1.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
French Army
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The French Army, officially the Land Army is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces. Along with the French Air Force, the French Navy and the National Gendarmerie, the current Chief of Staff of the French Army is General Jean-Pierre Bosser, a direct subordinate of the Chief of the Defence Staff. All soldiers are considered professionals following the suspension of conscription, voted in parliament in 1997, as of 2014, the French Army employed 111,628 personnel. In addition, the element of the French Army consisted of 15,453 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Kings of France needed reliable troops during and after the Hundred Years War and these units of troops were raised by issuing ordonnances to govern their length of service, composition and payment. These Compagnies dordonnance formed the core of the Gendarme Cavalry into the sixteenth century, stationed throughout France and summoned into larger armies as needed. There was also made for Francs-archers units of bowmen and foot soldiers raised from the non-noble classes. The bulk of the infantry for warfare was still provided by urban or provincial militias, raised from an area or city to fight locally and named for their recruiting grounds. Gradually these units became more permanent, and in 1480s Swiss instructors were recruited and these men would be paid and contracted and receive training. Henry II further regularised the French army by forming standing Infantry regiments to replace the Militia structure, the first of these the Régiments de Picardie, Piémont, Navarre and Champagne were called the Les Vieux Corps. It was normal policy to disband regiments after a war was over as a cost saving measure with the Vieux Corps and the Kings own Household Troops the Maison du Roi being the only survivors. Regiments could be raised directly by the King and so called after the region in which they were raised, or by the nobility and so called after the noble or his appointed colonel. In 1684 there was a reorganisation of the French infantry and again in 1701 to fit in with Louis XIVs plans. This reshuffle created many of the regiments of the French Army and standardised their equipment. The army of the Sun King tended to wear coats with coloured linings. There were exceptions and the troops, recruited from outside France. In addition to these regiments of the line the Maison du Roi provided several elite units, the Swiss Guards, French Guards, the revolution split the army with the main mass losing most of its officers to aristocratic flight or guillotine and becoming demoralised and ineffective. The French Guard joined the revolt and the Swiss Guards were massacred during the storming of the Tuileries palace, under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
3.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
4.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
5.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
6.
3rd Algerian Infantry Division
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The 3rd Algerian Infantry Division was an infantry division of the Army of Africa which participated to World War II. The 3rd Armored Division is an heir to 3rd Algerian Infantry Division, the 3rd Division was recreated in 2016 with the cadre of the reorganization of the French Army. November 1942 to April 1943, Marching Division of Constantine, April 15,1946, dissolution of the division. The motto is « It crescendo », the 3rd Algerian Infantry Division has for origin the marching division of Constantine of général Welvert. Created on May 1,1943, in Constantine, Algeria and placed under the orders of général Goislard de Monsabert, at the corps of the French Expeditionary Corps, commanded by the future maréchal Juin, the 3e DIA apprehended the position of forte du Belvédère on January 25. While attracting the masses, the division allowed the development of the manœuvre of Anzio, military on the promontory of Cassino. In relation to this arm event, the 4e RTT endured the loss of half of the effectifs. In May 1944, the division made way to Monte-Cassino where Allied forces have engaged for several months, and participated to the reinforcing of the Gustav line during the victory of Gariglioni. On August 15,1944, the 3e DIA disembarked in Provence, at Cogolin in the Var, liberated Toulon and Marseille, in September–October 1944, the division arrived at the Vosges. The division, then progressed towards Cornimont, pushing back on October 15 at Tête des Cerfs, at the Piquante Pierre, at Rondfaing, at Chapechatte, in 20 days, the 3e DIA advanced more than 15 km while clearing the sectors of Belfort and Gérardmer. Beginning of November 1944, the division was engaged in Le Haut du Tôt, Forge, countering assaults, the division apprehended le Tholy, Château-Lambert, cols de Bussang, Col de Bramont and Col dOderen. Beginning January 1945, the division was called to mount the defensive of Strasbourg, on March 15,1945, the division pierced through Oberhoffen-sur-Moder, and apprehended Lautrebourg. The division then crossed the Lauter and penetrated first into Germany, on March 31,1945, at the head of the 1st Army, the division crossed the Rhin in the region of Spire. Reinforced by the Moroccan Goumier, the division braked the resistance at Heuchelberg and Stromberg, on April 16, the division led at Enz in the north, infiltrating by Nagold in the south and encircled Pforzheim. The campaigns of Alsace and Germany ended with the 3e DIA in Stuttgart, on May 1, the division paraded in front of général de Lattre de Tassigny. One North-African Tirailleur regiment is composed of a more than 3000 men and 200 vehicles. The portion of Maghrebis reaches 69% for the regiment, 74% for the battalion, 79% for the company fusiliers-voltigeurs, 52% for the ant-tank company, 3rd Algerian Spahi Regiment, colonel Bonjour 7th African Chasseur Regiment, colonel Van Hecke. The two regiments are composed of 900 to 1000 men with 15% Maghrebis and 85% Europeans, 67th African Artillery Regiment 37e group de FTA
7.
3rd Light Armoured Brigade (France)
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The 3rd Light Armoured Brigade, the previous 3rd Mechanised Brigade, was a unit of the French Army. The brigade was heir to the traditions of the 3rd Armored Division, the 3rd Light Armoured Brigade was dissolved on June 16,2016. The 3rd Division was recreated on June 20,2016 within the cadre of the reorganization of the French Army. The 3rd Mechanised Brigade is heir of the 3rd Algerian Infantry Division 3e DIA which illustrated capability during World War II under the orders of général de Monsabert puis du général Guillaume, the 3rd Division was reconstituted in 1951 at the corps of the French Forces in Germany. Three infantry regiments, two tank reigments, two regiments, one engineer regiment, and one command and support regiment. During the transformation of the FFA into FFECSA, the division was redimensioned and dissolved in 1991, in 1999, the 3rd Mechanised Brigade was created within the cadres of reforms of the French Army. The brigade adopted the traditions of the 3rd Armoured Division, the brigade regrouped six tactical regimental formations with a mission to prepare for engagement in an interarm, national and multinational context. The headquarter staff of the Mechanised Brigade garrisoned at Clermont-Ferrand on July 1,2011, on March 18,2014, the brigade became designated as 3rd Light Armoured Brigade. This formation counted at that date 5 regiments with an effectif of 5000 men and it was under the signs of latin traditions that général de Monsabert wanted to place the 3rd Algerian Infantry Division 3e DIA during creation on May 1,1943. She was found within a search at Constantine in the 19th century, the units of the 3rd Mechanised Brigade bore the shoulder insignia of 3 tricolor crescents on champ dazur. The 3 crescents, formed themselves a styled 3, symbolizing the union in 1943 of the Muslim volunteers, the motto of the 3rd Brigade was, Un seul but, La victoire which translated to One purpose, La victoire. Moroccan Division Official site – 3e BM www. defense. gouv. fr
8.
