originates from similarity with the Roman numeral I. Where the 1 is written with an upstroke, the number 7 has a horizontal stroke through the vertical line. While the shape of the 1 character has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures, many older typewriters do not have a separate symbol for 1 and use the lowercase letter l instead. It is possible to find cases when the uppercase J is used,1 cannot be used as the base of a positional numeral system, as the only digit that would be permitted in such a system would be 0. Since the base 1 exponential function always equals 1, its inverse does not exist, there are two ways to write the real number 1 as a recurring decimal, as 1.000. and as 0.999. There is only one way to represent the real number 1 as a Dedekind cut, in a multiplicative group or monoid, the identity element is sometimes denoted 1, but e is also traditional. However,1 is especially common for the identity of a ring. When such a ring has characteristic n not equal to 0,1 is the first figurate number of every kind, such as triangular number, pentagonal number and centered hexagonal number, to name just a few
2.
3 (number)
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3 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 2 and preceding 4. Three is the largest number still written with as many lines as the number represents, to this day 3 is written as three lines in Roman and Chinese numerals. This was the way the Brahmin Indians wrote it, and the Gupta made the three lines more curved, the Nagari started rotating the lines clockwise and ending each line with a slight downward stroke on the right. Eventually they made these strokes connect with the lines below, and it was the Western Ghubar Arabs who finally eliminated the extra stroke and created our modern 3. ٣ While the shape of the 3 character has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character usually has a descender, as, for example, in some French text-figure typefaces, though, it has an ascender instead of a descender. A common variant of the digit 3 has a flat top and this form is sometimes used to prevent people from fraudulently changing a 3 into an 8. It is usually found on UPC-A barcodes and standard 52-card decks,3 is, a rough approximation of π and a very rough approximation of e when doing quick estimates. The first odd prime number, and the second smallest prime, the only number that is both a Fermat prime and a Mersenne prime. The first unique prime due to the properties of its reciprocal, the second triangular number and it is the only prime triangular number. Both the zeroth and third Perrin numbers in the Perrin sequence, the smallest number of sides that a simple polygon can have. The only prime which is one less than a perfect square, any other number which is n2 −1 for some integer n is not prime, since it is. This is true for 3 as well, but in case the smaller factor is 1. If n is greater than 2, both n −1 and n +1 are greater than 1 so their product is not prime, the number of non-collinear points needed to determine a plane and a circle. Also, Vulgar fractions with 3 in the denominator have a single digit repeating sequences in their decimal expansions,0.000, a natural number is divisible by three if the sum of its digits in base 10 is divisible by 3. For example, the number 21 is divisible by three and the sum of its digits is 2 +1 =3, because of this, the reverse of any number that is divisible by three is also divisible by three. For instance,1368 and its reverse 8631 are both divisible by three and this works in base 10 and in any positional numeral system whose base divided by three leaves a remainder of one. Three of the five regular polyhedra have triangular faces – the tetrahedron, the octahedron, also, three of the five regular polyhedra have vertices where three faces meet – the tetrahedron, the hexahedron, and the dodecahedron
3.
0 (number)
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0 is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. The number 0 fulfills a role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers. As a digit,0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems, names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought or naught, nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter O—oh or o. Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip, ought and aught, as well as cipher, have also been used historically. The word zero came into the English language via French zéro from Italian zero, in pre-Islamic time the word ṣifr had the meaning empty. Sifr evolved to mean zero when it was used to translate śūnya from India, the first known English use of zero was in 1598. The Italian mathematician Fibonacci, who grew up in North Africa and is credited with introducing the system to Europe. This became zefiro in Italian, and was contracted to zero in Venetian. The Italian word zefiro was already in existence and may have influenced the spelling when transcribing Arabic ṣifr, modern usage There are different words used for the number or concept of zero depending on the context. For the simple notion of lacking, the words nothing and none are often used, sometimes the words nought, naught and aught are used. Several sports have specific words for zero, such as nil in football, love in tennis and it is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers. Slang words for zero include zip, zilch, nada, duck egg and goose egg are also slang for zero. Ancient Egyptian numerals were base 10 and they used hieroglyphs for the digits and were not positional. By 1740 BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian mathematics had a sophisticated sexagesimal positional numeral system, the lack of a positional value was indicated by a space between sexagesimal numerals. By 300 BC, a symbol was co-opted as a placeholder in the same Babylonian system. In a tablet unearthed at Kish, the scribe Bêl-bân-aplu wrote his zeros with three hooks, rather than two slanted wedges, the Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone
4.
2 (number)
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2 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 1 and preceding 3. The number two has many properties in mathematics, an integer is called even if it is divisible by 2. For integers written in a system based on an even number, such as decimal and hexadecimal. If it is even, then the number is even. In particular, when written in the system, all multiples of 2 will end in 0,2,4,6. In numeral systems based on an odd number, divisibility by 2 can be tested by having a root that is even. Two is the smallest and first prime number, and the only prime number. Two and three are the two consecutive prime numbers. 2 is the first Sophie Germain prime, the first factorial prime, the first Lucas prime, the first Ramanujan prime, and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also a Stern prime, a Pell number, the first Fibonacci prime, and it is the third Fibonacci number, and the second and fourth Perrin numbers. Despite being prime, two is also a highly composite number, because it is a natural number which has more divisors than any other number scaled relative to the number itself. The next superior highly composite number is six, vulgar fractions with only 2 or 5 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, as is the case with all other primes, because 2 and 5 are factors of ten, the decimal base. Two is the number x such that the sum of the reciprocals of the powers of x equals itself. In symbols ∑ k =0 ∞12 k =1 +12 +14 +18 +116 + ⋯ =2. This comes from the fact that, ∑ k =0 ∞1 n k =1 +1 n −1 for all n ∈ R >1, powers of two are central to the concept of Mersenne primes, and important to computer science. Two is the first Mersenne prime exponent, the square root of 2 was the first known irrational number. The smallest field has two elements, in the set-theoretical construction of the natural numbers,2 is identified with the set
5.
4 (number)
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4 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 3 and preceding 5. Four is the only cardinal numeral in the English language that has the number of letters as its number value. Four is the smallest composite number, its divisors being 1 and 2. Four is also a composite number. The next highly composite number is 6, Four is the second square number, the second centered triangular number. 4 is the smallest squared prime and the even number in this form. It has a sum of 3 which is itself prime. The aliquot sequence of 4 has 4 members and is accordingly the first member of the 3-aliquot tree, a number is a multiple of 4 if its last two digits are a multiple of 4. For example,1092 is a multiple of 4 because 92 =4 ×23, only one number has an aliquot sum of 4 and that is squared prime 9. Four is the smallest composite number that is equal to the sum of its prime factors, however, it is the only composite number n for which. It is also a Motzkin number, in bases 6 and 12,4 is a 1-automorphic number. In addition,2 +2 =2 ×2 =22 =4, continuing the pattern in Knuths up-arrow notation,2 ↑↑2 =2 ↑↑↑2 =4, and so on, for any number of up arrows. A four-sided plane figure is a quadrilateral which include kites, rhombi, a circle divided by 4 makes right angles and four quadrants. Because of it, four is the number of plane. Four cardinal directions, four seasons, duodecimal system, and vigesimal system are based on four, a solid figure with four faces as well as four vertices is a tetrahedron, and 4 is the smallest possible number of faces of a polyhedron. The regular tetrahedron is the simplest Platonic solid, a tetrahedron, which can also be called a 3-simplex, has four triangular faces and four vertices. It is the only regular polyhedron
6.
