1.
Schlegel diagram
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In geometry, a Schlegel diagram is a projection of a polytope from R d into R d −1 through a point beyond one of its facets or faces. The resulting entity is a subdivision of the facet in R d −1 that is combinatorially equivalent to the original polytope. Named for Victor Schlegel, who in 1886 introduced this tool for studying combinatorial and topological properties of polytopes, in dimensions 3 and 4, a Schlegel diagram is a projection of a polyhedron into a plane figure and a projection of a 4-polytope to 3-space, respectively. As such, Schlegel diagrams are used as a means of visualizing four-dimensional polytopes. The most elementary Schlegel diagram, that of a polyhedron, was described by Duncan Sommerville as follows, if it is projected from any external point, since each ray cuts it twice, it will be represented by a polygonal area divided twice over into polygons. It is always possible by suitable choice of the centre of projection to make the projection of one face completely contain the projections of all the other faces and this is called a Schlegel diagram of the polyhedron. The Schlegel diagram completely represents the morphology of the polyhedron, Sommerville also considers the case of a simplex in four dimensions, The Schlegel diagram of simplex in S4 is a tetrahedron divided into four tetrahedra. More generally, a polytope in n-dimensions has a Schegel diagram constructed by a perspective projection viewed from a point outside of the polytope, all vertices and edges of the polytope are projected onto a hyperplane of that facet. If the polytope is convex, a point near the facet will exist which maps the facet outside, and all other facets inside, so no edges need to cross in the projection. Net – A different approach for visualization by lowering the dimension of a polytope is to build a net, disconnecting facets and this maintains the geometric scale and shape, but makes the topological connections harder to see. Victor Schlegel Theorie der homogen zusammengesetzten Raumgebilde, Nova Acta, Ksl, deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Band XLIV, Nr. 4, Druck von E. Blochmann & Sohn in Dresden, Victor Schlegel Ueber Projectionsmodelle der regelmässigen vier-dimensionalen Körper, Waren. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 Grünbaum, Branko, Kaibel, Volker, Klee, Victor, convex polytopes, New York & London, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-00424-6. George W. Hart, 4D Polytope Projection Models by 3D Printing Nrich maths – for the teenager
2.
Convex regular 4-polytope
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In mathematics, a regular 4-polytope is a regular four-dimensional polytope. They are the analogs of the regular polyhedra in three dimensions and the regular polygons in two dimensions. Regular 4-polytopes were first described by the Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli in the mid-19th century, There are six convex and ten star regular 4-polytopes, giving a total of sixteen. The convex regular 4-polytopes were first described by the Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli in the mid-19th century, Schläfli discovered that there are precisely six such figures. Schläfli also found four of the regular star 4-polytopes and he skipped the remaining six because he would not allow forms that failed the Euler characteristic on cells or vertex figures. That excludes cells and vertex figures as, and, the six convex and ten star polytopes described are the only solutions to these constraints. There are four nonconvex Schläfli symbols that have cells and vertex figures, and pass the dihedral test. The regular convex 4-polytopes are the analogs of the Platonic solids in three dimensions and the convex regular polygons in two dimensions. Five of them may be thought of as close analogs of the Platonic solids, There is one additional figure, the 24-cell, which has no close three-dimensional equivalent. Each convex regular 4-polytope is bounded by a set of 3-dimensional cells which are all Platonic solids of the same type and these are fitted together along their respective faces in a regular fashion. The following tables lists some properties of the six convex regular 4-polytopes, the symmetry groups of these 4-polytopes are all Coxeter groups and given in the notation described in that article. The number following the name of the group is the order of the group, John Conway advocates the names simplex, orthoplex, tesseract, octaplex or polyoctahedron, dodecaplex or polydodecahedron, and tetraplex or polytetrahedron. The Euler characteristic for all 4-polytopes is zero, we have the 4-dimensional analog of Eulers polyhedral formula, the topology of any given 4-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers and torsion coefficients. The following table shows some 2-dimensional projections of these 4-polytopes, various other visualizations can be found in the external links below. The Coxeter-Dynkin diagram graphs are given below the Schläfli symbol. The Schläfli–Hess 4-polytopes are the set of 10 regular self-intersecting star polychora. They are named in honor of their discoverers, Ludwig Schläfli, each is represented by a Schläfli symbol in which one of the numbers is 5/2. They are thus analogous to the regular nonconvex Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra and their names given here were given by John Conway, extending Cayleys names for the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, along with stellated and great, he adds a grand modifier
3.
Face (geometry)
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In solid geometry, a face is a flat surface that forms part of the boundary of a solid object, a three-dimensional solid bounded exclusively by flat faces is a polyhedron. In more technical treatments of the geometry of polyhedra and higher-dimensional polytopes, in elementary geometry, a face is a polygon on the boundary of a polyhedron. Other names for a polygonal face include side of a polyhedron, for example, any of the six squares that bound a cube is a face of the cube. Sometimes face is used to refer to the 2-dimensional features of a 4-polytope. With this meaning, the 4-dimensional tesseract has 24 square faces, some other polygons, which are not faces, are also important for polyhedra and tessellations. These include Petrie polygons, vertex figures and facets, any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula, thus the number of faces is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of vertices. For example, a cube has 12 edges and 8 vertices, in higher-dimensional geometry the faces of a polytope are features of all dimensions. A face of dimension k is called a k-face, for example, the polygonal faces of an ordinary polyhedron are 2-faces. In set theory, the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself, for any n-polytope, −1 ≤ k ≤ n. For example, with meaning, the faces of a cube include the empty set, its vertices, edges and squares. Formally, a face of a polytope P is the intersection of P with any closed halfspace whose boundary is disjoint from the interior of P, from this definition it follows that the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set. In other areas of mathematics, such as the theories of abstract polytopes and star polytopes, abstract theory still requires that the set of faces include the polytope itself and the empty set. A cell is an element of a 4-dimensional polytope or 3-dimensional tessellation. Cells are facets for 4-polytopes and 3-honeycombs, examples, In higher-dimensional geometry, the facets of a n-polytope are the -faces of dimension one less than the polytope itself. A polytope is bounded by its facets, for example, The facets of a line segment are its 0-faces or vertices. The facets of a polygon are its 1-faces or edges, the facets of a polyhedron or plane tiling are its 2-faces. The facets of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 3-faces, the facets of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 4-faces
4.
Tetrahedron
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In geometry, a tetrahedron, also known as a triangular pyramid, is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertex corners. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra, the tetrahedron is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a Euclidean simplex. The tetrahedron is one kind of pyramid, which is a polyhedron with a polygon base. In the case of a tetrahedron the base is a triangle, like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere on which all four vertices lie, a regular tetrahedron is one in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have known since antiquity. In a regular tetrahedron, not only are all its faces the same size and shape, regular tetrahedra alone do not tessellate, but if alternated with regular octahedra they form the alternated cubic honeycomb, which is a tessellation. The regular tetrahedron is self-dual, which means that its dual is another regular tetrahedron, the compound figure comprising two such dual tetrahedra form a stellated octahedron or stella octangula. This form has Coxeter diagram and Schläfli symbol h, the tetrahedron in this case has edge length 2√2. Inverting these coordinates generates the dual tetrahedron, and the together form the stellated octahedron. In other words, if C is the centroid of the base and this follows from the fact that the medians of a triangle intersect at its centroid, and this point divides each of them in two segments, one of which is twice as long as the other. The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron, the symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to half of those of a cube, those that map the tetrahedra to themselves, and not to each other. The tetrahedron is the only Platonic solid that is not mapped to itself by point inversion, the regular tetrahedron has 24 isometries, forming the symmetry group Td, isomorphic to the symmetric group, S4. The first corresponds to the A2 Coxeter plane, the two skew perpendicular opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron define a set of parallel planes. When one of these intersects the tetrahedron the resulting cross section is a rectangle. When the intersecting plane is one of the edges the rectangle is long. When halfway between the two edges the intersection is a square, the aspect ratio of the rectangle reverses as you pass this halfway point. For the midpoint square intersection the resulting boundary line traverses every face of the tetrahedron similarly, if the tetrahedron is bisected on this plane, both halves become wedges
5.
2-face
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In solid geometry, a face is a flat surface that forms part of the boundary of a solid object, a three-dimensional solid bounded exclusively by flat faces is a polyhedron. In more technical treatments of the geometry of polyhedra and higher-dimensional polytopes, in elementary geometry, a face is a polygon on the boundary of a polyhedron. Other names for a polygonal face include side of a polyhedron, for example, any of the six squares that bound a cube is a face of the cube. Sometimes face is used to refer to the 2-dimensional features of a 4-polytope. With this meaning, the 4-dimensional tesseract has 24 square faces, some other polygons, which are not faces, are also important for polyhedra and tessellations. These include Petrie polygons, vertex figures and facets, any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula, thus the number of faces is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of vertices. For example, a cube has 12 edges and 8 vertices, in higher-dimensional geometry the faces of a polytope are features of all dimensions. A face of dimension k is called a k-face, for example, the polygonal faces of an ordinary polyhedron are 2-faces. In set theory, the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself, for any n-polytope, −1 ≤ k ≤ n. For example, with meaning, the faces of a cube include the empty set, its vertices, edges and squares. Formally, a face of a polytope P is the intersection of P with any closed halfspace whose boundary is disjoint from the interior of P, from this definition it follows that the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set. In other areas of mathematics, such as the theories of abstract polytopes and star polytopes, abstract theory still requires that the set of faces include the polytope itself and the empty set. A cell is an element of a 4-dimensional polytope or 3-dimensional tessellation. Cells are facets for 4-polytopes and 3-honeycombs, examples, In higher-dimensional geometry, the facets of a n-polytope are the -faces of dimension one less than the polytope itself. A polytope is bounded by its facets, for example, The facets of a line segment are its 0-faces or vertices. The facets of a polygon are its 1-faces or edges, the facets of a polyhedron or plane tiling are its 2-faces. The facets of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 3-faces, the facets of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 4-faces
6.