1st Armored Division (France)
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The 1st Armored Division is a unit of the French Army formed during World War II. Dissolved for a first time in 1946, the unit was recreated in 1948 and it was again dissolved in 1999 with the cadre of the professionalization of the French Military. The 1st Mechanised Brigade, created on July 1,1999, the 1re BM was again dissolved on July 21,2015. The 1st Division was recreated in 2016, the 1st Armored Division was created on May 1,1943. It was dissolved on March 31,1946, the 1st Armored Division was recreated in 1948. On July 1,1999, the 1st Mechanised Brigade inherited the traditions of the division, the 1st Mechanised Brigade was dissolved on July 21,2015. The 1st Division was recreated on July 1,2016 part of the Scorpion Force alongside the 3rd Division, the motto of the division, Nomine et Virtute Prima, translates literally to La première par le nom et la valeur in French, The first in designation and worth. The choice of the insignia, the cross of Saint Louis by général Jean Touzet du Vigier, comes from the place of formation of the unit, Tunisia, the division is known and referred to as division Saint-Louis. The division was cited three times at the orders of the forces during the Second World War. In 1943, a French armed force was formed in North Africa, the unit was equipped with modern equipment coming from the United States, and the program anticipated the constitution of several armed divisions. S. American norms, in three tactical groupments, baptized by the Americans as Combat Command, under these designations the three French divisions engaged in operations from 1944 to 1945. Within this context, the 1st Armored Division 1st DB was formed on May 1,1943, the division was heir to the Light Mechanic Brigade which combat engaged in Tunisia. On January 28,1943, général du Vigier took command of this unit in formation and he had left the command of the BLM to général Brossin de Saint-Didier and installed his command post in Mascara where the training center for armored brigades garrisoned. In the coming months of May 1943 joined transmission and services, in August, the train and a squadron group reinforced immediately. Then, the 2nd African Chasseur doubled to form 2nd Tank-Cuirassiers Regiment, the latter had just been promoted to a divisional general on August 25, and all the forces which were under his disposition were grouped around Mascara. The 2nd Zouaves Regiment disappeared and was replaced, as the infantry of the division, the division assumed position within the ranks of the 1st Army then designate as Army B and which would participate to the disembarking of Provence. The first embarking commenced in Oran and Mers-el-Kébir at the end of the month of July 1944, the Naval ships lifted anchors on August 10 and 11. The disembarking should have taken lieu between Saint-Tropez and Saint-Raphaël, at the dawn of August 15, an enormous naval fleet was assembled north-west of Corsica steering and heading north
9.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
10.
Cirta
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Cirta was the capital city of the Berber Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa. Its strategically important port city was Russicada, although Numidia was a key ally of the ancient Roman Republic during the Punic Wars, Cirta was subject to Roman invasions during the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. Eventually went under Roman dominion during the rule of Julius Caesar, vandals damaged Cirta, but emperor Justinianus I reconquered and improved the Roman city. Arabs finally captured it in 698 AD, pliny calls the city as the first century Roman colonia Cirta Sittianorum, together with Rusicade, Milevum and Chullu in what was an autonomous territory of the new province Africa Nova. Indeed, Rome allowed Publius Sittius and his Italian legionaries from Campania to rule the territory of Cirta, however, under Publius Sittius, Cirta was a special colony with some autonomy from Rome. Under the emperor Augustus, the city obtained full Roman status as colonia with the name Iulia Iuvenalis Honoris et Virtutis Cirta in 27 BC, since then Cirta started to grow enormously as an economic center of Roman Africa. The city by the end of the second century -when Christianity started to be important- had nearly 50,000 inhabitants, according to historian Robin Daniel. Cirtas populace was as diverse as the Roman Republic itself — alongside native Numidians were Carthaginians displaced by the Second and Third Punic Wars, as well as Greeks, Romans, and Italians. It served as a hub for Rome’s African empire, as it was inhabited by Roman and Italian merchants, bankers. Not only was Cirta an important economic site, it was also a key political, during the Second Punic War, the Battle of Cirta marked a decisive Roman victory for Scipio Africanus against Romes most formidable rival in the Mediterranean — Carthage. Moreover, Rome illustrated its willingness to defend its interests in Cirta into the late 2nd century BC following the death of Micipsa, King of Numidia, a power struggle ensued between his adopted son Jugurtha and his natural son Adherbal. Adherbal appealed to Rome to help broker a truce and to help evenly split the kingdom between the two heirs, despite a senatorial commission’s seemingly successful mediation, Jugurtha besieged Cirta, killing Adherbal and Italian elites who defended him. Subsequently, Rome declared war on the kingdom to assert its hegemony in the region, jugurtha’s defeat at Cirta at the hands of the Roman army is commonly referred to as the Jugurthine War. Caesars conquest of Northern Africa officially brought Cirta under direct Roman rule in 46 BC and it was during the rule of Augustus, however, when Cirtas territory expanded and assimilated into the empire. Augustus split Cirta into communities, or pagis, dividing Numidians and this helped facilitate Cirtas assumption into the Roman realm, culturally and economically. These settlers, of course, were augmenting those Romans who had inhabited the city since the earlier periods of the Punic Wars, in the first two centuries AD Christianity began to take root in Cirta. While little remains of African Christianity before 200 AD, records of martyred Christians at Cirta existed by mid-century, civil war in 311 marked the destruction of the city, however, the first Christian emperor Constantine rebuilt it in his own name in 313 AD, calling it Constantine. The town of Cirta had become a Roman colony, probably as early as the time of Sittius, at the beginning of the 2d c. it was the capital of a curious administrative district, one of those anomalies common to the administrative history of Africa
11.