5 (number)
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5 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 4 and preceding 6. Five is the prime number. Because it can be written as 221 +1, five is classified as a Fermat prime, therefore a regular polygon with 5 sides is constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge. 5 is the third Sophie Germain prime, the first safe prime, the third Catalan number, Five is the first Wilson prime and the third factorial prime, also an alternating factorial. Five is the first good prime and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also the number that is part of more than one pair of twin primes. Five is conjectured to be the only odd number and if this is the case then five will be the only odd prime number that is not the base of an aliquot tree. Five is also the only prime that is the sum of two primes, namely 2 and 3. The number 5 is the fifth Fibonacci number, being 2 plus 3,5 is also a Pell number and a Markov number, appearing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation. Whereas 5 is unique in the Fibonacci sequence, in the Perrin sequence 5 is both the fifth and sixth Perrin numbers,5 is the length of the hypotenuse of the smallest integer-sided right triangle. In bases 10 and 20,5 is a 1-automorphic number,5 and 6 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under either definition. There are five solutions to Známs problem of length 6 and this is related to the fact that the symmetric group Sn is a solvable group for n ≤4 and not solvable for n ≥5. While all graphs with 4 or fewer vertices are planar, there exists a graph with 5 vertices which is not planar, K5, Five is also the number of Platonic solids. A polygon with five sides is a pentagon, figurate numbers representing pentagons are called pentagonal numbers. Five is also a square pyramidal number, Five is the only prime number to end in the digit 5, because all other numbers written with a 5 in the ones-place under the decimal system are multiples of five. As a consequence of this,5 is in base 10 a 1-automorphic number, vulgar fractions with 5 or 2 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, unlike expansions with all other prime denominators, because they are prime factors of ten, the base. When written in the system, all multiples of 5 will end in either 5 or 0
7.
6 (number)
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6 is the natural number following 5 and preceding 7. The SI prefix for 10006 is exa-, and for its reciprocal atto-,6 is the smallest positive integer which is neither a square number nor a prime number. Six is the second smallest composite number, its proper divisors are 1,2 and 3, since six equals the sum of its proper divisors, six is the smallest perfect number, Granville number, and S -perfect number. As a perfect number,6 is related to the Mersenne prime 3,6 is the only even perfect number that is not the sum of successive odd cubes. As a perfect number,6 is the root of the 6-aliquot tree, and is itself the sum of only one number. Six is the number that is both the sum and the product of three consecutive positive numbers. Unrelated to 6 being a number, a Golomb ruler of length 6 is a perfect ruler. Six is the first discrete biprime and the first member of the discrete biprime family, Six is the smallest natural number that can be written as the sum of two positive rational cubes which are not integers,6 =3 +3. Six is a perfect number, a harmonic divisor number and a superior highly composite number. The next superior highly composite number is 12,5 and 6 form a Ruth-Aaron pair under either definition. There are no Graeco-Latin squares with order 6, if n is a natural number that is not 2 or 6, then there is a Graeco-Latin square with order n. The smallest non-abelian group is the symmetric group S3 which has 3, s6, with 720 elements, is the only finite symmetric group which has an outer automorphism. This automorphism allows us to construct a number of mathematical objects such as the S Steiner system, the projective plane of order 4. This can also be expressed category theoretically, consider the category whose objects are the n element sets and this category has a non-trivial functor to itself only for n =6. 6 similar coins can be arranged around a central coin of the radius so that each coin makes contact with the central one. This makes 6 the answer to the kissing number problem. The densest sphere packing of the plane is obtained by extending this pattern to the lattice in which each circle touches just six others. 6 is the largest of the four all-Harshad numbers, a six-sided polygon is a hexagon, one of the three regular polygons capable of tiling the plane
8.
7 (number)
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7 is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8. Seven, the prime number, is not only a Mersenne prime. It is also a Newman–Shanks–Williams prime, a Woodall prime, a prime, a lucky prime, a happy number, a safe prime. Seven is the lowest natural number that cannot be represented as the sum of the squares of three integers, Seven is the aliquot sum of one number, the cubic number 8 and is the base of the 7-aliquot tree. N =7 is the first natural number for which the statement does not hold, Two nilpotent endomorphisms from Cn with the same minimal polynomial. 7 is the only number D for which the equation 2n − D = x2 has more than two solutions for n and x natural, in particular, the equation 2n −7 = x2 is known as the Ramanujan–Nagell equation. 7 is the dimension, besides the familiar 3, in which a vector cross product can be defined. 7 is the lowest dimension of an exotic sphere, although there may exist as yet unknown exotic smooth structures on the 4-dimensional sphere. 999,999 divided by 7 is exactly 142,857, for example, 1/7 =0.142857142857. and 2/7 =0.285714285714. In fact, if one sorts the digits in the number 142857 in ascending order,124578, the remainder of dividing any number by 7 will give the position in the sequence 124578 that the decimal part of the resulting number will start. For example,628 ÷7 =89 5/7, here 5 is the remainder, so in this case,628 ÷7 =89.714285. Another example,5238 ÷7 =748 2/7, hence the remainder is 2, in this case,5238 ÷7 =748.285714. A seven-sided shape is a heptagon, the regular n-gons for n ≤6 can be constructed by compass and straightedge alone, but the regular heptagon cannot. Figurate numbers representing heptagons are called heptagonal numbers, Seven is also a centered hexagonal number. Seven is the first integer reciprocal with infinitely repeating sexagesimal representation, There are seven frieze groups, the groups consisting of symmetries of the plane whose group of translations is isomorphic to the group of integers. There are seven types of catastrophes. When rolling two standard six-sided dice, seven has a 6 in 36 probability of being rolled, the greatest of any number, the Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems in mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000. Currently, six of the problems remain unsolved, in quaternary,7 is the smallest prime with a composite sum of digits
9.
8 (number)
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8 is the natural number following 7 and preceding 9. 8 is, a number, its proper divisors being 1,2. It is twice 4 or four times 2, a power of two, being 23, and is the first number of the form p3, p being an integer greater than 1. The first number which is neither prime nor semiprime, the base of the octal number system, which is mostly used with computers. In octal, one digit represents 3 bits, in modern computers, a byte is a grouping of eight bits, also called an octet. A Fibonacci number, being 3 plus 5, the next Fibonacci number is 13. 8 is the only positive Fibonacci number, aside from 1, the order of the smallest non-abelian group all of whose subgroups are normal. The dimension of the octonions and is the highest possible dimension of a division algebra. The first number to be the sum of two numbers other than itself, the discrete biprime 10, and the square number 49. It has a sum of 7 in the 4 member aliquot sequence being the first member of 7-aliquot tree. All powers of 2, have a sum of one less than themselves. A number is divisible by 8 if its last 3 digits,8 and 9 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under the second definition in which repeated prime factors are counted as often as they occur. There are a total of eight convex deltahedra, a polygon with eight sides is an octagon. Figurate numbers representing octagons are called octagonal numbers, a polyhedron with eight faces is an octahedron. A cuboctahedron has as faces six equal squares and eight regular triangles. Sphenic numbers always have exactly eight divisors, the number 8 is involved with a number of interesting mathematical phenomena related to the notion of Bott periodicity. For example, if O is the limit of the inclusions of real orthogonal groups O ↪ O ↪ … ↪ O ↪ …. Clifford algebras also display a periodicity of 8, for example, the algebra Cl is isomorphic to the algebra of 16 by 16 matrices with entries in Cl
10.