Edge (geometry)
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For edge in graph theory, see Edge In geometry, an edge is a particular type of line segment joining two vertices in a polygon, polyhedron, or higher-dimensional polytope. In a polygon, an edge is a segment on the boundary. In a polyhedron or more generally a polytope, an edge is a segment where two faces meet. A segment joining two vertices while passing through the interior or exterior is not an edge but instead is called a diagonal. In graph theory, an edge is an abstract object connecting two vertices, unlike polygon and polyhedron edges which have a concrete geometric representation as a line segment. However, any polyhedron can be represented by its skeleton or edge-skeleton, conversely, the graphs that are skeletons of three-dimensional polyhedra can be characterized by Steinitzs theorem as being exactly the 3-vertex-connected planar graphs. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of edges is 2 less than the sum of the numbers of vertices and faces, for example, a cube has 8 vertices and 6 faces, and hence 12 edges. In a polygon, two edges meet at each vertex, more generally, by Balinskis theorem, at least d edges meet at every vertex of a convex polytope. Similarly, in a polyhedron, exactly two faces meet at every edge, while in higher dimensional polytopes three or more two-dimensional faces meet at every edge. Thus, the edges of a polygon are its facets, the edges of a 3-dimensional convex polyhedron are its ridges, archived from the original on 4 February 2007
7.
Vertex (geometry)
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In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
8.
Vertex figure
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In geometry, a vertex figure, broadly speaking, is the figure exposed when a corner of a polyhedron or polytope is sliced off. Take some vertex of a polyhedron, mark a point somewhere along each connected edge. Draw lines across the faces, joining adjacent points. When done, these form a complete circuit, i. e. a polygon. This polygon is the vertex figure, more precise formal definitions can vary quite widely, according to circumstance. For example Coxeter varies his definition as convenient for the current area of discussion, most of the following definitions of a vertex figure apply equally well to infinite tilings, or space-filling tessellation with polytope cells. Make a slice through the corner of the polyhedron, cutting all the edges connected to the vertex. The cut surface is the vertex figure and this is perhaps the most common approach, and the most easily understood. Different authors make the slice in different places, Wenninger cuts each edge a unit distance from the vertex, as does Coxeter. For uniform polyhedra the Dorman Luke construction cuts each connected edge at its midpoint, other authors make the cut through the vertex at the other end of each edge. For irregular polyhedra, these approaches may produce a figure that does not lie in a plane. A more general approach, valid for convex polyhedra, is to make the cut along any plane which separates the given vertex from all the other vertices. Cromwell makes a cut or scoop, centered on the vertex. The cut surface or vertex figure is thus a spherical polygon marked on this sphere, many combinatorial and computational approaches treat a vertex figure as the ordered set of points of all the neighboring vertices to the given vertex. In the theory of polytopes, the vertex figure at a given vertex V comprises all the elements which are incident on the vertex, edges, faces. More formally it is the -section Fn/V, where Fn is the greatest face and this set of elements is elsewhere known as a vertex star. A vertex figure for an n-polytope is an -polytope, for example, a vertex figure for a polyhedron is a polygon figure, and the vertex figure for a 4-polytope is a polyhedron. Each edge of the vertex figure exists on or inside of a face of the original polytope connecting two vertices from an original face
9.
Petrie polygon
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In geometry, a Petrie polygon for a regular polytope of n dimensions is a skew polygon such that every consecutive sides belong to one of the facets. The Petrie polygon of a polygon is the regular polygon itself. For every regular polytope there exists an orthogonal projection onto a plane such that one Petrie polygon becomes a regular polygon with the remainder of the interior to it. The plane in question is the Coxeter plane of the group of the polygon. These polygons and projected graphs are useful in visualizing symmetric structure of the regular polytopes. John Flinders Petrie was the son of Egyptologist Flinders Petrie. He was born in 1907 and as a schoolboy showed remarkable promise of mathematical ability, in periods of intense concentration he could answer questions about complicated four-dimensional objects by visualizing them. He first noted the importance of the skew polygons which appear on the surface of regular polyhedra. When my incredulity had begun to subside, he described them to me, one consisting of squares, six at each vertex, in 1938 Petrie collaborated with Coxeter, Patrick du Val, and H. T. Flather to produce The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra for publication, realizing the geometric facility of the skew polygons used by Petrie, Coxeter named them after his friend when he wrote Regular Polytopes. In 1972, a few months after his retirement, Petrie was killed by a car attempting to cross a motorway near his home in Surrey. The idea of Petrie polygons was later extended to semiregular polytopes, the Petrie polygon of the regular polyhedron has h sides, where h+2=24/. The regular duals, and, are contained within the same projected Petrie polygon, three of the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra have hexagonal, and decagrammic, petrie polygons. The Petrie polygon projections are most useful for visualization of polytopes of dimension four and this table represents Petrie polygon projections of 3 regular families, and the exceptional Lie group En which generate semiregular and uniform polytopes for dimensions 4 to 8. Coxeter, H. S. M. Regular Polytopes, 3rd ed, Section 4.3 Flags and Orthoschemes, Section 11.3 Petrie polygons Ball, W. W. R. and H. S. M. Coxeter Mathematical Recreations and Essays, 13th ed. The Beauty of Geometry, Twelve Essays, Dover Publications LCCN 99-35678 Peter McMullen, Egon Schulte Abstract Regular Polytopes, ISBN 0-521-81496-0 Steinberg, Robert, ON THE NUMBER OF SIDES OF A PETRIE POLYGON Weisstein, Eric W. Petrie polygon. Weisstein, Eric W. Cross polytope graphs, Weisstein, Eric W. Gosset graph 3_21
10.
Pentagon
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In geometry, a pentagon is any five-sided polygon or 5-gon. The sum of the angles in a simple pentagon is 540°. A pentagon may be simple or self-intersecting, a self-intersecting regular pentagon is called a pentagram. A regular pentagon has Schläfli symbol and interior angles are 108°, a regular pentagon has five lines of reflectional symmetry, and rotational symmetry of order 5. The diagonals of a regular pentagon are in the golden ratio to its sides. The area of a regular convex pentagon with side length t is given by A = t 225 +1054 =5 t 2 tan 4 ≈1.720 t 2. A pentagram or pentangle is a regular star pentagon and its sides form the diagonals of a regular convex pentagon – in this arrangement the sides of the two pentagons are in the golden ratio. The area of any polygon is, A =12 P r where P is the perimeter of the polygon. Substituting the regular pentagons values for P and r gives the formula A =12 ×5 t × t tan 2 =5 t 2 tan 4 with side length t, like every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has an inscribed circle. The apothem, which is the r of the inscribed circle. Like every regular polygon, the regular convex pentagon has a circumscribed circle. For a regular pentagon with successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, the regular pentagon is constructible with compass and straightedge, as 5 is a Fermat prime. A variety of methods are known for constructing a regular pentagon, one method to construct a regular pentagon in a given circle is described by Richmond and further discussed in Cromwells Polyhedra. The top panel shows the construction used in Richmonds method to create the side of the inscribed pentagon, the circle defining the pentagon has unit radius. Its center is located at point C and a midpoint M is marked halfway along its radius and this point is joined to the periphery vertically above the center at point D. Angle CMD is bisected, and the bisector intersects the axis at point Q. A horizontal line through Q intersects the circle at point P, to determine the length of this side, the two right triangles DCM and QCM are depicted below the circle. Using Pythagoras theorem and two sides, the hypotenuse of the triangle is found as 5 /2
11.
Coxeter group
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In mathematics, a Coxeter group, named after H. S. M. Coxeter, is an abstract group that admits a formal description in terms of reflections. Indeed, the finite Coxeter groups are precisely the finite Euclidean reflection groups, however, not all Coxeter groups are finite, and not all can be described in terms of symmetries and Euclidean reflections. Coxeter groups were introduced as abstractions of reflection groups, and finite Coxeter groups were classified in 1935, Coxeter groups find applications in many areas of mathematics. Examples of finite Coxeter groups include the groups of regular polytopes. The condition m i j = ∞ means no relation of the form m should be imposed, the pair where W is a Coxeter group with generators S = is called a Coxeter system. Note that in general S is not uniquely determined by W, for example, the Coxeter groups of type B3 and A1 × A3 are isomorphic but the Coxeter systems are not equivalent. A number of conclusions can be drawn immediately from the above definition, the relation m i i =1 means that 1 =2 =1 for all i, as such the generators are involutions. If m i j =2, then the r i and r j commute. This follows by observing that x x = y y =1, in order to avoid redundancy among the relations, it is necessary to assume that m i j = m j i. This follows by observing that y y =1, together with m =1 implies that m = m y y = y m y = y y =1. Alternatively, k and k are elements, as y k y −1 = k y y −1 = k. The Coxeter matrix is the n × n, symmetric matrix with entries m i j, indeed, every symmetric matrix with positive integer and ∞ entries and with 1s on the diagonal such that all nondiagonal entries are greater than 1 serves to define a Coxeter group. The Coxeter matrix can be encoded by a Coxeter diagram. The vertices of the graph are labelled by generator subscripts, vertices i and j are adjacent if and only if m i j ≥3. An edge is labelled with the value of m i j whenever the value is 4 or greater, in particular, two generators commute if and only if they are not connected by an edge. Furthermore, if a Coxeter graph has two or more connected components, the group is the direct product of the groups associated to the individual components. Thus the disjoint union of Coxeter graphs yields a product of Coxeter groups. The Coxeter matrix, M i j, is related to the n × n Schläfli matrix C with entries C i j = −2 cos , but the elements are modified, being proportional to the dot product of the pairwise generators
12.