Numidia
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Numidia was an ancient kingdom of the Numidians, located in what is now Algeria and a smaller part of Tunisia and Libya in the Maghreb. The polity was divided between Massylii in the east and Masaesyli in the west. During the Second Punic War, Massinissa, king of the Massylii, the kingdom began as a sovereign state and later alternated between being a Roman province and a Roman client state. It was bordered by the kingdom of Mauretania to the west, Africa Proconsularis to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and it is considered to be the first major state in the history of Algeria and the Berber territories. The Greek historians referred to these peoples as Νομάδες, which by Latin interpretation became Numidae, the name appears first in Polybius to indicate the peoples and territory west of Carthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the river Mulucha, about 160 kilometres west of Oran. The Numidians were conceived of two tribal groups, the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their king Gala, were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under king Syphax, were allied with Rome. However, in 206 BC, the new king of the eastern Massylii, Masinissa, allied himself with Rome, at the end of the war, the victorious Romans gave all of Numidia to Masinissa of the Massylii. After the death of the long-lived Masinissa around 148 BC, he was succeeded by his son Micipsa, Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa. Jugurtha had Hiempsal killed, which led to war with Adherbal. By 112, Jugurtha resumed his war with Adherbal and he incurred the wrath of Rome in the process by killing some Roman businessmen who were aiding Adherbal. After a brief war with Rome, Jugurtha surrendered and received a favourable peace treaty. The local Roman commander was summoned to Rome to face charges brought by his political rival Gaius Memmius. War broke out between Numidia and the Roman Republic and several legions were dispatched to North Africa under the command of the Consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, the war dragged out into a long and seemingly endless campaign as the Romans tried to defeat Jugurtha decisively. Frustrated at the apparent lack of action, Metellus lieutenant Gaius Marius returned to Rome to seek election as Consul, Marius was elected, and then returned to Numidia to take control of the war. He sent his Quaestor Lucius Cornelius Sulla to neighbouring Mauretania in order to eliminate their support for Jugurtha, with the help of Bocchus I of Mauretania, Sulla captured Jugurtha and brought the war to a conclusive end. Jugurtha was brought to Rome in chains and was placed in the Tullianum, Jugurtha was executed by the Romans in 104 BC, after being paraded through the streets in Gaius Marius Triumph. After the death of Jugurtha, the far west of Numidia was added to the lands of Bocchus I, a rump kingdom continued to be governed by native princes
12.
Crescent
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A crescent shape is a symbol or emblem used to represent the lunar phase in the first quarter, or by extension a symbol representing the Moon itself. It is used as the symbol for the Moon. It was also the emblem of Diana-Artemis, and hence represented virginity, in Roman Catholic Marian veneration, it is associated with the Virgin Mary. From its use as roof finial in Ottoman era mosques, it has become associated with Islam. The crescent symbol is used to represent the Moon, not necessarily in a particular lunar phase. When used to represent a waxing or waning lunar phase, crescent or increscent refers to the waxing first quarter, the crescent symbol was long used as a symbol of the Moon in astrology, and by extension of Silver in alchemy. The astrological use of the symbol is attested in early Greek papyri containing horoscopes, in the 2nd-century Bianchinis planisphere, the personification of the Moon is shown with a crescent attached to her headdress. Its ancient association with Ishtar/Astarte and Diana is preserved in the Moon representing the female principle, as such, it belongs to the class of figures known as lune in planar geometry. The tapering towards the points of intersection of the two arcs are known as the horns of the crescent, the word crescent is derived etymologically from the present participle of the Latin verb crescere to grow, technically denoting the waxing moon. Unicode encodes a crescent at U+263D and a decrescent at U+263E, the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block provides variants with faces, FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE at U+1F31B and LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE at U+1F31C. The crescent shape is used to represent the Moon, and the Moon deity Nanna/Sin from an early time, visible in Akkadian cylinder seals as early as 2300 BC. The crescent was used in the iconography of the Ancient Near East and was used transplanted by the Phoenicians in the 8th century BC as far as Carthage in modern Tunisia. The crescent and star also appears on coins of South Arabia. The combination of star and crescent also arises in the Ancient Near East, representing the Moon and Ishtar and it was inherited both in Sassanian and Hellenistic iconography. In the iconography of the Hellenistic period, the crescent became the symbol of Artemis-Diana, numerous depictions show Artemis-Diana wearing the crescent Moon as part of her headdress. The related symbol of the star and crescent was the emblem of the Mithradates dynasty in the Kingdom of Pontus and was used as the emblem of Byzantium. The crescent remained in use as an emblem in Sassanid Persia, in the Crusades it came to be associated with the Orient and was widely used in Crusader seals and coins. It was used as a charge by the later 13th century
13.
Goddess
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A goddess is a female deity in polytheistic religions. Goddesses most often have characteristics that are apotheosize in their pure form. However, in some cases goddesses may embody neutral forms personifying both male and female characteristics, or they may even exhibit traits that are associated with the male gender. In some faiths, a female figure holds a central place in religious prayer. For example, Shaktism, the worship of the force that animates the world, is one of the three major sects of Hinduism. Polytheist religions, including Polytheistic reconstructionists, honour multiple goddesses and gods and these deities may be part of a pantheon, or different regions may have tutelary deities. The reconstructionists, like their ancient forebears, honour the deities particular to their country of origin, the noun goddess is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic god with the Latinate -ess suffix. It first appeared in Middle English, from about 1350, the English word follows the linguistic precedent of a number of languages—including Egyptian, Classical Greek, and several Semitic languages—that add a feminine ending to the languages word for god. Joseph Campbell in The Power of Myth, a 1988 interview with Bill Moyers, links the image of the Earth or Mother Goddess to symbols of fertility and reproduction. For example, Campbell states that, There have been systems of religion where the mother is the prime parent, and in Egypt you have the Mother Heavens, the Goddess Nut, who is represented as the whole heavenly sphere. Joseph Campbell, Well that was associated primarily with agriculture and the agricultural societies and it has to do with the earth. The human woman gives birth just as the earth gives birth to the plants. so woman magic, and the personification of the energy that gives birth to forms and nourishes forms is properly female. It is in the world of ancient Mesopotamia, the Egyptian Nile. Campbell also argues that the image of the Virgin Mary was derived from the image of Isis and her child Horus, other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag, Ninlil, Antu, Gaga Goddesses of the Canaanite religion, Baalat Gebal, Astarte, Anat. Cybele, Her Hittite name was Kubaba, but her name changed to Cybele in Phrygian and Roman culture and her effect can be also seen on Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus. Hebat, Mother Goddess of the Hittite pantheon and wife of the sky god. She was the origin of the Hurrian cult, arinniti, Hittite Goddess of the sun. She became patron of the Hittite Empire and monarchy, leto, A mother Goddess figure in Lykia
14.
