1.
Aeronautics
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Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics. A significant part of science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts, later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current, the Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an aether whose composition he did not know, although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws and he did at least understand that An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, da Vincis work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileos experiments in which he showed that air has weight and these would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today, by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, in practice de Terzis spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons and their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, on hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process, the Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design. On their free flight, De Rozier and dArlandes took buckets of water, on the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern
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Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
3.
Laurence Manning
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Laurence Manning was a Canadian science fiction author. Manning was born in St. John, New Brunswick and attended Kings College in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In the 1920s he moved to the United States, living initially with his uncle, Craven Langstroth Betts. In the USA, he lived in Manhattan before moving to Staten Island in 1928 and he also translated at least one German-language story for Hugo Gernsbacks magazines (this may have been the translation of his popular story The Man Who Awoke, published as Der Jartausendschlafer. However, In the July, August and September,1932 issues of Wonder Stories appeared In the Year 8000, by Otfrid von Hanstein, translated by Manning, teamed with Konrad Schmidt. Manning gave up his writing career at the end of 1935. Apart from several stories in the 1950s, he never wrote any more science fiction. However, he was the author of a book on gardening, The How and Why of Better Gardening, Van Nostrand & Co. He was a member of the American Rocket Society, serving as both president and editor of the Societys publication, Astronautics. For his involvement in the Society, Manning is recognized by the Smithsonians National Air, Manning retired from the American Rocket Society in the mid-1940s, stating that rocketry had grown up, and was no longer a place for amateurs. It was during his tenure as president of the society that the name was changed from the American Interplanetary Society. In 1961, Manning was awarded a membership in the Society. Manning married Edith Mary Finette Burrows in 1928 and had three children, Helen Louise, Dorothy, and James Edward and his daughter Dorothy has mentioned that Lawrence was not only a skilled writer, but a pianist as well. He composed his own pieces, primarily as Music Director of his church and he lived in Highlands, New Jersey from 1951 until his death in 1972. Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 251, Canadian Fantasy and Science-Fiction Writers, edited by Douglas Ivison, University of Western Ontario. Oral history passed down by Helen Louise Manning Tomlinson and Dorothy C, works related to Laurence Manning at Wikisource Laurence Manning at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
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George Edward Pendray
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George Edward Pendray was an American public relations counselor, author, foundation executive, and an early advocate of rockets and spaceflight. Pendray was born in Omaha, Nebraska, to John Hall Pendray and his wife and he grew up in Niobrara County, Wyoming. And attended the University of Wyoming, graduating in 1924 and he then went to Columbia University, where he received his Master of Arts degree in 1925. Two years later, he married Leatrice M. Gregory and they had three daughters, Guenever, Elaine, and Lynette. Pendray became an editor at the New York Herald-Tribune after completing his work at Columbia University. He remained at the Tribune for seven years, a science fiction enthusiast, he applied that interest as a science editor for Literary Digest from 1932 to 1936. He was next hired at Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company as assistant to the president, one of his responsibilities was public relations in advance of the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. He created what he called a capsule, to preserve everyday items in a sealed container for future historians. Pendray also created the word laundromat for Westinghouse, pendrays primary employment was in public relations, however, he always was interested in rocketry. He was an early experimenter with liquid propulsion rockets, Pendray was a contemporary of Robert H. Goddard, whose papers he later edited with Goddards widow. Pendray and his associates worked on the beginnings of development and technology. This organization is now the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Pendray helped develop the Guggenheim Jet Propulsion Center at the California Institute of Technology and the Guggenheim Laboratories at Princeton University. He also assisted in developing the Guggenheim Institute of Flight Structures at Columbia University, in 1958 he was a consultant to the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration of the United States House of Representatives. Pendray helped in the establishment of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and his first wife died of cancer 1971. He married Annice D. Crema the following year, a resident of Jamesburg, New Jersey, Pendray died in Cranbury, New Jersey in 1987 at the age of 86. University of Wyoming, graduated in 1924, doctor of Laws, University of Wyoming,1943. Pendray sometimes used the pen name Gawain Edwards, however, he wrote under his own name. He wrote articles and fiction for many magazines, amazing Stories praised Edwards The Earth Tube as vividly and plausibly written, recommending it to all lovers of scientific fiction
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OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
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David Lasser
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David Lasser was one of the most influential figures of early science fiction writing, working closely with Hugo Gernsback. He was also involved in the workers’ rights struggles of the Great Depression. Lasser was born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Jewish immigrant parents from Russia and his family moved to Newark, New Jersey, where he grew up. He left high school at 16 to enlist in the Army in World War I, after being gassed on the front lines in France, he was honorably discharged as a Sergeant in 1919. Despite never graduating from school, he was admitted to M. I. T. Graduating with a B. S. in Engineering Administration, in the late 1920s Lasser moved to New York City, where he his engineering background helped him land a job as managing editor of Hugo Gernsbacks new science fiction magazine, Science Wonder Stories. Lasser and his writers, who included G. Edward Pendray and they renamed it the American Rocket Society in 1934, and under the later leadership of Pendray it became the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Lasser used his expertise in science, engineering, and rocketry to write The Conquest of Space and it was the first non-fiction English-language book to deal with spaceflight and detailed how man could one day travel into outer space. The book was an inspiration to a generation of science-fiction writers, from 1929 to 1933, Lasser worked as the Managing Editor of Hugo Gernsback’s Stellar Publishing Corporation. He was responsible for editing all the issues of Science Wonder Stories and Wonder