9 (number)
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9 is the natural number following 8 and preceding 10. In the NATO phonetic alphabet, the digit 9 is called Niner, five-digit produce PLU codes that begin with 9 are organic. Common terminal digit in psychological pricing, Nine is a number that appears often in Indian Culture and mythology. Nine influencers are attested in Indian astrology, in the Vaisheshika branch of Hindu philosophy, there are nine universal substances or elements, Earth, Water, Air, Fire, Ether, Time, Space, Soul, and Mind. Navaratri is a festival dedicated to the nine forms of Durga. Navaratna, meaning 9 jewels may also refer to Navaratnas - accomplished courtiers, Navratan - a kind of dish, according to Yoga, the human body has nine doors - two eyes, two ears, the mouth, two nostrils, and the openings for defecation and procreation. In Indian aesthetics, there are nine kinds of Rasa, Nine is considered a good number in Chinese culture because it sounds the same as the word long-lasting. Nine is strongly associated with the Chinese dragon, a symbol of magic, there are nine forms of the dragon, it is described in terms of nine attributes, and it has nine children. It has 117 scales –81 yang and 36 yin, all three numbers are multiples of 9 as well as having the same digital root of 9. The dragon often symbolizes the Emperor, and the number nine can be found in many ornaments in the Forbidden City, the name of the area called Kowloon in Hong Kong literally means, nine dragons. The nine-dotted line delimits certain island claims by China in the South China Sea, the nine-rank system was a civil service nomination system used during certain Chinese dynasties. 9 Points of the Heart / Heart Master Channels in Traditional Chinese Medicine, the nine bows is a term used in Ancient Egypt to represent the traditional enemies of Egypt. The Ennead is a group of nine Egyptian deities, who, in versions of the Osiris myth. The Nine Worthies are nine historical, or semi-legendary figures who, in Norse mythology, the universe is divided into nine worlds which are all connected by the world tree Yggdrasil. The nine Muses in Greek mythology are Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Melpomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia and it takes nine days to fall from heaven to earth, and nine more to fall from earth to Tartarus—a place of torment in the underworld. Leto labored for nine days and nine nights for Apollo, according to the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, according to Georges Ifrah, the origin of the 9 integers can be attributed to ancient Indian civilization, and was adopted by subsequent civilizations in conjunction with the 0. In the beginning, various Indians wrote 9 similar to the modern closing question mark without the bottom dot, the Kshatrapa, Andhra and Gupta started curving the bottom vertical line coming up with a 3-look-alike. The Nagari continued the bottom stroke to make a circle and enclose the 3-look-alike, as time went on, the enclosing circle became bigger and its line continued beyond the circle downwards, as the 3-look-alike became smaller
11.
10 (number)
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10 is an even natural number following 9 and preceding 11. Ten is the base of the numeral system, by far the most common system of denoting numbers in both spoken and written language. The reason for the choice of ten is assumed to be that humans have ten fingers, a collection of ten items is called a decade. The ordinal adjective is decimal, the adjective is denary. Increasing a quantity by one order of magnitude is most widely understood to mean multiplying the quantity by ten, to reduce something by one tenth is to decimate. A theoretical highest number in topics that require a rating, by contrast having 0 or 1 as the lowest number, Ten is a composite number, its proper divisors being 1,2 and 5. Ten is the smallest noncototient, a number that cannot be expressed as the difference between any integer and the number of coprimes below it. Ten is the discrete semiprime and the second member of the discrete semiprime family. Ten has an aliquot sum σ of 8 and is accordingly the first discrete semiprime to be in deficit, all subsequent discrete semiprimes are in deficit. The aliquot sequence for 10 comprises five members with this number being the second member of the 7-aliquot tree. Ten is the smallest semiprime that is the sum of all the prime numbers from its lower factor through its higher factor Only three other small semiprimes share this attribute. It is the sum of only one number the discrete semiprime 14. Ten is the sum of the first three numbers, of the four first numbers, of the square of the two first odd numbers and also of the first four factorials. Ten is the eighth Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by 5,5,7, a polygon with ten sides is a decagon, and 10 is a decagonal number. Because 10 is the product of a power of 2 with nothing but distinct Fermat primes, Ten is also a triangular number, a centered triangular number, and a tetrahedral number. Ten is the number of n queens problem solutions for n =5, Ten is the smallest number whose status as a possible friendly number is unknown. As is the case for any base in its system, ten is the first two-digit number in decimal, any integer written in the decimal system can be multiplied by ten by adding a zero to the end. The Roman numeral for ten is X, it is thought that the V for five is derived from an open hand, incidentally, the Chinese word numeral for ten, is also a cross, 十
12.
Integer
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An integer is a number that can be written without a fractional component. For example,21,4,0, and −2048 are integers, while 9.75, 5 1⁄2, the set of integers consists of zero, the positive natural numbers, also called whole numbers or counting numbers, and their additive inverses. This is often denoted by a boldface Z or blackboard bold Z standing for the German word Zahlen, ℤ is a subset of the sets of rational and real numbers and, like the natural numbers, is countably infinite. The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers, in algebraic number theory, the integers are sometimes called rational integers to distinguish them from the more general algebraic integers. In fact, the integers are the integers that are also rational numbers. Like the natural numbers, Z is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication, that is, however, with the inclusion of the negative natural numbers, and, importantly,0, Z is also closed under subtraction. The integers form a ring which is the most basic one, in the following sense, for any unital ring. This universal property, namely to be an object in the category of rings. Z is not closed under division, since the quotient of two integers, need not be an integer, although the natural numbers are closed under exponentiation, the integers are not. The following lists some of the properties of addition and multiplication for any integers a, b and c. In the language of algebra, the first five properties listed above for addition say that Z under addition is an abelian group. As a group under addition, Z is a cyclic group, in fact, Z under addition is the only infinite cyclic group, in the sense that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z. The first four properties listed above for multiplication say that Z under multiplication is a commutative monoid. However, not every integer has an inverse, e. g. there is no integer x such that 2x =1, because the left hand side is even. This means that Z under multiplication is not a group, all the rules from the above property table, except for the last, taken together say that Z together with addition and multiplication is a commutative ring with unity. It is the prototype of all objects of algebraic structure. Only those equalities of expressions are true in Z for all values of variables, note that certain non-zero integers map to zero in certain rings. The lack of zero-divisors in the means that the commutative ring Z is an integral domain
13.