Legio III Augusta
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Legio tertia Augusta was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. Its origin may have been the Republican 3rd Legion which served the general Pompey during his war against Gaius Julius Caesar. It supported the general Octavian in his war against Mark Antony. It was officially refounded in 30 BC, when Octavian achieved sole mastery of the Roman empire, in that year, it was deployed in the Roman province of Africa, where it remained until at least the late 4th century AD. The Third Augustan Legion was not only a source of protection for the Roman Empire, the Legion was initially stationed in Ammaedara where they built their first military camp. From there they invested part of their time in the construction of roads and these new connections led to the development of new towns and cities for civilians, camps for the military and even colonies for the veterans. These were usually distinct from other, but as time progressed they began to merge. The Legion did not always build up the town, civilians often assisted in the building of some projects. The most common projects for soldiers were aqueducts, fortifications and amphitheaters, typically their work was for more monumental projects rather than pure architecture. The legion was not therefore solely a military force but also engineering and surveying functions requiring an advanced mix of skills. The first instance of military roads was in 14CE, the Legion built a road from their base at Ammaedara, through Thelepte, to the Oasis of Gafsa. Further expansion occurred under the rule of Tiberius with a road from the Oasis of Gafsa to the Oasis of Gabes, between these two cities the Legion stopped for rest and created five stations. The Legion sometimes followed the old tracks from the previous Punic towns. Their construction followed a distinct system, since these roads were commonly built for the use of military movement, the roads needed to be kept as simple as possible. Therefore, the roads tended to be on higher grounds, avoided valleys, the soldiers were even able to construct the roads to drain water. It is calculated that the length of roads in North Africa reached about 19300 kilometres Other important roads for the Legion included the road from Tebessa to the port of Hippo Regius. Its construction was imperative for more efficient delivery of supplies to the Legion, another was the road from Tebessa to Carthage. Both roads were built during Vespasians reign, finally, a road built under Trajan ran south across the mountains of Gulf Syrte
15.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
16.
Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert
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Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert, was a French general who served during the Second World War. Monsabert graduated from Saint-Cyr military academy and was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1911 and he initially served with the 44th Infantry Regiment and then was moved to the 3rd Moroccan Rifle Regiment, with which he first saw combat in 1912. Promoted to Colonel in 1937, he was made a Brigadier in August 1941 and this promotion was followed by promotion to Major General in March 1943. He was promoted again to Lieutenant General in August 1944, Monsabert commanded first the Corps Franc dAfrique and then the reserve elements of the XIX Corps during the campaign for Tunisia. Subsequently, he commanded the 3rd Algerian Infantry Division with the French Expeditionary Corps in the Italian Campaign, on 3 July 1944 his forces liberated Siena. On 31 August 1944, Monsabert took command of the French II Corps of General Jean de Lattre de Tassignys Army B, Monsabert led the II Corps with distinction for the remainder of the war in Europe. Monsabert, with about 130000 soldiers took Toulon and Marseille and played a part in Alsace with a corps numbering nearly 150000 soldiers at that time. In July 1945, he was made the commander of French forces in Germany, in 1946, he retired from active military service. From 1951 until 1955, Monsabert served as a deputy in the Rassemblement du Peuple Français political party in the National Assembly of France, representing the region Pyrénées-Atlantiques. dk
17.
French Forces in Germany
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The French Forces in Germany were French military forces stationed in Germany after the Second World War. Following the surrender of Germany at the conclusion of the Second World War, the French zone of occupation existed from the end of the war until 10 August 1949. Subsequently, the French military stationed forces in Germany with headquarters in Baden-Baden during the period of the Cold War, suzie Guth, Les Forces Françaises en Allemagne, Editions LHarmattan, Paris,1991. F. Roy Willis, The French in Germany, Stanford University Press, Stanford California,1962
18.
Konstanz
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Konstanz is a university city with approximately 80,000 inhabitants located at the western end of Lake Constance in the south of Germany, bordering Switzerland. The city houses the University of Konstanz and was for more than 1200 years residence of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Konstanz, Konstanz is situated on Lake Constance. The Rhine river, which starts in the Swiss Alps, passes through Lake Constance and leaves it, considerably larger, car ferries provide access across Lake Constance to Meersburg, and the Katamaran provides a shuttle service for pedestrians to Friedrichshafen. At the old towns southern border lies the Swiss town of Kreuzlingen, Konstanz is subdivided into 15 wards or districts. The island of Mainau belonged to the ward of Litzelstetten, a municipality until its incorporation into Konstanz on December 1,1971. The first traces of civilization in Konstanz date back to the late Stone Age, during the reign of Augustus, the Celts living south of the Danube were conquered by the Romans. Around 40 AD, the first Romans settled on the site and this small town on the left bank of the Rhine was probably first called Drusomagus and belonged to the Roman province of Raetia. The remains of the late Roman fortress Constantia were discovered in 2003, around 585 the first bishop took up residence in Konstanz and this marked the beginning of the citys importance as a spiritual centre. By the late Middle Ages, about one quarter of Konstanzs 6,000 inhabitants were exempt from taxation on account of clerical rights, trade thrived during the Middle Ages. Konstanz owned the bridge in the region, which crossed the Rhine. Its linen production had made a name for the city. In 1192, Konstanz gained the status of Imperial City so it was subject only to the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1414 to 1418, the Council of Constance took place, during which, on 6 July 1415, John Hus and it was here that the Papal Schism was ended and Pope Martin V was elected during the only conclave ever held north of the Alps. Ulrich von Richentals illustrated chronicle of the Council of Constance testifies to all the happenings during the Council as well as showing the everyday life of medieval Konstanz. The Konzilgebäude where the conclave was held can still be standing by the harbour. Close by stands the Imperia, a statue that was erected in 1993 to satirically commemorate the Council, in 1460, the Swiss Confederacy conquered Thurgau, Konstanzs natural hinterland. In the Swabian War of 1499, Konstanz lost its last privileges over Thurgau to the Confederation, the Protestant Reformation took hold in Konstanz in the 1520s, headed by Ambrosius Blarer. Soon the city declared itself officially Protestant, pictures were removed from the churches, and the bishop moved to Meersburg
19.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
20.
Artillery
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Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
21.