Dual polyhedron
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Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all are also geometric polyhedra. Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron, duality preserves the symmetries of a polyhedron. Therefore, for classes of polyhedra defined by their symmetries. Thus, the regular polyhedra – the Platonic solids and Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra – form dual pairs, the dual of an isogonal polyhedron, having equivalent vertices, is one which is isohedral, having equivalent faces. The dual of a polyhedron is also isotoxal. Duality is closely related to reciprocity or polarity, a transformation that. There are many kinds of duality, the kinds most relevant to elementary polyhedra are polar reciprocity and topological or abstract duality. The duality of polyhedra is often defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a concentric sphere. In coordinates, for reciprocation about the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2, the vertex is associated with the plane x 0 x + y 0 y + z 0 z = r 2. The vertices of the dual are the reciprocal to the face planes of the original. Also, any two adjacent vertices define an edge, and these will reciprocate to two adjacent faces which intersect to define an edge of the dual and this dual pair of edges are always orthogonal to each other. If r 0 is the radius of the sphere, and r 1 and r 2 respectively the distances from its centre to the pole and its polar, then, r 1. R2 = r 02 For the more symmetrical polyhedra having an obvious centroid, it is common to make the polyhedron and sphere concentric, the choice of center for the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If multiple symmetry axes are present, they will intersect at a single point. Failing that, a sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere is commonly used. If a polyhedron in Euclidean space has an element passing through the center of the sphere, since Euclidean space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, may be formed by adding the required plane at infinity. Some theorists prefer to stick to Euclidean space and say there is no dual. Meanwhile, Wenninger found a way to represent these infinite duals, the concept of duality here is closely related to the duality in projective geometry, where lines and edges are interchanged
13.
Convex polytope
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A convex polytope is a special case of a polytope, having the additional property that it is also a convex set of points in the n-dimensional space Rn. Some authors use the terms polytope and convex polyhedron interchangeably. In addition, some require a polytope to be a bounded set. The terms bounded/unbounded convex polytope will be used whenever the boundedness is critical to the discussed issue. Yet other texts treat a convex n-polytope as a surface or -manifold, Convex polytopes play an important role both in various branches of mathematics and in applied areas, most notably in linear programming. A comprehensive and influential book in the subject, called Convex Polytopes, was published in 1967 by Branko Grünbaum, in 2003 the 2nd edition of the book was published, with significant additional material contributed by new writers. In Grünbaums book, and in other texts in discrete geometry. Grünbaum points out that this is solely to avoid the repetition of the word convex. A polytope is called if it is an n-dimensional object in Rn. Many examples of bounded convex polytopes can be found in the article polyhedron, a convex polytope may be defined in a number of ways, depending on what is more suitable for the problem at hand. Grünbaums definition is in terms of a set of points in space. Other important definitions are, as the intersection of half-spaces and as the hull of a set of points. This is equivalent to defining a bounded convex polytope as the hull of a finite set of points. Such a definition is called a vertex representation, for a compact convex polytope, the minimal V-description is unique and it is given by the set of the vertices of the polytope. A convex polytope may be defined as an intersection of a number of half-spaces. Such definition is called a half-space representation, there exist infinitely many H-descriptions of a convex polytope. However, for a convex polytope, the minimal H-description is in fact unique and is given by the set of the facet-defining halfspaces. A closed half-space can be written as an inequality, a 1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + ⋯ + a n x n ≤ b where n is the dimension of the space containing the polytope under consideration
14.
Isogonal figure
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In geometry, a polytope is isogonal or vertex-transitive if, loosely speaking, all its vertices are equivalent. That implies that each vertex is surrounded by the kinds of face in the same or reverse order. Technically, we say that for any two vertices there exists a symmetry of the polytope mapping the first isometrically onto the second. Other ways of saying this are that the group of automorphisms of the polytope is transitive on its vertices, all vertices of a finite n-dimensional isogonal figure exist on an -sphere. The term isogonal has long used for polyhedra. Vertex-transitive is a synonym borrowed from modern ideas such as symmetry groups, all regular polygons, apeirogons and regular star polygons are isogonal. The dual of a polygon is an isotoxal polygon. Some even-sided polygons and apeirogons which alternate two edge lengths, for example a rectangle, are isogonal, all planar isogonal 2n-gons have dihedral symmetry with reflection lines across the mid-edge points. An isogonal polyhedron and 2D tiling has a kind of vertex. An isogonal polyhedron with all faces is also a uniform polyhedron. Geometrically distorted variations of uniform polyhedra and tilings can also be given the vertex configuration, isogonal polyhedra and 2D tilings may be further classified, Regular if it is also isohedral and isotoxal, this implies that every face is the same kind of regular polygon. Quasi-regular if it is also isotoxal but not isohedral, semi-regular if every face is a regular polygon but it is not isohedral or isotoxal. Uniform if every face is a polygon, i. e. it is regular, quasiregular or semi-regular. Noble if it is also isohedral and these definitions can be extended to higher-dimensional polytopes and tessellations. Most generally, all uniform polytopes are isogonal, for example, the dual of an isogonal polytope is called an isotope which is transitive on its facets. A polytope or tiling may be called if its vertices form k transitivity classes. A more restrictive term, k-uniform is defined as a figure constructed only from regular polygons. They can be represented visually with colors by different uniform colorings, edge-transitive Face-transitive Peter R. Cromwell, Polyhedra, Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0-521-55432-2, p.369 Transitivity Grünbaum, Branko, Shephard, G. C
15.
Isotoxal figure
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In geometry, a polytope, or a tiling, is isotoxal or edge-transitive if its symmetries act transitively on its edges. The term isotoxal is derived from the Greek τοξον meaning arc, an isotoxal polygon is an equilateral polygon, but not all equilateral polygons are isotoxal. The duals of isotoxal polygons are isogonal polygons, in general, an isotoxal 2n-gon will have Dn dihedral symmetry. A rhombus is a polygon with D2 symmetry. All regular polygons are isotoxal, having double the symmetry order. A regular 2n-gon is a polygon and can be marked with alternately colored vertices. An isotoxal polyhedron or tiling must be either isogonal or isohedral or both, regular polyhedra are isohedral, isogonal and isotoxal. Quasiregular polyhedra are isogonal and isotoxal, but not isohedral, their duals are isohedral and isotoxal, not every polyhedron or 2-dimensional tessellation constructed from regular polygons is isotoxal. An isotoxal polyhedron has the dihedral angle for all edges. There are nine convex isotoxal polyhedra formed from the Platonic solids,8 formed by the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald, Longuet-Higgins, M. S. Miller, J. C. P. Uniform polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, mathematical and Physical Sciences,246, 401–450, doi,10. 1098/rsta.1954.0003, ISSN 0080-4614, JSTOR91532, MR0062446
16.
Isohedral figure
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In geometry, a polytope of dimension 3 or higher is isohedral or face-transitive when all its faces are the same. More specifically, all faces must be not merely congruent but must be transitive, in other words, for any faces A and B, there must be a symmetry of the entire solid by rotations and reflections that maps A onto B. For this reason, convex polyhedra are the shapes that will make fair dice. They can be described by their face configuration, a polyhedron which is isohedral has a dual polyhedron that is vertex-transitive. The Catalan solids, the bipyramids and the trapezohedra are all isohedral and they are the duals of the isogonal Archimedean solids, prisms and antiprisms, respectively. The Platonic solids, which are either self-dual or dual with another Platonic solid, are vertex, edge, a polyhedron which is isohedral and isogonal is said to be noble. A polyhedron is if it contains k faces within its symmetry fundamental domain. Similarly a k-isohedral tiling has k separate symmetry orbits, a monohedral polyhedron or monohedral tiling has congruent faces, as either direct or reflectively, which occur in one or more symmetry positions. An r-hedral polyhedra or tiling has r types of faces, a facet-transitive or isotopic figure is a n-dimensional polytopes or honeycomb, with its facets congruent and transitive. The dual of an isotope is an isogonal polytope, by definition, this isotopic property is common to the duals of the uniform polytopes. An isotopic 2-dimensional figure is isotoxal, an isotopic 3-dimensional figure is isohedral. An isotopic 4-dimensional figure is isochoric, edge-transitive Anisohedral tiling Peter R. Cromwell, Polyhedra, Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0-521-55432-2, p.367 Transitivity Olshevsky, George. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007
17.