Negative number
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In mathematics, a negative number is a real number that is less than zero. If positive represents movement to the right, negative represents movement to the left, if positive represents above sea level, then negative represents below level. If positive represents a deposit, negative represents a withdrawal and they are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed may be thought of as a negative asset, if a quantity may have either of two opposite senses, then one may choose to distinguish between those senses—perhaps arbitrarily—as positive and negative. In the medical context of fighting a tumor, an expansion could be thought of as a negative shrinkage, negative numbers are used to describe values on a scale that goes below zero, such as the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales for temperature. The laws of arithmetic for negative numbers ensure that the common idea of an opposite is reflected in arithmetic. For example, − −3 =3 because the opposite of an opposite is the original thing, negative numbers are usually written with a minus sign in front. For example, −3 represents a quantity with a magnitude of three, and is pronounced minus three or negative three. To help tell the difference between a subtraction operation and a number, occasionally the negative sign is placed slightly higher than the minus sign. Conversely, a number that is greater than zero is called positive, the positivity of a number may be emphasized by placing a plus sign before it, e. g. +3. In general, the negativity or positivity of a number is referred to as its sign, every real number other than zero is either positive or negative. The positive whole numbers are referred to as natural numbers, while the positive and negative numbers are referred to as integers. In bookkeeping, amounts owed are often represented by red numbers, or a number in parentheses, Liu Hui established rules for adding and subtracting negative numbers. By the 7th century, Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta were describing the use of negative numbers, islamic mathematicians further developed the rules of subtracting and multiplying negative numbers and solved problems with negative coefficients. Western mathematicians accepted the idea of numbers by the 17th century. Prior to the concept of numbers, mathematicians such as Diophantus considered negative solutions to problems false. Negative numbers can be thought of as resulting from the subtraction of a number from a smaller. For example, negative three is the result of subtracting three from zero,0 −3 = −3, in general, the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller yields a negative result, with the magnitude of the result being the difference between the two numbers
14.
20 (number)
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20 is the natural number following 19 and preceding 21. A group of twenty units may also be referred to as a score,20 is a tetrahedral number as 1,4,10,20. 20 is the basis for vigesimal number systems,20 is the third composite number comprising the product of a squared prime and a prime, and also the second member of the q family in this form. 20 has a sum of 22. Accordingly,20 is the abundant number and demonstrates an 8-member aliquot sequence. 20 is the smallest primitive abundant number,20 is the 4th composite number in the 7-aliquot tree. Two numbers have 20 as their sum, the discrete semiprime 34. Only 2 other square primes are abundant 12 and 18,20 can be written as the sum of three Fibonacci numbers uniquely, i. e.20 =13 +5 +2. The product of the number of divisors and the number of divisors of 20 is exactly 20. 20 is the number of required to optimally solve a Rubiks Cube in the worst case. 20 is the number with more than one digit that can be written from base 2 to base 20 using only the digits 0 to 9. The third magic number in physics, the IAU shower number for Coma Berenicids. The number of amino acids that are encoded by the standard genetic code. In some countries, the number 20 is used as an index in measuring visual acuity, 20/20 indicates normal vision at 20 feet, although it is commonly used to mean perfect vision. When someone is able to see only after an event how things turned out, the Baltimore Orioles and Cincinnati Reds, both for Hall of Famer Frank Robinson. The Kansas City Royals, for Frank White, the Los Angeles Dodgers, for Hall of Famer Don Sutton. The Philadelphia Phillies, for Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt, the Pittsburgh Pirates, for Hall of Famer Pie Traynor. The St. Louis Cardinals, for Hall of Famer Lou Brock, the San Francisco Giants, for Hall of Famer Monte Irvin, who played for the team when it was the New York Giants
15.
30 (number)
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30 is the natural number following 29 and preceding 31. Thirty is the sum of the first four squares, which makes it a square pyramidal number and it is a primorial and is the smallest Giuga number. 30 is the smallest sphenic number, and the smallest of the form 2 ×3 × r,30 has an aliquot sum of 42, the second sphenic number and all sphenic numbers of this form have an aliquot sum 12 greater than themselves. The aliquot sequence of 30 is 16 members long, it comprises Thirty has but one number for which it is the aliquot sum, adding up some subsets of its divisors gives 30, hence 30 is a semiperfect number. 30 is the largest number such that all smaller than itself. A polygon with thirty sides is called a triacontagon, the icosahedron and the dodecahedron are Platonic solids with 30 edges. The icosidodecahedron is an Archimedean solid with 30 vertices, and the Tutte–Coxeter graph is a graph with 30 vertices. The atomic number of zinc is 30 Messier object M30, a magnitude 8, the duration of Saros series 30 was 1496.5 years, and it contained 84 solar eclipses. Further, the Saros number of the lunar eclipse series began on June 19,1803 BC. The duration of Saros series 30 was 1316.2 years, Thirty is, Used to indicate the end of a newspaper story, a copy editors typographical notation. S. Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus for 30 pieces of silver, one of the rallying-cries of the 1960s student/youth protest movement was the slogan, Dont trust anyone over thirty. In Franz Kafkas novel The Trial Joseph wakes up on the morning of his birthday to find himself under arrest for an unspecified crime. After making many attempts to find the nature of the crime or the name of his accuser. The number of uprights that formed the Sarsen Circle at Stonehenge, western Christianitys most prolific 20th century essayist, F. W. Also in that essay Boreham writes It was said of Keats, in tennis, the number 30 represents the second point gained in a game. Under NCAA rules for basketball, the offensive team has 30 seconds to attempt a shot. As of 2012, three of the four major leagues in the United States and Canada have 30 teams each. The California Angels baseball team retired the number in honor of its most notable wearer, Nolan Ryan, the San Francisco Giants extended the same honor to Orlando Cepeda
16.
40 (number)
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Despite being related to the word four, the modern spelling of 40 is forty. The archaic form fourty is now considered a misspelling, the modern spelling possibly reflects a pronunciation change due to the horse–hoarse merger. Forty is a number, an octagonal number, and as the sum of the first four pentagonal numbers. Adding up some subsets of its divisors gives 40, hence 40 is a semiperfect number, given 40, the Mertens function returns 0. 40 is the smallest number n with exactly 9 solutions to the equation φ = n, Forty is the number of n-queens problem solutions for n =7. Since 402 +1 =1601 is prime,40 is a Størmer number,40 is a repdigit in base 3 and a Harshad number in base 10. Negative forty is the temperature at which the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales correspond. It is referred to as either minus forty or forty below, the planet Venus forms a pentagram in the night sky every eight years with it returning to its original point every 40 years with a 40-day regression. The duration of Saros series 40 was 1280.1 years, lunar eclipse series which began on -1387 February 12 and ended on -71 April 12. The duration of Saros series 40 was 1316.2 years, the number 40 is used in Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and other Middle Eastern traditions to represent a large, approximate number, similar to umpteen. In the Hebrew Bible, forty is often used for periods, forty days or forty years. Rain fell for forty days and forty nights during the Flood, spies explored the land of Israel for forty days. The Hebrew people lived in the Sinai desert for forty years and this period of years represents the time it takes for a new generation to arise. Moses life is divided into three 40-year segments, separated by his growing to adulthood, fleeing from Egypt, and his return to lead his people out, several Jewish leaders and kings are said to have ruled for forty years, that is, a generation. Examples include Eli, Saul, David, and Solomon, goliath challenged the Israelites twice a day for forty days before David defeated him. He went up on the day of Tammuz to beg forgiveness for the peoples sin. He went up on the first day of Elul and came down on the day of Tishrei. A mikvah consists of 40 seah of water 40 lashes is one of the punishments meted out by the Sanhedrin, One of the prerequisites for a man to study Kabbalah is that he is forty years old
17.