Freiburg im Breisgau
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Freiburg im Breisgau is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany with a population of about 220,000. In the south-west of the country, it straddles the Dreisam river, historically, the city has acted as the hub of the Breisgau region on the western edge of the Black Forest in the Upper Rhine Plain. The city is known for its medieval minster and Renaissance university, as well as for its standard of living. The city is situated in the heart of the major Baden wine-growing region, according to meteorological statistics, the city is the sunniest and warmest in Germany and held the all-time German temperature record of 40.2 °C from 2003 to 2015. Freiburg was founded by Konrad and Duke Berthold III of Zähringen in 1120 as a market town, hence its name. Frei means free, and Burg, like the modern English word borough, was used in those days for a city or town. The German word Burg also means a town, as in Hamburg. Thus, it is likely that the name of place means a fortified town of free citizens. This town was located at a junction of trade routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea regions, and the Rhine and Danube rivers. In 1200, Freiburgs population numbered approximately 6,000 people, at about that time, under the rule of Bertold V, the last duke of Zähringen, the city began construction of its Freiburg Münster cathedral on the site of an older parish church. Begun in the Romanesque style, it was continued and completed 1513 for the most part as a Gothic edifice, in 1218, when Bertold V died, then Egino V von Urach, the count of Urach assumed the title of Freiburgs count as Egino I von Freiburg. The city council did not trust the new nobles and wrote down its established rights in a document, at the end of the thirteenth century there was a feud between the citizens of Freiburg and their lord, Count Egino II of Freiburg. Egino II raised taxes and sought to limit the freedom, after which the Freiburgers used catapults to destroy the counts castle atop the Schloßberg. The furious count called on his brother-in-law the Bishop of Strasbourg, Konradius von Lichtenberg, the bishop responded by marching with his army to Freiburg. According to an old Freiburg legend, a butcher named Hauri stabbed the Bishop of Strasbourg to death on 29 July 1299. It was a Pyrrhic victory, since henceforth the citizens of Freiburg had to pay an annual expiation of 300 marks in silver to the count of Freiburg until 1368, in 1366 the counts of Freiburg made another failed attempt to occupy the city during a night raid. Eventually the citizens were fed up with their lords, and in 1368 Freiburg purchased its independence from them, the city turned itself over to the protection of the Habsburgs, who allowed the city to retain a large measure of freedom. Most of the nobles of the city died in the battle of Sempach, the patrician family Schnewlin took control of the city until the guildsmen revolted
22.
2nd Dragoon Regiment (France)
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The 2nd Dragoon Regiment is an armoured cavalry unit of the French Army, stationed at Fontevraud-lAbbaye, by Saumur in Maine-et-Loire. The current regiment is an amalgamation of the old 2nd Dragoon Regiment and the groupe de défense NBC, despite the recent formation of the regiment in its current configuration, it is the oldest French cavalry regiment, dating back to 1556. The regiment found fame as the regiment of Louis, Duke of Enghien and later Prince of Condé, from 1635 to 1686, in honour of the Grand Condé. The French Revolution gave it the designation of the regiment of dragoons in the French Army. The 2nd Dragoons trace their lineage to the formation of a compagnie dordonnance by Louis de Bourbon, head of the House of Condé, at the time it numbered 50 lances fournies—50 knights, plus about 5 supporting men-at-arms each, for a total of about 300 men. Enghien appointed the Chevalier de Tavannes as the commander of the regiment and it immediately was sent to serve in the Italian peninsula, where it probably operated as a collection of independent light cavalry companies. In 1636, it was sent to join the French campaign against Franche-Comté and it was reduced to independent companies in July 1636, and restored to a full regiment in January 1638. Sent to fight in the Pyrenees in the war against Spain, under its new commander the Marquis de Livry, the regiment fought in the successful Siege of Turin in 1640. Following the siege, the regiment helped take several towns in Piedmont for the French and it joined the Duke of Enghien in Germany in 1644, fighting at Freiburg, Phillippburg, Mainz, and Landau. At the Second Battle of Nördlingen on 3 August 1645, the Marquis de Livry was killed, the Marquis de Lanques replaced him, and under his command, the regiment was among those that took Heilbronn and Trier for the French. The regiment was sent to the siege of Dunkirk, where on 26 December 1646 it was renamed the Régiment de Condé-Cavalerie, after Enghien became Prince of Condé on the death of his father. The Condé-Cavalerie was sent to Catalonia for two years, while Prince Louis was assigned to command the French and Catalan forces, where it took part in the second siege of Lleida. In early 1649, the regiment was called to join the blockade of Paris as part of the First Fronde, a rebellion of the French parliament and a section of the nobles, including the Prince of Condé. After the Prince of Condé reconciled with Cardinal Mazarin and the faction in February 1651. This only lasted until September, when the Prince of Condé was forced to flee France and he became a high commander in the Spanish army, and his regiment of cavalry fought for him as part of Spanish and Lombard forces. During this time, the Prince of Condé commissioned Noël Bouton de Chamilly, later Marshal of France, into his regiment, he served as its mestre de camp lieutenant in 1667–1682. The regiment returned to service on 7 November 1659, following the Treaty of the Pyrenees, reduced to a single colonels company. The full regiment was reinstated in December 1665, and in 1667 the regiment took part in the French invasion of the Low Countries as part of the War of Devolution
23.
Mistral (missile)
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Mistral is an infrared homing surface-to-air missile manufactured by the European multinational company MBDA missile systems. Based on the French SATCP, the portable missile later to become the Mistral began development in 1974 and it was initially deployed in 1988 for the first version and 1997 for the second version. The basic Mistral missile is used with a man-portable launch unit, there are also launch units that allow the missile to be fired from armoured vehicles, ships or helicopters. To further enhance the ECCM capability, the seeker of Mistral has a narrow field of view to reject decoys and interference. On the launcher, the missile runs up the gyro in 2 seconds, the all-aspect two-color cooled IR-seeker of Mistral is developed by SAT, and the missile adopts both laser proximity and impact fuzes. A close-in weapon system based on Mistral is a version called Sadral. A CSEE developed fire control director is integrated to the launcher, consisted of TV camera, image produced by both directors appear on the screen in the operator console below deck, and the missiles are locked onto the target before being launched. A fully loaded Sadral launcher weighs 1080 kg, and the operator console weighs 280 kg, a two-missile unit installed on ships is called Simbad, and a newly launched four-missile version is called Tetral. An evolution of the Simbad is now proposed, Simbad RC, both Tetral and Simbad RC are remote controlled from the ships deck while the original Simbad is manually operated with a simple optical sight. On 26 September 2012 DCNS at the companys Le Mourillon plant announced plans to design, the concept is similar to the British Submarine Launched Airflight Missile developed by Vickers in the 1970s and tested on HMS Aeneas and three boats of the Gal-class
24.