Uniform 4-polytope
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In geometry, a uniform 4-polytope is a 4-polytope which is vertex-transitive and whose cells are uniform polyhedra, and faces are regular polygons. 47 non-prismatic convex uniform 4-polytopes, one set of convex prismatic forms. There are also a number of non-convex star forms. Regular star 4-polytopes 1852, Ludwig Schläfli also found 4 of the 10 regular star 4-polytopes, discounting 6 with cells or vertex figures and this construction enumerated 45 semiregular 4-polytopes. 1912, E. L. Elte independently expanded on Gossets list with the publication The Semiregular Polytopes of the Hyperspaces, polytopes with one or two types of semiregular facets, Convex uniform polytopes,1940, The search was expanded systematically by H. S. M. Coxeter in his publication Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes,1966 Norman Johnson completes his Ph. D. dissertation The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs under advisor Coxeter, completes the basic theory of uniform polytopes for dimensions 4 and higher. 1986 Coxeter published a paper Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II which included analysis of the unique snub 24-cell structure, 1998-2000, The 4-polytopes were systematically named by Norman Johnson, and given by George Olshevskys online indexed enumeration. Johnson named the 4-polytopes as polychora, like polyhedra for 3-polytopes, from the Greek roots poly,2004, A proof that the Conway-Guy set is complete was published by Marco Möller in his dissertation, Vierdimensionale Archimedische Polytope. Möller reproduced Johnsons naming system in his listing,2008, The Symmetries of Things was published by John H. He used his own ijk-ambo naming scheme for the indexed ring permutations beyond truncation and bitruncation, nonregular uniform star 4-polytopes, 2000-2005, In a collaborative search, up to 2005 a total of 1845 uniform 4-polytopes had been identified by Jonathan Bowers and George Olshevsky. Regular 4-polytopes are a subset of the uniform 4-polytopes, which satisfy additional requirements, Regular 4-polytopes can be expressed with Schläfli symbol have cells of type, faces of type, edge figures, and vertex figures. The existence of a regular 4-polytope is constrained by the existence of the regular polyhedra which becomes cells, there are 64 convex uniform 4-polytopes, including the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes, and excluding the infinite sets of the duoprisms and the antiprismatic hyperprisms. 5 are polyhedral prisms based on the Platonic solids 13 are polyhedral prisms based on the Archimedean solids 9 are in the self-dual regular A4 group family,9 are in the self-dual regular F4 group family. 15 are in the regular B4 group family 15 are in the regular H4 group family,1 special snub form in the group family. 1 special non-Wythoffian 4-polytopes, the grand antiprism, TOTAL,68 −4 =64 These 64 uniform 4-polytopes are indexed below by George Olshevsky. Repeated symmetry forms are indexed in brackets, in addition to the 64 above, there are 2 infinite prismatic sets that generate all of the remaining convex forms, Set of uniform antiprismatic prisms - sr× - Polyhedral prisms of two antiprisms. Set of uniform duoprisms - × - A product of two polygons, the 5-cell has diploid pentachoric symmetry, of order 120, isomorphic to the permutations of five elements, because all pairs of vertices are related in the same way. Facets are given, grouped in their Coxeter diagram locations by removing specified nodes, there is one small index subgroup +, order 60, or its doubling +, order 120, defining a omnisnub 5-cell which is listed for completeness, but is not uniform
18.
Net (polyhedron)
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In geometry the net of a polyhedron is an arrangement of edge-joined polygons in the plane which can be folded to become the faces of the polyhedron. Polyhedral nets are an aid to the study of polyhedra and solid geometry in general. Many different nets can exist for a polyhedron, depending on the choices of which edges are joined. Conversely, a given net may fold into more than one different convex polyhedron, depending on the angles at which its edges are folded, additionally, the same net may have multiple valid gluing patterns, leading to different folded polyhedra. Shephard asked whether every convex polyhedron has at least one net and this question, which is also known as Dürers conjecture, or Dürers unfolding problem, remains unanswered. There exist non-convex polyhedra that do not have nets, and it is possible to subdivide the faces of every convex polyhedron so that the set of subdivided faces has a net, in 2014 Mohammad Ghomi showed that every convex polyhedron admits a net after an affine transformation. The shortest path over the surface between two points on the surface of a polyhedron corresponds to a line on a suitable net for the subset of faces touched by the path. The net has to be such that the line is fully within it. Other candidates for the shortest path are through the surface of a third face adjacent to both, and corresponding nets can be used to find the shortest path in each category, the geometric concept of a net can be extended to higher dimensions. The above net of the tesseract, the hypercube, is used prominently in a painting by Salvador Dalí. However, it is known to be possible for every convex uniform 4-polytope, Paper model Cardboard modeling UV mapping Weisstein, Eric W. Net. Regular 4d Polytope Foldouts Editable Printable Polyhedral Nets with an Interactive 3D View Paper Models of Polyhedra Unfolder for Blender Unfolding package for Mathematica
19.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
20.
Four-dimensional space
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For example, the volume of a rectangular box is found by measuring its length, width, and depth. More than two millennia ago Greek philosophers explored in detail the implications of this uniformity, culminating in Euclids Elements. However, it was not until recent times that a handful of insightful mathematical innovators generalized the concept of dimensions to more than three. The idea of adding a fourth dimension began with Joseph-Louis Lagrange in the mid 1700s, in 1880 Charles Howard Hinton popularized these insights in an essay titled What is the Fourth Dimension. Which was notable for explaining the concept of a cube by going through a step-by-step generalization of the properties of lines, squares. The simplest form of Hintons method is to draw two ordinary cubes separated by a distance, and then draw lines between their equivalent vertices. This form can be seen in the accompanying animation whenever it shows a smaller inner cube inside a larger outer cube, the eight lines connecting the vertices of the two cubes in that case represent a single direction in the unseen fourth dimension. Higher dimensional spaces have become one of the foundations for formally expressing modern mathematics and physics. Large parts of these topics could not exist in their current forms without the use of such spaces, calendar entries for example are usually 4D locations, such as a meeting at time t at the intersection of two streets on some building floor. In list form such a meeting place at the 4D location. Einsteins concept of spacetime uses such a 4D space, though it has a Minkowski structure that is a bit more complicated than Euclidean 4D space, when dimensional locations are given as ordered lists of numbers such as they are called vectors or n-tuples. It is only when such locations are linked together into more complicated shapes that the richness and geometric complexity of 4D. A hint of that complexity can be seen in the animation of one of simplest possible 4D objects. Lagrange wrote in his Mécanique analytique that mechanics can be viewed as operating in a four-dimensional space — three dimensions of space, and one of time, the possibility of geometry in higher dimensions, including four dimensions in particular, was thus established. An arithmetic of four dimensions called quaternions was defined by William Rowan Hamilton in 1843 and this associative algebra was the source of the science of vector analysis in three dimensions as recounted in A History of Vector Analysis. Soon after tessarines and coquaternions were introduced as other four-dimensional algebras over R, one of the first major expositors of the fourth dimension was Charles Howard Hinton, starting in 1880 with his essay What is the Fourth Dimension. Published in the Dublin University magazine and he coined the terms tesseract, ana and kata in his book A New Era of Thought, and introduced a method for visualising the fourth dimension using cubes in the book Fourth Dimension. Hintons ideas inspired a fantasy about a Church of the Fourth Dimension featured by Martin Gardner in his January 1962 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American, in 1886 Victor Schlegel described his method of visualizing four-dimensional objects with Schlegel diagrams
21.
Simplex
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In geometry, a simplex is a generalization of the notion of a triangle or tetrahedron to arbitrary dimensions. Specifically, a k-simplex is a polytope which is the convex hull of its k +1 vertices. More formally, suppose the k +1 points u 0, …, u k ∈ R k are affinely independent, then, the simplex determined by them is the set of points C =. For example, a 2-simplex is a triangle, a 3-simplex is a tetrahedron, a single point may be considered a 0-simplex, and a line segment may be considered a 1-simplex. A simplex may be defined as the smallest convex set containing the given vertices, a regular simplex is a simplex that is also a regular polytope. A regular n-simplex may be constructed from a regular -simplex by connecting a new vertex to all original vertices by the edge length. In topology and combinatorics, it is common to “glue together” simplices to form a simplicial complex, the associated combinatorial structure is called an abstract simplicial complex, in which context the word “simplex” simply means any finite set of vertices. A 1-simplex is a line segment, the convex hull of any nonempty subset of the n+1 points that define an n-simplex is called a face of the simplex. In particular, the hull of a subset of size m+1 is an m-simplex. The 0-faces are called the vertices, the 1-faces are called the edges, the -faces are called the facets, in general, the number of m-faces is equal to the binomial coefficient. Consequently, the number of m-faces of an n-simplex may be found in column of row of Pascals triangle, a simplex A is a coface of a simplex B if B is a face of A. Face and facet can have different meanings when describing types of simplices in a simplicial complex, see simplical complex for more detail. The regular simplex family is the first of three regular polytope families, labeled by Coxeter as αn, the two being the cross-polytope family, labeled as βn, and the hypercubes, labeled as γn. A fourth family, the infinite tessellation of hypercubes, he labeled as δn, an -simplex can be constructed as a join of an n-simplex and a point. An -simplex can be constructed as a join of an m-simplex, the two simplices are oriented to be completely normal from each other, with translation in a direction orthogonal to both of them. A 1-simplex is a joint of two points, ∨ =2, a general 2-simplex is the join of 3 points, ∨∨. An isosceles triangle is the join of a 1-simplex and a point, a general 3-simplex is the join of 4 points, ∨∨∨. A 3-simplex with mirror symmetry can be expressed as the join of an edge and 2 points, a 3-simplex with triangular symmetry can be expressed as the join of an equilateral triangle and 1 point,3. ∨ or ∨
22.