60 (number)
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60 is the natural number following 59 and preceding 61. Being three times 20, it is called three score in older literature. It is a number, with divisors 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30. Because it is the sum of its divisors, it is a unitary perfect number. Being ten times a number, it is a semiperfect number. It is the smallest number divisible by the numbers 1 to 6 and it is the smallest number with exactly 12 divisors. It is the sum of a pair of twin primes and the sum of four consecutive primes and it is adjacent to two primes. It is the smallest number that is the sum of two odd primes in six ways, the smallest non-solvable group has order 60. There are four Archimedean solids with 60 vertices, the icosahedron, the rhombicosidodecahedron, the snub dodecahedron. The skeletons of these polyhedra form 60-node vertex-transitive graphs, there are also two Archimedean solids with 60 edges, the snub cube and the icosidodecahedron. The skeleton of the forms a 60-edge symmetric graph. There are 60 one-sided hexominoes, the polyominoes made from six squares, in geometry, it is the number of seconds in a minute, and the number of minutes in a degree. In normal space, the three angles of an equilateral triangle each measure 60 degrees, adding up to 180 degrees. Because it is divisible by the sum of its digits in base 10, a number system with base 60 is called sexagesimal. It is the smallest positive integer that is written only the smallest. The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene C60, an allotrope of carbon with 60 atoms in each molecule and this ball is known as a buckyball, and looks like a soccer ball. The atomic number of neodymium is 60, and cobalt-60 is an isotope of cobalt. The electrical utility frequency in western Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, the United States, and several other countries in the Americas is 60 Hz
18.
80 (number)
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80 is the natural number following 79 and preceding 81. 80 is, the sum of Eulers totient function φ over the first sixteen integers, a semiperfect number, since adding up some subsets of its divisors gives 80. Palindromic in bases 3,6,9,15,19 and 39, a repdigit in bases 3,9,15,19 and 39. A Harshad number in bases 2,3,4,5,6,7,9,10,11,13,15 and 16 The Pareto principle states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes. Every solvable configuration of the Fifteen puzzle can be solved in no more than 80 single-tile moves, the atomic number of mercury According to Exodus 7,7, Moses was 80 years old when he initially spoke to Pharaoh on behalf of his people. Today,80 years of age is the age limit for cardinals to vote in papal elections. Jerry Rice wore the number 80 for the majority of his NFL career
19.
90 (number)
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90 is the natural number preceded by 89 and followed by 91. In English speech, the numbers 90 and 19 are often confused, when carefully enunciated, they differ in which syllable is stressed,19 /naɪnˈtiːn/ vs 90 /ˈnaɪnti/. However, in such as 1999, and when contrasting numbers in the teens and when counting, such as 17,18,19. 90 is, a perfect number because it is the sum of its unitary divisors. A semiperfect number because it is equal to the sum of a subset of its divisors, a Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by 39,51,68. Palindromic and a repdigit in bases 14,17,29, a Harshad number since 90 is divisible by the sum of its base 10 digits. In normal space, the angles of a rectangle measure 90 degrees each. Also, in a triangle, the angle opposing the hypotenuse measures 90 degrees. Thus, an angle measuring 90 degrees is called a right angle, ninety is, the atomic number of thorium, an actinide. As an atomic weight,90 identifies an isotope of strontium, the latitude in degrees of the North and the South geographical poles. NFL, New York Jets Dennis Byrds #90 is retired +90 is the code for international direct dial phone calls to Turkey,90 is the code for the French département Belfort
20.
100 (number)
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100 or one hundred is the natural number following 99 and preceding 101. In medieval contexts, it may be described as the hundred or five score in order to differentiate the English. The standard SI prefix for a hundred is hecto-,100 is the basis of percentages, with 100% being a full amount. 100 is the sum of the first nine prime numbers, as well as the sum of pairs of prime numbers e. g.3 +97,11 +89,17 +83,29 +71,41 +59. 100 is the sum of the cubes of the first four integers and this is related by Nicomachuss theorem to the fact that 100 also equals the square of the sum of the first four integers,100 =102 =2. 26 +62 =100, thus 100 is a Leyland number and it is divisible by the number of primes below it,25 in this case. It can not be expressed as the difference between any integer and the total of coprimes below it, making it a noncototient and it can be expressed as a sum of some of its divisors, making it a semiperfect number. 100 is a Harshad number in base 10, and also in base 4, there are exactly 100 prime numbers whose digits are in strictly ascending order. 100 is the smallest number whose common logarithm is a prime number,100 senators are in the U. S One hundred is the atomic number of fermium, an actinide. On the Celsius scale,100 degrees is the temperature of pure water at sea level. The Kármán line lies at an altitude of 100 kilometres above the Earths sea level and is used to define the boundary between Earths atmosphere and outer space. There are 100 blasts of the Shofar heard in the service of Rosh Hashana, a religious Jew is expected to utter at least 100 blessings daily. In Hindu Religion - Mythology Book Mahabharata - Dhritarashtra had 100 sons known as kauravas, the United States Senate has 100 Senators. Most of the currencies are divided into 100 subunits, for example, one euro is one hundred cents. The 100 Euro banknotes feature a picture of a Rococo gateway on the obverse, the U. S. hundred-dollar bill has Benjamin Franklins portrait, the Benjamin is the largest U. S. bill in print. American savings bonds of $100 have Thomas Jeffersons portrait, while American $100 treasury bonds have Andrew Jacksons portrait, One hundred is also, The number of years in a century. The number of pounds in an American short hundredweight, in Greece, India, Israel and Nepal,100 is the police telephone number. In Belgium,100 is the ambulance and firefighter telephone number, in United Kingdom,100 is the operator telephone number
21.
Numeral system
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A numeral system is a writing system for expressing numbers, that is, a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It can be seen as the context that allows the symbols 11 to be interpreted as the symbol for three, the decimal symbol for eleven, or a symbol for other numbers in different bases. The number the numeral represents is called its value, ideally, a numeral system will, Represent a useful set of numbers Give every number represented a unique representation Reflect the algebraic and arithmetic structure of the numbers. For example, the decimal representation of whole numbers gives every nonzero whole number a unique representation as a finite sequence of digits. Etc. all of which have the same meaning except for some scientific, such systems are, however, not the topic of this article. The most commonly used system of numerals is the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, two Indian mathematicians are credited with developing it. Aryabhata of Kusumapura developed the notation in the 5th century. The numeral system and the concept, developed by the Hindus in India, slowly spread to other surrounding countries due to their commercial. The Arabs adopted and modified it, even today, the Arabs call the numerals which they use Rakam Al-Hind or the Hindu numeral system. The Arabs translated Hindu texts on numerology and spread them to the world due to their trade links with them. The Western world modified them and called them the Arabic numerals, hence the current western numeral system is the modified version of the Hindu numeral system developed in India. It also exhibits a great similarity to the Sanskrit–Devanagari notation, which is used in India. The simplest numeral system is the numeral system, in which every natural number is represented by a corresponding number of symbols. If the symbol / is chosen, for example, then the seven would be represented by ///////. Tally marks represent one such system still in common use, the unary system is only useful for small numbers, although it plays an important role in theoretical computer science. Elias gamma coding, which is used in data compression. The unary notation can be abbreviated by introducing different symbols for new values. The ancient Egyptian numeral system was of type, and the Roman numeral system was a modification of this idea
22.
Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
23.
Factorization
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In mathematics, factorization or factoring is the decomposition of an object into a product of other objects, or factors, which when multiplied together give the original. For example, the number 15 factors into primes as 3 ×5, in all cases, a product of simpler objects is obtained. The aim of factoring is usually to reduce something to “basic building blocks”, such as numbers to prime numbers, factoring integers is covered by the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and factoring polynomials by the fundamental theorem of algebra. Viètes formulas relate the coefficients of a polynomial to its roots, the opposite of polynomial factorization is expansion, the multiplying together of polynomial factors to an “expanded” polynomial, written as just a sum of terms. Integer factorization for large integers appears to be a difficult problem, there is no known method to carry it out quickly. Its complexity is the basis of the security of some public key cryptography algorithms. A matrix can also be factorized into a product of matrices of special types, One major example of this uses an orthogonal or unitary matrix, and a triangular matrix. There are different types, QR decomposition, LQ, QL, RQ and this situation is generalized by factorization systems. By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every integer greater than 1 has a unique prime factorization. Given an algorithm for integer factorization, one can factor any integer down to its constituent primes by repeated application of this algorithm, for very large numbers, no efficient classical algorithm is known. Modern techniques for factoring polynomials are fast and efficient, but use sophisticated mathematical ideas and these techniques are used in the construction of computer routines for carrying out polynomial factorization in Computer algebra systems. This article is concerned with classical techniques. While the general notion of factoring just means writing an expression as a product of simpler expressions, when factoring polynomials this means that the factors are to be polynomials of smaller degree. Thus, while x 2 − y = is a factorization of the expression, another issue concerns the coefficients of the factors. It is not always possible to do this, and a polynomial that can not be factored in this way is said to be irreducible over this type of coefficient, thus, x2 -2 is irreducible over the integers and x2 +4 is irreducible over the reals. In the first example, the integers 1 and -2 can also be thought of as real numbers, and if they are, then x 2 −2 = shows that this polynomial factors over the reals. Similarly, since the integers 1 and 4 can be thought of as real and hence complex numbers, x2 +4 splits over the complex numbers, i. e. x 2 +4 =. The fundamental theorem of algebra can be stated as, Every polynomial of n with complex number coefficients splits completely into n linear factors
24.
Prime number
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A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a number is called a composite number. For example,5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors, the property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a number n is known as trial division. It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and n, algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of January 2016, the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits, there are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. There is no simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, many questions regarding prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbachs conjecture, and the twin prime conjecture. Such questions spurred the development of branches of number theory. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements. A natural number is called a number if it has exactly two positive divisors,1 and the number itself. Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite, among the numbers 1 to 6, the numbers 2,3, and 5 are the prime numbers, while 1,4, and 6 are not prime. 1 is excluded as a number, for reasons explained below. 2 is a number, since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2. Next,3 is prime, too,1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder, however,4 is composite, since 2 is another number dividing 4 without remainder,4 =2 ·2. 5 is again prime, none of the numbers 2,3, next,6 is divisible by 2 or 3, since 6 =2 ·3. The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime,12 =3 ·4, no even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition, any such number n has at least three distinct divisors, namely 1,2, and n
25.
Gaussian integer
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In number theory, a Gaussian integer is a complex number whose real and imaginary parts are both integers. The Gaussian integers, with addition and multiplication of complex numbers, form an integral domain. This integral domain is a case of a commutative ring of quadratic integers. It does not have an ordering that respects arithmetic. Formally, the Gaussian integers are the set Z =, where i 2 = −1, note that when they are considered within the complex plane the Gaussian integers may be seen to constitute the 2-dimensional integer lattice. The norm of a Gaussian integer is the square of its value as a complex number. It is the natural number defined as N = a 2 + b 2 = ¯ =, the norm is multiplicative, since the absolute value of complex numbers is multiplicative, i. e. one has N = N N. The latter can also be verified by a straightforward check, the units of Z are precisely those elements with norm 1, i. e. the set. The Gaussian integers form a principal ideal domain with units, for x ∈ Z, the four numbers ±x, ±ix are called the associates of x. As for every principal ideal domain, Z is also a unique factorization domain and it follows that a Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible. The prime elements of Z are also known as Gaussian primes, an associate of a Gaussian prime is also a Gaussian prime. The Gaussian primes are symmetric about the real and imaginary axes, the positive integer Gaussian primes are the prime numbers that are congruent to 3 modulo 4. One should not refer to only these numbers as the Gaussian primes, which refers to all the Gaussian primes, many of which do not lie in Z. In other words, a Gaussian integer is a Gaussian prime if and only if either its norm is a prime number, for example,5 = · and 13 = ·. If p =2, we have 2 = = i2, the ring of Gaussian integers is the integral closure of Z in the field of Gaussian rationals Q consisting of the complex numbers whose real and imaginary part are both rational. It is easy to see graphically that every number is no farther than a distance of 22 from some Gaussian integer. Put another way, every number has a maximal distance of 22 N units to some multiple of z, where z is any Gaussian integer, this turns Z into a Euclidean domain. The ring of Gaussian integers was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his monograph on quartic reciprocity
26.
Divisor
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In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some other integer to produce n. In this case one says also that n is a multiple of m, an integer n is divisible by another integer m if m is a divisor of n, this implies dividing n by m leaves no remainder. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 holds for every m, as before, but with the additional constraint k ≠0. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 does not hold for m ≠0, in the remainder of this article, which definition is applied is indicated where this is significant. Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4, they are 1,2,4, −1, −2, and −4,1 and −1 divide every integer. Every integer is a divisor of itself, every integer is a divisor of 0. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd,1, −1, n and −n are known as the trivial divisors of n. A divisor of n that is not a divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor. A non-zero integer with at least one divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1. There are divisibility rules which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the numbers digits, the generalization can be said to be the concept of divisibility in any integral domain. 7 is a divisor of 42 because 7 ×6 =42 and it can also be said that 42 is divisible by 7,42 is a multiple of 7,7 divides 42, or 7 is a factor of 42. The non-trivial divisors of 6 are 2, −2,3, the positive divisors of 42 are 1,2,3,6,7,14,21,42. 5 ∣0, because 5 ×0 =0, if a ∣ b and b ∣ a, then a = b or a = − b. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ holds, however, if a ∣ b and c ∣ b, then ∣ b does not always hold. If a ∣ b c, and gcd =1, then a ∣ c, if p is a prime number and p ∣ a b then p ∣ a or p ∣ b. A positive divisor of n which is different from n is called a proper divisor or a part of n. A number that does not evenly divide n but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of n, an integer n >1 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number
27.