Stories Quarterly, Lasser also edited Gernsback’s Wonder Stories from June 1930 to October 1933. Lasser was at this time a member of the Socialist Party. In 1933, the Socialist Party made Lasser national head of its Unemployed Leagues, the Party had founded these to organize the unemployed to demand more relief and to represent workers employed by the Works Progress Administration. One day, after returning from a rally at city hall, Lassers boss, Hugo Gernsback, told him, You love the unemployed so much. He fired Lasser, after which Lasser threw himself even more into the unemployed movement, simultaneously, and in opposition to the Socialist Party, the Communist Party was organizing the unemployed through its Unemployed Councils. In 1935 the Communists internationally were ordered to form coalitions with similar organizations, under the new no enemies to the left policy, the Communists stopped attacking the Socialist Party and suggested that they merge their unemployed efforts. The result of the merger of the Socialist Unemployed Leagues and the Communist Unemployed Councils was the Workers Alliance of America, in a spirit of unity, the Communists deferred to the Socialists and Lasser was elected president of the Workers Alliance. Herbert Benjamin, head of the Communist Unemployed Councils, became Vice President of the Alliance, in 1939 Lasser resigned from the Workers Alliance, claiming that it was Communist dominated. Even so, the U. S. Congress passed legislation specifically banning Lasser by name from employment by the federal government and he then served as economics and research director of the International Union of Electrical Radio and Machine Workers until his retirement in 1969
7.
Scientific journal
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In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. There are thousands of journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past. Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles, Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journals standards of quality, and scientific validity. If the journals editor considers the paper appropriate, at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine, the publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method. If they are describing experiments or calculations, they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results, each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field, an essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations, some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written only on established topics, while the latest research. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs, the standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science, PNAS, and it is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region, like African Invertebrates. Articles tend to be technical, representing the latest theoretical research. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field, in some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of writing are enforced by the editors, however. Articles are usually either original articles reporting new results or reviews of current literature. There are also publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors. Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings that are considered less urgent or important than Letters, supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data
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Peer review
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Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people of similar competence to the producers of the work. It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field, peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is used to determine an academic papers suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. In academia, peer review is common in decisions related to faculty advancement, a prototype professional peer-review process was recommended in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī. He stated that a physician had to make duplicate notes of a patients condition on every visit. Professional peer review is common in the field of health care, further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc. Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process, accounting, law, engineering, aviation, and even forest fire management. Peer review is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives and this may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine. The peer review helps the publisher decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, peer review requires a community of experts in a given field, who are qualified and able to perform reasonably impartial review. Peer review is generally considered necessary to academic quality and is used in most major scientific journals, the European Union has been using peer review in the Open Method of Co-ordination of policies in the fields of active labour market policy since 1999. In 2004, a program of peer reviews started in social inclusion and these usually meet over two days and include visits to local sites where the policy can be seen in operation. The meeting is preceded by the compilation of a report on which participating peer countries submit comments. The results are published on the web, the State of California is the only U. S. state to mandate scientific peer review. This requirement is incorporated into the California Health and Safety Code Section 57004, thus, the terminology has poor standardization and specificity, particularly as a database search term
9.
Astronautics
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Astronautics is the theory and practice of navigation beyond Earths atmosphere. The term astronautics was coined in the 1920s by J. H. Rosny, president of the Goncourt academy, because there is a degree of technical overlap between the two fields, the term aerospace is often used to describe both at once. In 1930, Robert Esnault-Pelterie publishes the first book on the new research field, space launch vehicles must withstand titanic forces, while satellites can experience huge variations in temperature in very brief periods. Extreme constraints on mass cause astronautical engineers to face the constant need to save mass in the design in order to maximize the payload that reaches orbit. The early history of astronautics is theoretical, the mathematics of space travel was established by Isaac Newton in his 1687 treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Other mathematicians, such as Swiss Leonhard Euler and Franco-Italian Joseph Louis Lagrange also made contributions in the 18th and 19th centuries. In spite of this, astronautics did not become a discipline until the mid-20th century. On the other hand, the question of spaceflight puzzled the literary imaginations of such figures as Jules Verne and H. G. Wells. Δ v = v e ln m 0 m 1 In fact this equation was derived earlier by William Moore, for more information on the mathematical basis of space travel, see Orbital mechanics. The Prix dAstronautique awarded by the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society, was the first prize on this subject, although many regard astronautics itself as a rather specialized subject, engineers and scientists working in this area must be knowledgeable in many distinct fields. Astrodynamics, the study of orbital motion and those specializing in this field examine topics such as spacecraft trajectories, ballistics and celestial mechanics. Spacecraft propulsion, how spacecraft change orbits, and how they are launched, most spacecraft have some variety of rocket engine, and thus most research efforts focus on some variety of rocket propulsion, such as chemical, nuclear or electric. Spacecraft design, a form of systems engineering that centers on combining all the necessary subsystems for a particular launch vehicle or satellite. Controls, keeping a satellite or rocket in its desired orbit and orientation
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