Platonic solid
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In three-dimensional space, a Platonic solid is a regular, convex polyhedron. It is constructed by congruent regular polygonal faces with the number of faces meeting at each vertex. Five solids meet those criteria, Geometers have studied the mathematical beauty and they are named for the ancient Greek philosopher Plato who theorized in his dialogue, the Timaeus, that the classical elements were made of these regular solids. The Platonic solids have been known since antiquity, dice go back to the dawn of civilization with shapes that predated formal charting of Platonic solids. The ancient Greeks studied the Platonic solids extensively, some sources credit Pythagoras with their discovery. In any case, Theaetetus gave a description of all five. The Platonic solids are prominent in the philosophy of Plato, their namesake, Plato wrote about them in the dialogue Timaeus c.360 B. C. in which he associated each of the four classical elements with a regular solid. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, there was intuitive justification for these associations, the heat of fire feels sharp and stabbing. Air is made of the octahedron, its components are so smooth that one can barely feel it. Water, the icosahedron, flows out of hand when picked up. By contrast, a highly nonspherical solid, the hexahedron represents earth and these clumsy little solids cause dirt to crumble and break when picked up in stark difference to the smooth flow of water. Moreover, the cubes being the regular solid that tessellates Euclidean space was believed to cause the solidity of the Earth. Of the fifth Platonic solid, the dodecahedron, Plato obscurely remarks. the god used for arranging the constellations on the whole heaven. Aristotle added an element, aithēr and postulated that the heavens were made of this element. Euclid completely mathematically described the Platonic solids in the Elements, the last book of which is devoted to their properties, propositions 13–17 in Book XIII describe the construction of the tetrahedron, octahedron, cube, icosahedron, and dodecahedron in that order. For each solid Euclid finds the ratio of the diameter of the sphere to the edge length. In Proposition 18 he argues there are no further convex regular polyhedra. Andreas Speiser has advocated the view that the construction of the 5 regular solids is the goal of the deductive system canonized in the Elements
23.
Triangle
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A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted △ A B C, in Euclidean geometry any three points, when non-collinear, determine a unique triangle and a unique plane. This article is about triangles in Euclidean geometry except where otherwise noted, triangles can be classified according to the lengths of their sides, An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a polygon with all angles measuring 60°. An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length, some mathematicians define an isosceles triangle to have exactly two equal sides, whereas others define an isosceles triangle as one with at least two equal sides. The latter definition would make all equilateral triangles isosceles triangles, the 45–45–90 right triangle, which appears in the tetrakis square tiling, is isosceles. A scalene triangle has all its sides of different lengths, equivalently, it has all angles of different measure. Hatch marks, also called tick marks, are used in diagrams of triangles, a side can be marked with a pattern of ticks, short line segments in the form of tally marks, two sides have equal lengths if they are both marked with the same pattern. In a triangle, the pattern is no more than 3 ticks. Similarly, patterns of 1,2, or 3 concentric arcs inside the angles are used to indicate equal angles, triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees. A right triangle has one of its interior angles measuring 90°, the side opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse, the longest side of the triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti of the triangle, special right triangles are right triangles with additional properties that make calculations involving them easier. One of the two most famous is the 3–4–5 right triangle, where 32 +42 =52, in this situation,3,4, and 5 are a Pythagorean triple. The other one is a triangle that has 2 angles that each measure 45 degrees. Triangles that do not have an angle measuring 90° are called oblique triangles, a triangle with all interior angles measuring less than 90° is an acute triangle or acute-angled triangle. If c is the length of the longest side, then a2 + b2 > c2, a triangle with one interior angle measuring more than 90° is an obtuse triangle or obtuse-angled triangle. If c is the length of the longest side, then a2 + b2 < c2, a triangle with an interior angle of 180° is degenerate
24.
Regular 4-polytope
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In mathematics, a regular 4-polytope is a regular four-dimensional polytope. They are the analogs of the regular polyhedra in three dimensions and the regular polygons in two dimensions. Regular 4-polytopes were first described by the Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli in the mid-19th century, There are six convex and ten star regular 4-polytopes, giving a total of sixteen. The convex regular 4-polytopes were first described by the Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli in the mid-19th century, Schläfli discovered that there are precisely six such figures. Schläfli also found four of the regular star 4-polytopes and he skipped the remaining six because he would not allow forms that failed the Euler characteristic on cells or vertex figures. That excludes cells and vertex figures as, and, the six convex and ten star polytopes described are the only solutions to these constraints. There are four nonconvex Schläfli symbols that have cells and vertex figures, and pass the dihedral test. The regular convex 4-polytopes are the analogs of the Platonic solids in three dimensions and the convex regular polygons in two dimensions. Five of them may be thought of as close analogs of the Platonic solids, There is one additional figure, the 24-cell, which has no close three-dimensional equivalent. Each convex regular 4-polytope is bounded by a set of 3-dimensional cells which are all Platonic solids of the same type and these are fitted together along their respective faces in a regular fashion. The following tables lists some properties of the six convex regular 4-polytopes, the symmetry groups of these 4-polytopes are all Coxeter groups and given in the notation described in that article. The number following the name of the group is the order of the group, John Conway advocates the names simplex, orthoplex, tesseract, octaplex or polyoctahedron, dodecaplex or polydodecahedron, and tetraplex or polytetrahedron. The Euler characteristic for all 4-polytopes is zero, we have the 4-dimensional analog of Eulers polyhedral formula, the topology of any given 4-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers and torsion coefficients. The following table shows some 2-dimensional projections of these 4-polytopes, various other visualizations can be found in the external links below. The Coxeter-Dynkin diagram graphs are given below the Schläfli symbol. The Schläfli–Hess 4-polytopes are the set of 10 regular self-intersecting star polychora. They are named in honor of their discoverers, Ludwig Schläfli, each is represented by a Schläfli symbol in which one of the numbers is 5/2. They are thus analogous to the regular nonconvex Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra and their names given here were given by John Conway, extending Cayleys names for the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, along with stellated and great, he adds a grand modifier
25.
Triangular prism
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In geometry, a triangular prism is a three-sided prism, it is a polyhedron made of a triangular base, a translated copy, and 3 faces joining corresponding sides. A right triangular prism has rectangular sides, otherwise it is oblique, a uniform triangular prism is a right triangular prism with equilateral bases, and square sides. Equivalently, it is a polyhedron of which two faces are parallel, while the normals of the other three are in the same plane. All cross-sections parallel to the faces are the same triangle. A right triangular prism is semiregular or, more generally, a uniform if the base faces are equilateral triangles. It can be seen as a truncated trigonal hosohedron, represented by Schläfli symbol t, alternately it can be seen as the Cartesian product of a triangle and a line segment, and represented by the product x. The dual of a prism is a triangular bipyramid. The symmetry group of a right 3-sided prism with triangular base is D3h of order 12, the rotation group is D3 of order 6. The symmetry group does not contain inversion, the volume of any prism is the product of the area of the base and the distance between the two bases. A truncated right triangular prism has one triangular face truncated at an oblique angle, there are two full D2h symmetry facetings of a triangular prism, both with 6 isosceles triangle faces, one keeping the original top and bottom triangles, and one the original squares. Two lower C3v symmetry faceting have one triangle,3 lateral crossed square faces. This polyhedron is topologically related as a part of sequence of uniform truncated polyhedra with vertex configurations and this polyhedron is topologically related as a part of sequence of cantellated polyhedra with vertex figure, and continues as tilings of the hyperbolic plane. These vertex-transitive figures have reflectional symmetry and this polyhedron is topologically related as a part of sequence of cantellated polyhedra with vertex figure, and continues as tilings of the hyperbolic plane. These vertex-transitive figures have reflectional symmetry, there are 4 uniform compounds of triangular prisms, Compound of four triangular prisms, compound of eight triangular prisms, compound of ten triangular prisms, compound of twenty triangular prisms. Each progressive uniform polytope is constructed vertex figure of the previous polytope, thorold Gosset identified this series in 1900 as containing all regular polytope facets, containing all simplexes and orthoplexes. In Coxeters notation the triangular prism is given the symbol −121, the triangular prism exists as cells of a number of four-dimensional uniform 4-polytopes, including, Wedge Weisstein, Eric W. Triangular prism. Interactive Polyhedron, Triangular Prism surface area and volume of a triangular prism
26.
Dihedral angle
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A dihedral angle is the angle between two intersecting planes. In chemistry it is the angle between planes through two sets of three atoms, having two atoms in common, in solid geometry it is defined as the union of a line and two half-planes that have this line as a common edge. In higher dimension, a dihedral angle represents the angle between two hyperplanes, a dihedral angle is an angle between two intersecting planes on a third plane perpendicular to the line of intersection. A torsion angle is an example of a dihedral angle. In stereochemistry every set of three atoms of a molecule defines a plane, when two such planes intersect, the angle between them is a dihedral angle. Dihedral angles are used to specify the molecular conformation, stereochemical arrangements corresponding to angles between 0° and ±90° are called syn, those corresponding to angles between ±90° and 180° anti. Similarly, arrangements corresponding to angles between 30° and 150° or between −30° and −150° are called clinal and those between 0° and ±30° or ±150° and 180° are called periplanar. The synperiplanar conformation is also known as the syn- or cis-conformation, antiperiplanar as anti or trans, for example, with n-butane two planes can be specified in terms of the two central carbon atoms and either of the methyl carbon atoms. The syn-conformation shown above, with an angle of 60° is less stable than the anti-configuration with a dihedral angle of 180°. For macromolecular usage the symbols T, C, G+, G−, A+, a Ramachandran plot, originally developed in 1963 by G. N. Ramachandran, C. Ramakrishnan, and V. Sasisekharan, is a way to visualize energetically allowed regions for backbone dihedral angles ψ against φ of amino acid residues in protein structure, the figure at right illustrates the definition of the φ and ψ backbone dihedral angles. In a protein chain three dihedral angles are defined as φ, ψ and ω, as shown in the diagram, the planarity of the peptide bond usually restricts ω to be 180° or 0°. The distance between the Cα atoms in the trans and cis isomers is approximately 3.8 and 2.9 Å, the cis isomer is mainly observed in Xaa–Pro peptide bonds. The sidechain dihedral angles tend to cluster near 180°, 60°, and −60°, which are called the trans, gauche+, the stability of certain sidechain dihedral angles is affected by the values φ and ψ. For instance, there are steric interactions between the Cγ of the side chain in the gauche+ rotamer and the backbone nitrogen of the next residue when ψ is near -60°. An alternative method is to calculate the angle between the vectors, nA and nB, which are normal to the planes. Cos φ = − n A ⋅ n B | n A | | n B | where nA · nB is the dot product of the vectors and |nA| |nB| is the product of their lengths. Any plane can also be described by two non-collinear vectors lying in that plane, taking their cross product yields a vector to the plane
27.