Greek numerals
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Greek numerals are a system of writing numbers using the letters of the Greek alphabet. These alphabetic numerals are known as Ionic or Ionian numerals, Milesian numerals. In modern Greece, they are used for ordinal numbers. For ordinary cardinal numbers, however, Greece uses Arabic numerals, attic numerals, which were later adopted as the basis for Roman numerals, were the first alphabetic set. They were acrophonic, derived from the first letters of the names of the numbers represented and they ran =1, =5, =10, =100, =1000, and =10000. 50,500,5000, and 50000 were represented by the letter with minuscule powers of ten written in the top right corner, the same system was used outside of Attica, but the symbols varied with the local alphabets, in Boeotia, was 1000. The present system probably developed around Miletus in Ionia, 19th-century classicists placed its development in the 3rd century BC, the occasion of its first widespread use. The present system uses the 24 letters adopted by Euclid as well as three Phoenician and Ionic ones that were not carried over, digamma, koppa, and sampi. The position of characters within the numbering system imply that the first two were still in use while the third was not. Greek numerals are decimal, based on powers of 10, the units from 1 to 9 are assigned to the first nine letters of the old Ionic alphabet from alpha to theta. Each multiple of one hundred from 100 to 900 was then assigned its own separate letter as well and this alphabetic system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to obtain the total. For example,241 was represented as, in ancient and medieval manuscripts, these numerals were eventually distinguished from letters using overbars, α, β, γ, etc. In medieval manuscripts of the Book of Revelation, the number of the Beast 666 is written as χξϛ, although the Greek alphabet began with only majuscule forms, surviving papyrus manuscripts from Egypt show that uncial and cursive minuscule forms began early. These new letter forms sometimes replaced the ones, especially in the case of the obscure numerals. The old Q-shaped koppa began to be broken up and simplified, the numeral for 6 changed several times. During antiquity, the letter form of digamma came to be avoided in favor of a special numerical one. By the Byzantine era, the letter was known as episemon and this eventually merged with the sigma-tau ligature stigma. In modern Greek, a number of changes have been made
28.
Roman numerals
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The numeric system represented by Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, Roman numerals, as used today, are based on seven symbols, The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. The numbers 1 to 10 are usually expressed in Roman numerals as follows, I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, Numbers are formed by combining symbols and adding the values, so II is two and XIII is thirteen. Symbols are placed left to right in order of value. Named after the year of its release,2014 as MMXIV, the year of the games of the XXII Olympic Winter Games The standard forms described above reflect typical modern usage rather than a universally accepted convention. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and remained inconsistent in medieval, Roman inscriptions, especially in official contexts, seem to show a preference for additive forms such as IIII and VIIII instead of subtractive forms such as IV and IX. Both methods appear in documents from the Roman era, even within the same document, double subtractives also occur, such as XIIX or even IIXX instead of XVIII. Sometimes V and L are not used, with such as IIIIII. Such variation and inconsistency continued through the period and into modern times. Clock faces that use Roman numerals normally show IIII for four o’clock but IX for nine o’clock, however, this is far from universal, for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster in London uses IV. Similarly, at the beginning of the 20th century, different representations of 900 appeared in several inscribed dates. For instance,1910 is shown on Admiralty Arch, London, as MDCCCCX rather than MCMX, although Roman numerals came to be written with letters of the Roman alphabet, they were originally independent symbols. The Etruscans, for example, used
29.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
30.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
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Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
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Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
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Ternary numeral system
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The ternary numeral system has three as its base. Analogous to a bit, a digit is a trit. One trit is equivalent to bits of information. Representations of integer numbers in ternary do not get uncomfortably lengthy as quickly as in binary, for example, decimal 365 corresponds to binary 101101101 and to ternary 111112. However, they are far less compact than the corresponding representations in bases such as decimal – see below for a compact way to codify ternary using nonary. The value of a number with n bits that are all 1 is 2n −1. Then N = M, N = /, and N = bd −1, for a three-digit ternary number, N =33 −1 =26 =2 ×32 +2 ×31 +2 ×30 =18 +6 +2. Nonary or septemvigesimal can be used for representation of ternary. A base-three system is used in Islam to keep track of counting Tasbih to 99 or to 100 on a hand for counting prayers. In certain analog logic, the state of the circuit is often expressed ternary and this is most commonly seen in Transistor–transistor logic using 7406 open collector logic. The output is said to either be low, high, or open, in this configuration the output of the circuit is actually not connected to any voltage reference at all. Where the signal is usually grounded to a reference, or at a certain voltage level. Thus, the voltage level is sometimes unpredictable. A rare ternary point is used to denote fractional parts of an inning in baseball, since each inning consists of three outs, each out is considered one third of an inning and is denoted as.1. For example, if a player pitched all of the 4th, 5th and 6th innings, plus 2 outs of the 7th inning, his Innings pitched column for that game would be listed as 3.2, meaning 3⅔. In this usage, only the part of the number is written in ternary form. Ternary numbers can be used to convey self-similar structures like the Sierpinski triangle or the Cantor set conveniently, additionally, it turns out that the ternary representation is useful for defining the Cantor set and related point sets, because of the way the Cantor set is constructed. The Cantor set consists of the points from 0 to 1 that have an expression that does not contain any instance of the digit 1
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Quaternary numeral system
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Quaternary is the base-4 numeral system. It uses the digits 0,1,2 and 3 to represent any real number. Four is the largest number within the range and one of two numbers that is both a square and a highly composite number, making quaternary a convenient choice for a base at this scale. Despite being twice as large, its economy is equal to that of binary. However, it no better in the localization of prime numbers. See decimal and binary for a discussion of these properties, as with the octal and hexadecimal numeral systems, quaternary has a special relation to the binary numeral system. Each radix 4,8 and 16 is a power of 2, so the conversion to and from binary is implemented by matching each digit with 2,3 or 4 binary digits, for example, in base 4,302104 =11001001002. Although octal and hexadecimal are widely used in computing and computer programming in the discussion and analysis of binary arithmetic and logic, by analogy with byte and nybble, a quaternary digit is sometimes called a crumb. There is a surviving list of Ventureño language number words up to 32 written down by a Spanish priest ca, the Kharosthi numerals have a partial base 4 counting system from 1 to decimal 10. Quaternary numbers are used in the representation of 2D Hilbert curves, here a real number between 0 and 1 is converted into the quaternary system. Every single digit now indicates in which of the respective 4 sub-quadrants the number will be projected, parallels can be drawn between quaternary numerals and the way genetic code is represented by DNA. The four DNA nucleotides in order, abbreviated A, C, G and T, can be taken to represent the quaternary digits in numerical order 0,1,2. With this encoding, the complementary digit pairs 0↔3, and 1↔2 match the complementation of the pairs, A↔T and C↔G. For example, the nucleotide sequence GATTACA can be represented by the quaternary number 2033010, quaternary line codes have been used for transmission, from the invention of the telegraph to the 2B1Q code used in modern ISDN circuits