Castelsarrasin
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Castelsarrasin is a commune in the Tarn-et-Garonne department in Occitanie region of France. It is the second most populous commune in Tarn-et-Garonne after Montauban, the first certain evidence of the town dates from 961. The name, Castel Sarracenum, would indicate that the castle was built in the Saracen era, the region is calmer during the following centuries, up to the time of the French Revolution. Castelsarrasin was the finish of Stage 17 in the 2007 Tour de France, charles de Mazade, born in 1820. Pierre Perret, singer born on July 9th 1934, caroline Costa, singer born in 1996 Jean-Claude Perret, chef born in 1938 Église Saint-Sauveur Castelsarrasin is the sub-prefecture of the department. Bernard Dagen, pharmacist by profession, has been mayor since 1989, communes of the Tarn-et-Garonne department INSEE Castelsarrasin official site Castelsarrasin non official site since 2001 Self catering accommodation
25.
2nd Armoured Brigade (France)
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The 2nd Armoured Brigade is an armoured brigade of the French Army. It is heir to the honours and traditions of the 2nd Armoured Division commanded by Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, in 1970 the 2nd Armoured Brigade at Saint-Germain-en-Laye was part of the 8th Armoured Division, headquartered at Compiègne, alongside two mechanised brigades. In 1977 the 2nd Armoured Brigade appears to have disbanded. The reorganisation of the French Army in 1999 transformed and downsized the 2nd Armoured Division to the 2nd Armoured Brigade, the brigade consists of 7 regiments. defense. gouv. fr Official site – 2e BB
26.
Illkirch-Graffenstaden
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Illkirch-Graffenstaden is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It is the second-largest suburb of the city of Strasbourg, and is adjacent to it on the south-southwest, Illkirch-Graffenstaden is one of the fastest growing cities in France and probably in Europe, its population having more than doubled in less than forty years. In the past Illkirch and Grafenstaden were two separate villages, during periods when Alsace-Lorraine was part of Germany the commune was known as Illkirch-Grafenstaden, this spelling is still used in German. The larger adjacent communes, like Illkirch-Graffenstaden, are effectively suburbs of the Strasbourg conurbation. These include Strasbourg-Meinau, Ostwald and Geispolsheim, the town also lies by the Rhône-Rhine Canal which here runs between the two rivers. Illkirch is believed to be a Frankish foundation, the town, like Alsace takes the first syllable of its name from the river that crosses it, the second syllable is simply the local word for a church. As a reward for their services, Rudolf in 1284 elevated several leading Strasbourgers to the knighthood, historians know of Illkirch from the Illkirch Capitulation Document. Imperial support did not materialize, however, and in order to avoid greater suffering von Zedlitz was finally obliged to sign the Surrender Document of Illkirch on 30 September 1681, graffenstaden was a village bordering Illkirch, the two communes were merged for economic reasons between 1790 and 1794. The factory had originally built before the annexation of Alsace by Germany. Today it is the sector that provides most of the employment in the area. Another important employer is Leclerc barracks, home to the German 291st Light Infantry Battalion, jean-Baptiste Schwilgué, horologist Frédéric Rollé, horologist Mehdi Baala, track and field athlete Communes of the Bas-Rhin department Official website
27.
12th Cuirassier Regiment (France)
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The 12th Cuirassier Regiment is an armoured cavalry regiment of the French Army. It provides the armoured component of the 2nd Armoured Brigade, currently stationed at Quartier Valmy, Olivet, France. First formed in 1688 under the Ancien Régime and it distinguished itself in the Revolutionary Wars. It took part at the battles of Austerlitz, Jena and Borodino, the writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline volunteered for this regiment in 1912. Turned into the 12e régiment de cuirassiers à pied Became the 12e Régiment de cuirassiers again in 1919, in 2009, the two units were delinked and the 6th Cuirassiers deactivated, the 12th Cuirassiers was re-established as an individual unit. Their symbol is a dolphin on a blue shield. The regiment is composed of around 940 personnel organization into 10 squadrons,1793, Jean-Baptiste Colart - chef de brigade. 1795, Jean Verreaux - chef de brigade,1776, Charles Juste de Beauvau, Prince de Beauvau, This regiment, long known as one of the best trained cavalry regiments, entirely merits the reputation it has gained in that sphere. 1918, General Marie-Eugène Debeney, A regiment of the highest morale and proudly held under fire
28.
Olivet, Loiret
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Olivet is a commune in the Loiret department in north-central France. Olivet is located in the bend of the Loire, which crosses from east to west. Olivet belongs to the de la Loire sector between Sully-sur-Loire and Chalonnes-sur-Loire, which was in 2000 inscribed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Olivet is 120 km south-south-west of Paris, Olivet is bordered to the north by Orléans and to the south by the Sologne. Olivet is crossed by the Loiret, a 13 km long river which is both a tributary and a resurgence of the Loire, the first traces of inhabitants belong to the Merovingian era. The water mills along the river were built by monks during the tenth century, the first name of the village, during eleventh century, was Saint Martin du Loiret. The name Olivet comes probably from Mount of olives, the village suffered severe destructions during the Hundred Years War, especially during the Siege of Orléans. During the nineteenth century the river became a resort. Most of the surface was still devoted to agriculture, specialised in flowers, vegetable, nowadays Olivet is a growing city of more than 20.000 inhabitants. The peaceful river Loiret, surroundered by trees and home of numerous swans and they show glimpses of water mills, old castles, guinguettes and boat garages. On the north side of the bridge, the Horloge fleurie is a giant clock on a flowery slope. The Eglise Saint Martin is a monument whose building began in the thirteenth century. Jules-Marie Simon, writer Isidore Bernhart, pataphysician Pierre Michon, writer Communes of the Loiret department Official city website
29.