Simplicial complex
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In mathematics, a simplicial complex is a set composed of points, line segments, triangles, and their n-dimensional counterparts. Simplicial complexes should not be confused with the abstract notion of a simplicial set appearing in modern simplicial homotopy theory. The purely combinatorial counterpart to a complex is an abstract simplicial complex. A simplicial complex K is a set of simplices that satisfies the conditions,1. Any face of a simplex from K is also in K.2, the intersection of any two simplices σ1, σ2 ∈ K is either ∅ or a face of both σ1 and σ2. Note that the empty set is a face of every simplex, see also the definition of an abstract simplicial complex, which loosely speaking is a simplicial complex without an associated geometry. A simplicial k-complex K is a complex where the largest dimension of any simplex in K equals k. For instance, a simplicial 2-complex must contain at least one triangle, a pure or homogeneous simplicial k-complex K is a simplicial complex where every simplex of dimension less than k is a face of some simplex σ ∈ K of dimension exactly k. Informally, a pure 1-complex looks like its made of a bunch of lines, an example of a non-homogeneous complex is a triangle with a line segment attached to one of its vertices. A facet is any simplex in a complex that is not a face of any larger simplex, a pure simplicial complex can be thought of as a complex where all facets have the same dimension. Sometimes the term face is used to refer to a simplex of a complex, for a simplicial complex embedded in a k-dimensional space, the k-faces are sometimes referred to as its cells. The term cell is used in a broader sense to denote a set homeomorphic to a simplex. The underlying space, sometimes called the carrier of a complex is the union of its simplices. Let K be a complex and let S be a collection of simplices in K. The closure of S is the smallest simplicial subcomplex of K that contains each simplex in S. Cl S is obtained by adding to S each face of every simplex in S. The star of S is the union of the stars of each simplex in S, for a single simplex s, the star of s is the set of simplices having a face in s. The link of S equals Cl St S − St Cl S and it is the closed star of S minus the stars of all faces of S. In algebraic topology, simplicial complexes are useful for concrete calculations
28.
Pyramid (geometry)
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In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a triangle, called a lateral face and it is a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid with a base has n +1 vertices, n +1 faces. A right pyramid has its apex directly above the centroid of its base, nonright pyramids are called oblique pyramids. A regular pyramid has a polygon base and is usually implied to be a right pyramid. When unspecified, a pyramid is usually assumed to be a square pyramid. A triangle-based pyramid is often called a tetrahedron. Among oblique pyramids, like acute and obtuse triangles, a pyramid can be called if its apex is above the interior of the base and obtuse if its apex is above the exterior of the base. A right-angled pyramid has its apex above an edge or vertex of the base, in a tetrahedron these qualifiers change based on which face is considered the base. Pyramids are a subclass of the prismatoids, pyramids can be doubled into bipyramids by adding a second offset point on the other side of the base plane. A right pyramid with a base has isosceles triangle sides, with symmetry is Cnv or. It can be given an extended Schläfli symbol ∨, representing a point, a join operation creates a new edge between all pairs of vertices of the two joined figures. The trigonal or triangular pyramid with all equilateral triangles faces becomes the regular tetrahedron, a lower symmetry case of the triangular pyramid is C3v, which has an equilateral triangle base, and 3 identical isosceles triangle sides. The square and pentagonal pyramids can also be composed of convex polygons. Right pyramids with regular star polygon bases are called star pyramids, for example, the pentagrammic pyramid has a pentagram base and 5 intersecting triangle sides. A right pyramid can be named as ∨P, where is the point, ∨ is a join operator. It has C1v symmetry from two different base-apex orientations, and C2v in its full symmetry, a rectangular right pyramid, written as ∨, and a rhombic pyramid, as ∨, both have symmetry C2v. The volume of a pyramid is V =13 b h and this works for any polygon, regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane containing the base
29.
Golden ratio
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In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The figure on the right illustrates the geometric relationship, expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b with a > b >0, a + b a = a b = def φ, where the Greek letter phi represents the golden ratio. Its value is, φ =1 +52 =1.6180339887 …, A001622 The golden ratio is also called the golden mean or golden section. Other names include extreme and mean ratio, medial section, divine proportion, divine section, golden proportion, golden cut, the golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other plant parts. The golden ratio has also used to analyze the proportions of natural objects as well as man-made systems such as financial markets. Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if a + b a = a b = φ, one method for finding the value of φ is to start with the left fraction. Through simplifying the fraction and substituting in b/a = 1/φ, a + b a =1 + b a =1 +1 φ, multiplying by φ gives φ +1 = φ2 which can be rearranged to φ2 − φ −1 =0. First, the line segment A B ¯ is about doubled and then the semicircle with the radius A S ¯ around the point S is drawn, now the semicircle is drawn with the radius A B ¯ around the point B. The arising intersection point E corresponds 2 φ, next up, the perpendicular on the line segment A E ¯ from the point D will be establish. The subsequent parallel F S ¯ to the line segment C M ¯, produces, as it were and it is well recognizable, this triangle and the triangle M S C are similar to each other. The hypotenuse F S ¯ has due to the cathetuses S D ¯ =1 and D F ¯ =2 according the Pythagorean theorem, finally, the circle arc is drawn with the radius 5 around the point F. The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a fascination for at least 2,400 years. But the fascination with the Golden Ratio is not confined just to mathematicians, biologists, artists, musicians, historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of mathematics. Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid explains a construction for cutting a line in extreme and mean ratio, throughout the Elements, several propositions and their proofs employ the golden ratio. The golden ratio is explored in Luca Paciolis book De divina proportione, since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter φ or less commonly by τ. Timeline according to Priya Hemenway, Phidias made the Parthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio, plato, in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids, some of which are related to the golden ratio
30.
Cartesian coordinates
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Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axis, expressed as signed distances from the origin. One can use the principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes. In general, n Cartesian coordinates specify the point in an n-dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n and these coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes can be described by Cartesian equations, algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, a familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering. They are the most common system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design. Nicole Oresme, a French cleric and friend of the Dauphin of the 14th Century, used similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes. The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes who published this idea in 1637 and it was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Many other coordinate systems have developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a role in the development of the Calculus by Isaac Newton. The two-coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces. Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space – that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line, a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative, we say that the line is oriented from the negative half towards the positive half
31.
5-orthoplex
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In five-dimensional geometry, a 5-orthoplex, or 5-cross polytope, is a five-dimensional polytope with 10 vertices,40 edges,80 triangle faces,80 tetrahedron cells,32 5-cell 4-faces. It has two constructed forms, the first being regular with Schläfli symbol, and the second with alternately labeled facets and it is a part of an infinite family of polytopes, called cross-polytopes or orthoplexes. The dual polytope is the 5-hypercube or 5-cube, pentacross, derived from combining the family name cross polytope with pente for five in Greek. Triacontaditeron - as a 32-facetted 5-polytope and this polytope is one of 31 uniform 5-polytopes generated from the B5 Coxeter plane, including the regular 5-cube and 5-orthoplex. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 5D uniform polytopes x3o3o3o4o - tac. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
32.
Rectified 5-cubes
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In five-dimensional geometry, a rectified 5-cube is a convex uniform 5-polytope, being a rectification of the regular 5-cube. There are 5 degrees of rectifications of a 5-polytope, the zeroth here being the 5-cube, vertices of the rectified 5-cube are located at the edge-centers of the 5-cube. Vertices of the birectified 5-ocube are located in the face centers of the 5-cube. Rectified penteract The rectified 5-cube may be constructed from the 5-cube by truncating its vertices at the midpoints of its edges, coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. O3x3o3o4o - rin, o3o3x3o4o - nit Weisstein, Eric W. Hypercube, archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
33.
Triangular tiling
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In geometry, the triangular tiling or triangular tessellation is one of the three regular tilings of the Euclidean plane. Because the internal angle of the triangle is 60 degrees. The triangular tiling has Schläfli symbol of, Conway calls it a deltille, named from the triangular shape of the Greek letter delta. The triangular tiling can also be called a kishextille by a kis operation that adds a center point and it is one of three regular tilings of the plane. The other two are the square tiling and the hexagonal tiling, there are 9 distinct uniform colorings of a triangular tiling. Three of them can be derived from others by repeating colors,111212 and 111112 from 121213 by combining 1 and 3, there is one class of Archimedean colorings,111112, which is not 1-uniform, containing alternate rows of triangles where every third is colored. The example shown is 2-uniform, but there are many such Archimedean colorings that can be created by arbitrary horizontal shifts of the rows. The vertex arrangement of the tiling is called an A2 lattice. It is the 2-dimensional case of a simplectic honeycomb, the A*2 lattice can be constructed by the union of all three A2 lattices, and equivalent to the A2 lattice. + + = dual of = The vertices of the tiling are the centers of the densest possible circle packing. Every circle is in contact with 6 other circles in the packing, the packing density is π⁄√12 or 90. 69%. Since the union of 3 A2 lattices is also an A2 lattice, the voronoi cell of a triangular tiling is a hexagon, and so the voronoi tessellation, the hexagonal tiling has a direct correspondence to the circle packings. Triangular tilings can be made with the equivalent topology as the regular tiling, with identical faces and vertex-transitivity, there are 5 variations. Symmetry given assumes all faces are the same color, the planar tilings are related to polyhedra. Putting fewer triangles on a vertex leaves a gap and allows it to be folded into a pyramid and these can be expanded to Platonic solids, five, four and three triangles on a vertex define an icosahedron, octahedron, and tetrahedron respectively. This tiling is related as a part of sequence of regular polyhedra with Schläfli symbols. It is also related as a part of sequence of Catalan solids with face configuration Vn.6.6. Like the uniform there are eight uniform tilings that can be based from the regular hexagonal tiling
34.