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Quinary
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Quinary is a numeral system with five as the base. A possible origination of a system is that there are five fingers on either hand. The base five is stated from 0–4, in the quinary place system, five numerals, from 0 to 4, are used to represent any real number. According to this method, five is written as 10, twenty-five is written as 100, today, the main usage of base 5 is as a biquinary system, which is decimal using five as a sub-base. Another example of a system, is sexagesimal, base 60. Each quinary digit has log25 bits of information, many languages use quinary number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot, Luiseño and Saraveca. Gumatj is a true 5–25 language, in which 25 is the group of 5. The Gumatj numerals are shown below, In the video game Riven and subsequent games of the Myst franchise, a decimal system with 2 and 5 as a sub-bases is called biquinary, and is found in Wolof and Khmer. Roman numerals are a biquinary system, the numbers 1,5,10, and 50 are written as I, V, X, and L respectively. Eight is VIII and seventy is LXX, most versions of the abacus use a biquinary system to simulate a decimal system for ease of calculation. Urnfield culture numerals and some tally mark systems are also biquinary, units of currencies are commonly partially or wholly biquinary. A vigesimal system with 4 and 5 as a sub-bases is found in Nahuatl, pentimal system Quibinary Yan Tan Tethera References, Quinary Base Conversion, includes fractional part, from Math Is Fun Media related to Quinary numeral system at Wikimedia Commons
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Senary
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The senary numeral system has six as its base. It has been adopted independently by a number of cultures. Like decimal, it is a semiprime, though being the product of the two consecutive numbers that are both prime it has a high degree of mathematical properties for its size. As six is a highly composite number, many of the arguments made in favor of the duodecimal system also apply to this base-6. Senary may be considered interesting in the study of numbers, since all primes other than 2 and 3. That is, for every number p greater than 3, one has the modular arithmetic relations that either p ≡1 or 5. This property maximizes the probability that the result of an integer multiplication will end in zero, E. g. if three fingers are extended on the left hand and four on the right, 34senary is represented. This is equivalent to 3 ×6 +4 which is 22decimal, flipping the sixes hand around to its backside may help to further disambiguate which hand represents the sixes and which represents the units. While most developed cultures count by fingers up to 5 in very similar ways, beyond 5 non-Western cultures deviate from Western methods, such as with Chinese number gestures. More abstract finger counting systems, such as chisanbop or finger binary, allow counting to 99,1,023, or even higher depending on the method. The English monk and historian Bede, in the first chapter of De temporum ratione, titled Tractatus de computo, vel loquela per gestum digitorum, the Ndom language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have senary numerals. Mer means 6, mer an thef means 6 ×2 =12, nif means 36, another example from Papua New Guinea are the Morehead-Maro languages. In these languages, counting is connected to ritualized yam-counting and these languages count from a base six, employing words for the powers of six, running up to 66 for some of the languages. One example is Kómnzo with the numerals, nimbo, féta, tarumba, ntamno, wärämäkä. Some Niger-Congo languages have been reported to use a number system, usually in addition to another. For some purposes, base 6 might be too small a base for convenience. The choice of 36 as a radix is convenient in that the digits can be represented using the Arabic numerals 0–9 and the Latin letters A–Z, this choice is the basis of the base36 encoding scheme. Base36 encoding scheme Binary Ternary Duodecimal Sexagesimal Shacks Base Six Dialectic Digital base 6 clock Analog Clock Designer capable of rendering a base 6 clock Senary base conversion
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Octal
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The octal numeral system, or oct for short, is the base-8 number system, and uses the digits 0 to 7. Octal numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping binary digits into groups of three. For example, the representation for decimal 74 is 1001010. Two zeroes can be added at the left,1001010, corresponding the octal digits 112, in the decimal system each decimal place is a power of ten. For example,7410 =7 ×101 +4 ×100 In the octal system each place is a power of eight. The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves and it has been suggested that the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European word for nine might be related to the PIE word for new. Based on this, some have speculated that proto-Indo-Europeans used a number system. In 1716 King Charles XII of Sweden asked Emanuel Swedenborg to elaborate a number based on 64 instead of 10. Swedenborg however argued that for people with less intelligence than the king such a big base would be too difficult, in 1718 Swedenborg wrote a manuscript, En ny rekenkonst som om vexlas wid Thalet 8 i stelle then wanliga wid Thalet 10. The numbers 1-7 are there denoted by the l, s, n, m, t, f, u. Thus 8 = lo,16 = so,24 = no,64 = loo,512 = looo etc, numbers with consecutive consonants are pronounced with vowel sounds between in accordance with a special rule. Writing under the pseudonym Hirossa Ap-Iccim in The Gentlemans Magazine, July 1745, Hugh Jones proposed a system for British coins, weights. In 1801, James Anderson criticized the French for basing the Metric system on decimal arithmetic and he suggested base 8 for which he coined the term octal. In the mid 19th century, Alfred B. Taylor concluded that Our octonary radix is, therefore, so, for example, the number 65 would be spoken in octonary as under-un. Taylor also republished some of Swedenborgs work on octonary as an appendix to the above-cited publications, in the 2009 film Avatar, the language of the extraterrestrial Navi race employs an octal numeral system, probably due to the fact that they have four fingers on each hand. In the TV series Stargate SG-1, the Ancients, a race of beings responsible for the invention of the Stargates, in the tabletop game series Warhammer 40,000, the Tau race use an octal number system. Octal became widely used in computing systems such as the PDP-8, ICL1900. Octal was an abbreviation of binary for these machines because their word size is divisible by three
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Duodecimal
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The duodecimal system is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten may be written by a rotated 2 and this notation was introduced by Sir Isaac Pitman. These digit forms are available as Unicode characters on computerized systems since June 2015 as ↊ and ↋, other notations use A, T, or X for ten and B or E for eleven. The number twelve is written as 10 in duodecimal, whereas the digit string 12 means 1 dozen and 2 units. Similarly, in duodecimal 100 means 1 gross,1000 means 1 great gross, the number twelve, a superior highly composite number, is the smallest number with four non-trivial factors, and the smallest to include as factors all four numbers within the subitizing range. As a result, duodecimal has been described as the number system. Of its factors,2 and 3 are prime, which means the reciprocals of all 3-smooth numbers have a representation in duodecimal. In particular, the five most elementary fractions all have a terminating representation in duodecimal. This all makes it a convenient number system for computing fractions than most other number systems in common use, such as the decimal, vigesimal, binary. Although the trigesimal and sexagesimal systems do even better in respect, this is at the cost of unwieldy multiplication tables. In this section, numerals are based on decimal places, for example,10 means ten,12 means twelve. Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon, germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as eleven and twelve in English. However, they are considered to come from Proto-Germanic *ainlif and *twalif, historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches. There are 12 inches in a foot,12 troy ounces in a troy pound,12 old British pence in a shilling,24 hours in a day. The Romans used a system based on 12, including the uncia which became both the English words ounce and inch. The importance of 12 has been attributed to the number of cycles in a year. It is possible to count to 12 with the acting as a pointer
listen)) is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the natural number following 1 and preceding 3.
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