AMX Leclerc
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The Char Leclerc is a main battle tank built by GIAT, now Nexter of France. It was named in honour of General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque who led the French element of the drive towards Paris while in command of the Free French 2nd Armoured Division in World War II. The Leclerc is in service with the French Army and the army of the United Arab Emirates, in production since 1991, the Leclerc entered French service in 1992, replacing the AMX30 as the countrys main armoured platform. With production now complete, the French Army has a total of 406 Leclerc, the price in 2011 was €9.3 million, which made it the most expensive tank in history at the time. Following the devaluation of the Euro its price fell dramatically, in 1964 studies were initiated about a possible replacement vehicle for the AMX30, the Engin Principal Prospectif. In 1975 a working committee was created that in 1977 agreed on a list of specifications, fundamental disagreements about its desired configuration led to a failure of this cooperation in December 1982. It was announced that a purely French battle tank would be developed, called EPC, importation of foreign equipment, like the M1 Abrams, the Leopard 2, or the Merkava had been studied and rejected. In contrast to most Western programmes of the time, much consideration was given to active, besides passive protection, mobility for evading enemy fire and fire control systems were given particular attention. In 1986, the project was started under the name of Leclerc, mass production started in 1990 with the four-unit Batch 1, used mainly for comparative tests in foreign countries. The 17 units of Batch 2 were shipped, with improvements in the turret and these units were diagnosed with problems in the engine and suspension, and were quickly retired. Batch 3 followed with some improvements and have used to define the doctrine of use. Batches 4 and 5 were better built, eliminating the recurrent problems in the powerplant, the second series started with Batch 6, with an added climate control system in the right rear of the turret. Batch 7 introduced a system to the command vehicle. It also incorporated improvements in the visor. Batch 8 was a modernisation of the system, and Batch 9 replaced the thermal imaging ATHOS by a SAGEM Iris with better resolution. All previous batches will be modernised up to the standards of Batch 9 from 2005, in 2004, Batch 10 was presented, incorporating new information systems which could share the disposition of enemy and friendly units to all vehicles on the battlefield, and a new armor package. This was the beginning of the 96-unit third series, by 2007,355 tanks should have been operational,320 of them incorporated in four regiments, each of 80 Leclerc vehicles. As of 2010, after a French defence review, each of the four regiments operated 60 Leclerc tanks for a total of 240 in operational units, due to finance cuts, only 254 tanks were fully operational in 2011
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Bitche
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Bitche is a commune in the Moselle department of the Grand Est administrative region in north-eastern France. It is the Pays de Bitches capital city and the seat of the canton of Bitche, the town belongs to the Northern Vosges Regional Nature Park and is rated 4-flowers at the towns and villages in bloom competition. As of the 2013 France census, the population is 5,225. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Bitchois and Bitchoises, the town is known for its large citadel originating from a castle built at the beginning of the 13th century. The fortress is noted for its resistance during the Franco-Prussian War, the town became part of Germany after that date until the end of the First World War, when it was given back to France. During the Second World War, it was annexed by the Third German Reich, Bitche is located near the German border on the small river Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges between Haguenau and Sarreguemines. The town of Bitche, which was formed from the villages of Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century and this had long given its name to the countship of Bitsch, which was originally in the possession of the dukes of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by marriage to Eberhard I of Zweibrücken-Bitsch, whose line became extinct in 1569 and it passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After 1766 the town increased in population. The citadel, which had constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after the capture of Bitche by the French in 1624, had been destroyed when it was restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored and strengthened in 1740 into a fortress that proved impregnable up until the 20th century, the attack upon it by the Prussians in 1793 was repulsed. In 1815 during Napoleons Hundred Days, Brigadier-General Creutzer was the commandant, Bitche was besieged by General Zollerns Fourth Infantry Division of the Austrian IV Corps, but Creutzer refused to surrender until the general armistice. Although Bitche was hotly contested by the Germans after the ] during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, it held out until the wars end. A large part of the fortification is built into the red rock, and was rendered bomb-proof. Commander of the fortress of Bitche was Louis-Casimir Teyssier, after the war, it was given to German Empire as part of Alsace Lorraine. It was given back to France in 1918, the town is near the Maginot Line, into which the citadel was integrated. Bitche was liberated in December 1944 by allied troops but was relinquished in the withdrawal forced by the German counteroffensive. In March 1945 the U. S. 100th Infantry Division broke through the Maginot Line in the Bitche area and liberated the town, the attack was a part of Operation Undertone
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Clermont-Ferrand
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Clermont-Ferrand is a city and commune of France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, with a population of 141,569. Its metropolitan area had 467,178 inhabitants at the 2011 census and it is the prefecture of the Puy-de-Dôme department. Olivier Bianchi is its current mayor, Clermont-Ferrand sits on the plain of Limagne in the Massif Central and is surrounded by a major industrial area. The city is famous for the chain of volcanoes, the Chaîne des Puys surrounding it, the famous dormant volcano Puy de Dôme is one of the highest of these and well known for the telecommunication antennas that sit on its top and are visible from far away. Clermont-Ferrands most famous square is Place de Jaude, on which stands a grand statue of Vercingetorix sitting imperiously on a horse. The inscription reads, Jai pris les armes pour la liberté de tous and this statue was sculpted by Frédéric Bartholdi, who also created the Statue of Liberty. Clermont-Ferrands first name was Augusta Nemetum and it was born on the central knoll where the cathedral is situated today, known then as Nemossos. It overlooked the capital of Gaulish Avernie, the fortified castle of Clarus Mons gave its name to the whole town in 848, to which the small episcopal town of Montferrand was attached in 1731, together taking the name of Clermont-Ferrand. The old part of Clermont is delimited by the route of the ramparts, the town of Clermont-Ferrand came about with the joining together of two separate towns, Clermont and Montferrand, which was decreed by Louis XIII and confirmed by Louis XV. Clermont ranks among the oldest cities of France, the first known mention was by the Greek geographer Strabo, who called it the metropolis of the Arverni. The city was at that time called Nemessos – a Gaulish word for a sacred forest and it was somewhere in the area around Nemossos that the Arverni chieftain Vercingetorix was born in around 72 BC. Also, Nemossos was situated not far from the plateau of Gergovia, after the Roman conquest, the city became known as Augustonemetum sometime in the 1st century, a name which combined its original Gallic name with that of the Emperor Augustus. Its population was estimated at 15, 000–30,000 in the 2nd century and it then became Arvernis in the 3rd century, and expanded until the mid 3rd century. The city became the seat of a bishop in the 5th century, at the time of the bishop Namatius or Saint Namace, who built a cathedral here described by Gregory of Tours. Clermont went through a period after the disappearance of the Roman Empire and during the whole High Middle Ages. Between 471 and 475, Auvergne was often the target of Visigothic expansion, a generation later, it became part of the Kingdom of the Franks. On 8 November 535 the first Council of Clermont opened at Arvernis, with fifteen bishops participating, including Caesarius of Arles, Nizier of Lyons and Saint Hilarius, bishop of Mende. Sixteen decrees were made there, notably the second canon that recalls that the granting of episcopal dignity must be according to the merits, in 570, Bishop Avitus offered the Jews of his town the alternatives of baptism or expulsion