Pentagram
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A pentagram is the shape of a five-pointed star drawn with five straight strokes. The word pentagram comes from the Greek word πεντάγραμμον, from πέντε, five + γραμμή, the word pentacle is sometimes used synonymously with pentagram The word pentalpha is a learned modern revival of a post-classical Greek name of the shape. The pentagram is the simplest regular star polygon, the pentagram contains ten points and fifteen line segments. It is represented by the Schläfli symbol, like a regular pentagon, and a regular pentagon with a pentagram constructed inside it, the regular pentagram has as its symmetry group the dihedral group of order 10. The pentagram can be constructed by connecting alternate vertices of a pentagon and it can also be constructed as a stellation of a pentagon, by extending the edges of a pentagon until the lines intersect. Each intersection of edges sections the edges in the golden ratio, also, the ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two intersecting edges is φ. As the four-color illustration shows, r e d g r e e n = g r e e n b l u e = b l u e m a g e n t a = φ. The pentagram includes ten isosceles triangles, five acute and five obtuse isosceles triangles, in all of them, the ratio of the longer side to the shorter side is φ. The acute triangles are golden triangles, the obtuse isosceles triangle highlighted via the colored lines in the illustration is a golden gnomon. The pentagram of Venus is the apparent path of the planet Venus as observed from Earth, the tips of the five loops at the center of the figure have the same geometric relationship to one another as the five vertices, or points, of a pentagram. Groups of five intersections of curves, equidistant from the center, have the same geometric relationship. In early monumental Sumerian script, or cuneiform, a pentagram glyph served as a logogram for the word ub, meaning corner, angle, nook, the word Pentemychos was the title of the cosmogony of Pherecydes of Syros. Here, the five corners are where the seeds of Chronos are placed within the Earth in order for the cosmos to appear. The pentangle plays an important symbolic role in the 14th-century English poem Sir Gawain, heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and others perpetuated the popularity of the pentagram as a magic symbol, attributing the five neoplatonic elements to the five points, in typical Renaissance fashion. By the mid-19th century a distinction had developed amongst occultists regarding the pentagrams orientation. With a single point upwards it depicted spirit presiding over the four elements of matter, however, the influential writer Eliphas Levi called it evil whenever the symbol appeared the other way up. It is the goat of lust attacking the heavens with its horns and it is the sign of antagonism and fatality. It is the goat of lust attacking the heavens with its horns, faust, The pentagram thy peace doth mar
35.
Coxeter element
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In mathematics, the Coxeter number h is the order of a Coxeter element of an irreducible Coxeter group. Note that this assumes a finite Coxeter group. For infinite Coxeter groups, there are multiple classes of Coxeter elements. There are many different ways to define the Coxeter number h of a root system. A Coxeter element is a product of all simple reflections, the product depends on the order in which they are taken, but different orderings produce conjugate elements, which have the same order. The Coxeter number is the number of roots divided by the rank, the number of reflections in the Coxeter group is half the number of roots. The Coxeter number is the order of any Coxeter element, if the highest root is ∑miαi for simple roots αi, then the Coxeter number is 1 + ∑mi The dimension of the corresponding Lie algebra is n, where n is the rank and h is the Coxeter number. The Coxeter number is the highest degree of an invariant of the Coxeter group acting on polynomials. Notice that if m is a degree of a fundamental invariant then so is h +2 − m, the eigenvalues of a Coxeter element are the numbers e2πi/h as m runs through the degrees of the fundamental invariants. Since this starts with m =2, these include the primitive hth root of unity, ζh = e2πi/h, an example, has h=30, so 64*30/g =12 -3 -6 -5 + 4/3 + 4/5 = 2/15, so g = 1920*15/2= 960*15 =14400. Coxeter elements of A n −1 ≅ S n, considered as the group on n elements, are n-cycles, for simple reflections the adjacent transpositions, …. The dihedral group Dihm is generated by two reflections that form an angle of 2 π /2 m, and thus their product is a rotation by 2 π / m. For a given Coxeter element w, there is a unique plane P on which w acts by rotation by 2π/h and this is called the Coxeter plane and is the plane on which P has eigenvalues e2πi/h and e−2πi/h = e2πi/h. This plane was first systematically studied in, and subsequently used in to provide uniform proofs about properties of Coxeter elements, for polytopes, a vertex may map to zero, as depicted below. Projections onto the Coxeter plane are depicted below for the Platonic solids, in three dimensions, the symmetry of a regular polyhedron, with one directed petrie polygon marked, defined as a composite of 3 reflections, has rotoinversion symmetry Sh, order h. Adding a mirror, the symmetry can be doubled to symmetry, Dhd. In orthogonal 2D projection, this becomes dihedral symmetry, Dihh, in four dimension, the symmetry of a regular polychoron, with one directed petrie polygon marked is a double rotation, defined as a composite of 4 reflections, with symmetry +1/h, order h. In five dimension, the symmetry of a regular polyteron, with one directed petrie polygon marked, is represented by the composite of 5 reflections
36.
Dihedral group
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In mathematics, a dihedral group is the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, which includes rotations and reflections. Dihedral groups are among the simplest examples of groups, and they play an important role in group theory, geometry. The notation for the group of order n differs in geometry. In geometry, Dn or Dihn refers to the symmetries of the n-gon, in abstract algebra, Dn refers to the dihedral group of order n. The geometric convention is used in this article, a regular polygon with n sides has 2 n different symmetries, n rotational symmetries and n reflection symmetries. Usually, we take n ≥3 here. The associated rotations and reflections make up the dihedral group D n, if n is odd, each axis of symmetry connects the midpoint of one side to the opposite vertex. If n is even, there are n/2 axes of symmetry connecting the midpoints of opposite sides, in either case, there are n axes of symmetry and 2 n elements in the symmetry group. Reflecting in one axis of symmetry followed by reflecting in another axis of symmetry produces a rotation through twice the angle between the axes, as with any geometric object, the composition of two symmetries of a regular polygon is again a symmetry of this object. With composition of symmetries to produce another as the binary operation, the following Cayley table shows the effect of composition in the group D3. R0 denotes the identity, r1 and r2 denote counterclockwise rotations by 120° and 240° respectively, for example, s2s1 = r1, because the reflection s1 followed by the reflection s2 results in a rotation of 120°. The order of elements denoting the composition is right to left, the composition operation is not commutative. In all cases, addition and subtraction of subscripts are to be performed using modular arithmetic with modulus n, if we center the regular polygon at the origin, then elements of the dihedral group act as linear transformations of the plane. This lets us represent elements of Dn as matrices, with composition being matrix multiplication and this is an example of a group representation. For example, the elements of the group D4 can be represented by the eight matrices. In general, the matrices for elements of Dn have the following form, rk is a rotation matrix, expressing a counterclockwise rotation through an angle of 2πk/n. Sk is a reflection across a line makes an angle of πk/n with the x-axis. Further equivalent definitions of Dn are, D1 is isomorphic to Z2, D2 is isomorphic to K4, the Klein four-group. D1 and D2 are exceptional in that, D1 and D2 are the only abelian dihedral groups, Dn is a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn for n ≥3
37.
Stereographic projection
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In geometry, the stereographic projection is a particular mapping that projects a sphere onto a plane. The projection is defined on the sphere, except at one point. Where it is defined, the mapping is smooth and bijective and it is conformal, meaning that it preserves angles. It is neither isometric nor area-preserving, that is, it preserves neither distances nor the areas of figures, intuitively, then, the stereographic projection is a way of picturing the sphere as the plane, with some inevitable compromises. In practice, the projection is carried out by computer or by using a special kind of graph paper called a stereographic net, shortened to stereonet. The stereographic projection was known to Hipparchus, Ptolemy and probably earlier to the Egyptians and it was originally known as the planisphere projection. Planisphaerium by Ptolemy is the oldest surviving document that describes it, one of its most important uses was the representation of celestial charts. The term planisphere is still used to refer to such charts, in the 16th and 17th century, the equatorial aspect of the stereographic projection was commonly used for maps of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It is believed that already the map created in 1507 by Gualterius Lud was in stereographic projection, as were later the maps of Jean Roze, Rumold Mercator, in star charts, even this equatorial aspect had been utilised already by the ancient astronomers like Ptolemy. François dAguilon gave the stereographic projection its current name in his 1613 work Opticorum libri sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles, in 1695, Edmond Halley, motivated by his interest in star charts, published the first mathematical proof that this map is conformal. He used the recently established tools of calculus, invented by his friend Isaac Newton and this section focuses on the projection of the unit sphere from the north pole onto the plane through the equator. Other formulations are treated in later sections, the unit sphere in three-dimensional space R3 is the set of points such that x2 + y2 + z2 =1. Let N = be the pole, and let M be the rest of the sphere. The plane z =0 runs through the center of the sphere, for any point P on M, there is a unique line through N and P, and this line intersects the plane z =0 in exactly one point P′. Define the stereographic projection of P to be this point P′ in the plane, in Cartesian coordinates on the sphere and on the plane, the projection and its inverse are given by the formulas =, =. In spherical coordinates on the sphere and polar coordinates on the plane, here, φ is understood to have value π when R =0. Also, there are ways to rewrite these formulas using trigonometric identities. In cylindrical coordinates on the sphere and polar coordinates on the plane, the projection is not defined at the projection point N =
38.
3-sphere
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In mathematics, a 3-sphere is a higher-dimensional analogue of a sphere. It consists of the set of points equidistant from a central point in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. A 3-sphere is an example of a 3-manifold, in coordinates, a 3-sphere with center and radius r is the set of all points in real, 4-dimensional space such that ∑ i =032 =2 +2 +2 +2 = r 2. The 3-sphere centered at the origin with radius 1 is called the unit 3-sphere and is usually denoted S3 and it is often convenient to regard R4 as the space with 2 complex dimensions or the quaternions. The unit 3-sphere is then given by S3 = or S3 = and this description as the quaternions of norm one, identifies the 3-sphere with the versors in the quaternion division ring. Just as the circle is important for planar polar coordinates. See polar decomposition of a quaternion for details of development of the three-sphere. This view of the 3-sphere is the basis for the study of space as developed by Georges Lemaître. The 3-dimensional cubic hyperarea of a 3-sphere of radius r is 2 π2 r 3 while the 4-dimensional quartic hypervolume is 12 π2 r 4, every non-empty intersection of a 3-sphere with a three-dimensional hyperplane is a 2-sphere. Then the 2-sphere shrinks again down to a point as the 3-sphere leaves the hyperplane. A 3-sphere is a compact, connected, 3-dimensional manifold without boundary, what this means, in the broad sense, is that any loop, or circular path, on the 3-sphere can be continuously shrunk to a point without leaving the 3-sphere. The Poincaré conjecture, proved in 2003 by Grigori Perelman, provides that the 3-sphere is the only three-dimensional manifold with these properties, the 3-sphere is homeomorphic to the one-point compactification of R3. In general, any space that is homeomorphic to the 3-sphere is called a topological 3-sphere. The homology groups of the 3-sphere are as follows, H0, any topological space with these homology groups is known as a homology 3-sphere. Initially Poincaré conjectured that all homology 3-spheres are homeomorphic to S3, infinitely many homology spheres are now known to exist. For example, a Dehn filling with slope 1/n on any knot in the 3-sphere gives a homology sphere, as to the homotopy groups, we have π1 = π2 = and π3 is infinite cyclic. The higher-homotopy groups are all finite abelian but otherwise follow no discernible pattern, for more discussion see homotopy groups of spheres. The 3-sphere is naturally a smooth manifold, in fact, an embedded submanifold of R4
39.
Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space
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In mathematics, the group of rotations about a fixed point in four-dimensional Euclidean space is denoted SO. The name comes from the fact that it is the orthogonal group of order 4. In this article rotation means rotational displacement, for the sake of uniqueness rotation angles are assumed to be in the segment except where mentioned or clearly implied by the context otherwise. A fixed plane is a plane for which every vector in the plane is unchanged after the rotation, an invariant plane is a plane for which every vector in the plane, although it may be affected by the rotation, remains in the plane after the rotation. Four-dimensional rotations are of two types, simple rotations and double rotations, a simple rotation R about a rotation centre O leaves an entire plane A through O fixed. Every plane B that is orthogonal to A intersects A in a certain point P. Each such point P is the centre of the 2D rotation induced by R in B, all these 2D rotations have the same rotation angle α. Half-lines from O in the axis-plane A are not displaced, half-lines from O orthogonal to A are displaced through α, all other half-lines are displaced through an angle < α. For each rotation R of 4-space, there is at least one pair of orthogonal 2-planes A and B each of which are invariant, hence R operating on either of these planes produces an ordinary rotation of that plane. For almost all R, the rotation angles α in plane A and β in plane B — both assumed to be nonzero — are different, the unequal rotation angles α and β satisfying -π < α, β < π are almost* uniquely determined by R. Assuming that 4-space is oriented, then the orientations of the 2-planes A and B can be consistent with this orientation in two ways. If the rotation angles are unequal, R is sometimes termed a double rotation, *Assuming that 4-space is oriented, then an orientation for each of the 2-planes A and B can be chosen to be consistent with this orientation of 4-space in two equally valid ways. If the angles from one choice of orientations of A and B are. If the rotation angles of a rotation are equal then there are infinitely many invariant planes instead of just two, and all half-lines from O are displaced through the same angle. Such rotations are called isoclinic or equiangular rotations, or Clifford displacements, beware, not all planes through O are invariant under isoclinic rotations, only planes that are spanned by a half-line and the corresponding displaced half-line are invariant. Assuming that an orientation has been chosen for 4-dimensional space. Now assume that only the rotation angle α is specified, then there are in general four isoclinic rotations in planes OUX and OYZ with rotation angle α, depending on the rotation senses in OUX and OYZ. We make the convention that the senses from OU to OX
40.
Triangular bipyramid
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In geometry, the triangular bipyramid is a type of hexahedron, being the first in the infinite set of face-transitive bipyramids. It is the dual of the prism with 6 isosceles triangle faces. As the name suggests, it can be constructed by joining two tetrahedra along one face, although all its faces are congruent and the solid is face-transitive, it is not a Platonic solid because some vertices adjoin three faces and others adjoin four. The bipyramid whose six faces are all equilateral triangles is one of the Johnson solids, a Johnson solid is one of 92 strictly convex polyhedra that have regular faces but are not uniform. They were named by Norman Johnson, who first listed these polyhedra in 1966, as a Johnson solid with all faces equilateral triangles, it is also a deltahedron. The dual polyhedron of the bipyramid is the triangular prism, with five faces. Although the triangular prism has a form that is a polyhedron, the dual of the Johnson solid form of the bipyramid has rectangular rather than square faces. This polyhedron has 24 equilateral triangle faces, but it is not a Johnson solid because it has coplanar faces and it is a coplanar 24-triangle deltahedron. This polyhedron exists as the augmentation of cells in a gyrated alternated cubic honeycomb, larger triangular polyhedra can be generated similarly, like 9,16 or 25 triangles per larger triangle face, seen as a section of a triangular tiling. The triangular bipyramid can form a tessellation of space with octahedra or with truncated tetrahedra, trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry Eric W. Weisstein, Triangular dipyramid at MathWorld. Conway Notation for Polyhedra Try, dP3
41.
Polyhedral pyramid
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In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a triangle, called a lateral face and it is a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid with a base has n +1 vertices, n +1 faces. A right pyramid has its apex directly above the centroid of its base, nonright pyramids are called oblique pyramids. A regular pyramid has a polygon base and is usually implied to be a right pyramid. When unspecified, a pyramid is usually assumed to be a square pyramid. A triangle-based pyramid is often called a tetrahedron. Among oblique pyramids, like acute and obtuse triangles, a pyramid can be called if its apex is above the interior of the base and obtuse if its apex is above the exterior of the base. A right-angled pyramid has its apex above an edge or vertex of the base, in a tetrahedron these qualifiers change based on which face is considered the base. Pyramids are a subclass of the prismatoids, pyramids can be doubled into bipyramids by adding a second offset point on the other side of the base plane. A right pyramid with a base has isosceles triangle sides, with symmetry is Cnv or. It can be given an extended Schläfli symbol ∨, representing a point, a join operation creates a new edge between all pairs of vertices of the two joined figures. The trigonal or triangular pyramid with all equilateral triangles faces becomes the regular tetrahedron, a lower symmetry case of the triangular pyramid is C3v, which has an equilateral triangle base, and 3 identical isosceles triangle sides. The square and pentagonal pyramids can also be composed of convex polygons. Right pyramids with regular star polygon bases are called star pyramids, for example, the pentagrammic pyramid has a pentagram base and 5 intersecting triangle sides. A right pyramid can be named as ∨P, where is the point, ∨ is a join operator. It has C1v symmetry from two different base-apex orientations, and C2v in its full symmetry, a rectangular right pyramid, written as ∨, and a rhombic pyramid, as ∨, both have symmetry C2v. The volume of a pyramid is V =13 b h and this works for any polygon, regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane containing the base
42.
5-simplex
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In five-dimensional geometry, a 5-simplex is a self-dual regular 5-polytope. It has six vertices,15 edges,20 triangle faces,15 tetrahedral cells and it has a dihedral angle of cos−1, or approximately 78. 46°. It can also be called a hexateron, or hexa-5-tope, as a 6-facetted polytope in 5-dimensions, the name hexateron is derived from hexa- for having six facets and teron for having four-dimensional facets. By Jonathan Bowers, a hexateron is given the acronym hix, the hexateron can be constructed from a 5-cell by adding a 6th vertex such that it is equidistant from all the other vertices of the 5-cell. These construction can be seen as facets of the 6-orthoplex or rectified 6-cube respectively and it is first in a dimensional series of uniform polytopes and honeycombs, expressed by Coxeter as 13k series. A degenerate 4-dimensional case exists as 3-sphere tiling, a tetrahedral dihedron and it is first in a dimensional series of uniform polytopes and honeycombs, expressed by Coxeter as 3k1 series. A degenerate 4-dimensional case exists as 3-sphere tiling, a tetrahedral hosohedron, the 5-simplex, as 220 polytope is first in dimensional series 22k. The regular 5-simplex is one of 19 uniform polytera based on the Coxeter group, the 5-simplex can also be considered a 5-cell pyramid, constructed as a 5-cell base in a 4-space hyperplane, and an apex point above the hyperplane. The five sides of the pyramid are made of 5-cell cells, T. Gosset, On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, Messenger of Mathematics, Macmillan,1900 H. S. M. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. 5D uniform polytopes x3o3o3o3o - hix, archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Polytopes of Various Dimensions, Jonathan Bowers Multi-dimensional Glossary
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