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GCT 155mm
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The GCT 155mm is a French self-propelled artillery vehicle currently in use by the armies of France and Saudi Arabia. It replaced the former Mk F3 155mm in French Army service, though 60% heavier than the American M109, the GCT 155mm is faster, fires faster and incorporated a more sophisticated fire control system. The GCT 155mm saw combat with the Iraqi Army in the Iran–Iraq War, though the French Mk 3 155mm would remain in production through the 1980s, by the early 1970s the French Army realized there was an urgent need for its replacement. The Mk.3 155mm lacked a turret and nuclear-biological-chemical protection for its crew. Development of the GCT 155mm began in the early 1970s, about 400 have been produced, with 70 having been upgraded to the AUF2 variant. It is also equipped with a roof-mounted 12. 7mm anti-aircraft gun, the AUF1 has an effective range of 23,500 meters firing conventional rounds and 28,000 meters using Rocket Assisted Projectiles. In addition, the Iraqi Army received a number of GTC 155mm AUF1 variants in 1980. The battery provided rapid counter-battery fire against Serb artillery units during the siege of Sarajevo, the AUF2 is an improved turret for the GCT 155mm designed and built by GIAT. The AUF2 155mm howitzer and turret are designed for integration onto a range of armored chassis such as AMX30, Leopard 1, Arjun. It was initially developed to upgrade the 155mm GCT AUF1 self-propelled howitzers then in service with the French Army, the French Army has procured approximately 70 AUF2 turrets and mounted them on the AMX30B2 chassis. Improvements in the AUF2 include an all-new automatic round and charge feed system, new charges and rounds are also available for the AUF2. The AUF2 is equipped with a 7. 62mm anti-aircraft machine gun located at the roof of the turret, the AUF2 turret, including the gun and loading systems, weighs nearly 19 tons. Compared with the AUF1, the AUF2 offers an improved range of 42 km. In use, the system has been found to have greater reliability, accuracy. France -253 unit Kuwait -18 units Saudi Arabia -51 units Iraq -85 received between 1983-1985, derelict after the 2003 invasion of Iraq
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6th Light Armoured Brigade (France)
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The 6th Light Armoured Brigade one of the eight inter-arm brigades which are at the disposition of the Commandement de la force daction terrestre. The brigade is very similar to the constitution, material, the headquarters of the brigade is situated in Nîmes. The brigade is capable of deploying to any theatre of operation while delivering fire power, agility. The brigade is heir to the 6th Cavalry Division of 1914, the 6th Light Cavalry Division of 1940, the 6th Armoured Division of Compiègne, the 31st Brigade then took part in peacekeeping combat operations in Lebanon in 1983 within the ranks of the Multinational Force in Lebanon. The Brigade was considered an inter-arm French Foreign Legion and French Army brigade, dominated by the legion including the Troupes de Marine and commanded by the Foreign Legion Groupment. The brigade was dissolved in 1984 and replaced with the 6th Light Armoured Division which partook in the Gulf War engaged as Division Daguet during Opération Daguet. Following the reforms of the French Army in 1999, the division was renamed the 6th Light Armoured Brigade. In 1984, the unit was named 6th Light Armoured Division and was part of the Rapid Reaction Force. Q. Q. com Lordre de bataille de la force terrestre
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1st Spahi Regiment
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The 1st Spahi Regiment is an armored regiment of the modern French Army, previously called the 1st Moroccan Spahi Regiment. It was established in 1914 as a cavalry unit recruited primarily from indigenous Moroccan horsemen. The regiment saw service in both the First World War and the Second World War as part of the Forces Françaises Libres as well as service in the French-Indochina War. The modern regiment continues the traditions of all former Spahi regiments in the French Army of Africa, the Moroccan Spahis of the French Army were created in 1914 by Général Hubert Lyautey. The initial title of the regiment was that of the Régiment de Marche de Chasseurs Indigènes à Cheval, the first Marching Moroccan Spahi Regiment participated in the First Battle of the Marne. Subsequently, sent to the Orient Front, the regiment served with distinction at Pogradec, Skumbi, Bofnia, Uskub, the regiment was accordingly awarded 5 citations and a fourragere with the colors of the Médaille militaire. The regiment was redesignated as the 21st Moroccan Spahi Regiment in 1921, the regiment was awarded 3 additional citations plus a fourragere in the colors of the Croix de guerre des théâtres dopérations extérieures. In 1929, the regiment was renamed as the 1st Moroccan Spahi Regiment, while on maneuvers in southern Lebanon, Jourdier succeeded in detaching a small contingent comprising half of his squadron. The 1st RSM at this stage in the war was still a mounted cavalry unit, reinforced by a detached units that had separately crossed the border between Lebanon and Palestine, plus volunteers from London, the squadron undertook mounted operations in Eretria. The squadron conducted horse-mounted cavalry charges at Umbrega, still under the leadership of Captain Paul Jourdier, the defection of a regular cavalry unit of the Vichy forces was widely publicized by the British and Free French forces, making use of photographs showing charging spahis. The regiment was dismounted and participated in the Syria–Lebanon Campaign on trucks. Other squadrons were created, forming first one then two army corps reconnaissance groups, commanded by Jourider and Robert de Kersauson. Reinforced by a company of the 501e Régiment de chars de combat of the Free French Forces and it subsequently was included in the advance to Tunisia, initially as part of the British 8th Army, then in 1943 in the FFF commanded by Général Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque. On September 25,1942, the two Groups were merged to form the 1st Moroccan Spahi Marching Regiment, under the orders of Jean Rémy. Becoming a reconnaissance regiment of the 2nd Armored Division 2e DB, the original 1e RSM saw mounted horse combat in Syria before being motorized in Morocco during 1943. The unit thentook part in the battle of Royan, France in 1945 and it was then merged with the 8th Dragoon Regiment. The 1st Marching Moroccan Spahi Regiment 1er RMSM was awarded as a Compagnon de la Libération by decree of August 7,1945, one squadron of the 1st RSM served in the First Indochina War, between 1945 and October 1946. During the post-war era the regiment underwent several changes in title, in 1947, the regiment was designated as the 1st Regiment of Moroccan Spahis, a title it retained during its service in Morocco
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