1.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
2.
Michel de Montaigne
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Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, Lord of Montaigne was one of the most significant philosophers of the French Renaissance, known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. His work is noted for its merging of casual anecdotes and autobiography with serious intellectual insight, in his own lifetime, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. In time, however, Montaigne would come to be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time and he is most famously known for his skeptical remark, Que sçay-je. Much of modern literary non-fiction has found inspiration in Montaigne and writers of all kinds continue to read him for his balance of intellectual knowledge. Montaigne was born in the Aquitaine region of France, on the family estate Château de Montaigne, in a town now called Saint-Michel-de-Montaigne, close to Bordeaux. The family was wealthy, his great-grandfather, Ramon Felipe Eyquem, had made a fortune as a herring merchant and had bought the estate in 1477. His father, Pierre Eyquem, Seigneur of Montaigne, was a French Catholic soldier in Italy for a time and had also been the mayor of Bordeaux. Although there were several families bearing the patronym Eyquem in Guyenne and his mother, Antoinette López de Villanueva, was a convert to Protestantism. His maternal grandfather, Pedro Lopez, from Zaragoza, was from a wealthy Marrano family who had converted to Catholicism and his maternal grandmother, Honorette Dupuy, was from a Catholic family in Gascony, France. His mother lived a part of Montaignes life near him, and even survived him. Montaignes relationship with his father, however, is reflected upon. Montaignes education began in childhood and followed a pedagogical plan that his father had developed, refined by the advice of the latters humanist friends. After these first spartan years, Montaigne was brought back to the château, the objective was for Latin to become his first language. The intellectual education of Montaigne was assigned to a German tutor and his father hired only servants who could speak Latin, and they also were given strict orders always to speak to the boy in Latin. The same rule applied to his mother, father, and servants, who were obliged to use only Latin words he himself employed, Montaignes Latin education was accompanied by constant intellectual and spiritual stimulation. He was familiarized with Greek by a method that employed games, conversation. The atmosphere of the upbringing, although designed by highly refined rules taken under advisement by his father, created in the boys life the spirit of liberty. Duty by an unforced will, and of my own voluntary motion. without any severity or constraint and he then began his study of law at the University of Toulouse in 1546 and entered a career in the local legal system
3.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
4.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
5.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
6.
Oliver Cromwell
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Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
7.
July Revolution
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Supporters of the Bourbon would be called Legitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe Orléanists. On 16 September 1824, Charles X ascended to the throne of France and he was the younger brother of Louis XVIII, who, upon the defeat of Napoleon I, and by agreement of the Allied powers, had been installed as King of France. Both Louis and Charles ruled by right rather than Revolution. Upon the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, continental Europe, the Congress of Vienna met to redraw the continents political map. Another very influential person at the Congress was Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, although France was considered an enemy state, Talleyrand was allowed to attend the Congress because he claimed that he had only cooperated with Napoleon under duress. Talleyrand proposed that Europe be restored to its borders and governments. France returned to its 1789 borders and the House of Bourbon, the Congress however forced Louis to grant the Charte constitutionnelle française, the French Constitution otherwise known as La Charte. This document was the trigger of the July Revolution. On 16 September 1824, after an illness of several months. Therefore, his brother, Charles, aged 66, inherited the throne of France. On 27 September Charles X as he was now known, made his entry into Paris to popular acclaim. But eight months later, the mood of the capital had sharply worsened in its opinion of the new king, the causes of this dramatic shift in public opinion were many, but the main two were, The imposition of the death penalty for anyone profaning the Eucharist. The provisions for financial indemnities for properties confiscated by the 1789 Revolution and these indemnities to be paid to any one, whether noble or non-noble, who had been declared enemies of the Revolution. Critics of the first accused the king and his new ministry of pandering to the Catholic Church, the second matter, that of financial indemnities, was far more opportunistic than the first. But opponents, many of whom were frustrated Bonapartists, began a campaign that Charles X was only proposing this in order to shame those who had not emigrated. Both measures, they claimed, were nothing more than clever subterfuge meant to bring about the destruction of La Charte and this, too, was about to change. On 12 April, propelled by both genuine conviction and the spirit of independence, the Chamber of Deputies roundly rejected the proposal to change the inheritance laws. The popular newspaper Le Constitutionnel pronounced this refusal a victory over the forces of counter-revolutionaries, the popularity of both the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies skyrocketed, and the popularity of the king and his ministry dropped
8.
French legislative election, 1830
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The 1830 general election organized the first legislature of the July Monarchy but was meant to organize the sixth legislature of the Bourbon Restoration. The election was held on 5 and 13 July, with the round held on 19 July. Only citizens paying taxes were eligible to vote, oddly, the election was organized under the Restoration, but the legislature was entirely under the new July Monarchy. A quarter of the seats were submitted to by-elections in autumn 1830, the legislature was immediately dissolved by Charles X of France, but continued its term under Louis-Philippe
9.
Louis Philippe I
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Louis Philippe I was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. He spent 21 years in exile after he left France in 1793 and he was proclaimed king in 1830 after his cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate in the wake of the events of the July Revolution of that year. His government, known as the July Monarchy, was dominated by members of a wealthy French elite and he followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of the French statesman François Guizot during the period 1840–48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria and his popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out his life in exile in Great Britain, Louis Philippe was born in the Palais Royal, the residence of the Orléans family in Paris, to Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres, and Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood and his mother was an extremely wealthy heiress who was descended from Louis XIV of France through a legitimized line. Louis Philippe was the eldest of three sons and a daughter, a family that was to have erratic fortunes from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Bourbon Restoration. Louis Philippes father was exiled from the court, and the Orléans confined themselves to studies of the literature. Louis Philippe was tutored by the Countess of Genlis, beginning in 1782 and she instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought, it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. When Louis Philippes grandfather died in 1785, his father succeeded him as Duke of Orléans, from October 1788 to October 1789, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Louis Philippe grew up in a period that changed Europe as a whole and, following his fathers support for the Revolution. In his diary, he reports that he took the initiative to join the Jacobin Club. In June 1791, Louis Philippe got his first opportunity to become involved in the affairs of France, in 1785, he had been given the hereditary appointment of Colonel of the 14th Regiment of Dragoons. With war on the horizon in 1791, all proprietary colonels were ordered to join their regiments, Louis Philippe showed himself to be a model officer, and he demonstrated his personal bravery in two famous instances. The young colonel broke through the crowd and extricated the two priests, who then fled, at a river crossing on the same day, another crowd threatened to harm the priests. Louis Philippe put himself between a peasant armed with a carbine and the priests, saving their lives, the next day, Louis Philippe dove into a river to save a drowning local engineer. For this action, he received a crown from the local municipality. His regiment was moved north to Flanders at the end of 1791 after the Declaration of Pillnitz, Louis Philippe served under his fathers crony, the Duke of Biron, along with several officers who later gained distinction in Napoleons empire and afterwards
10.
Peerage of France
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The Peerage of France was a hereditary distinction within the French nobility which appeared in 1180 in the Middle Ages, and only a small number of noble individuals were peers. The prestigious title and position of Peer of France was held by the greatest, French peerage thus differed from British peerage, for the vast majority of French nobles, from baron to duke, were not peers. The title of Peer of France was an honour granted only to a small number of dukes, counts. It was analogous to the rank of Grandee of Spain in this respect, the French word pairie is equivalent to the English peerage. The individual title, pair in French and peer in English, derives from the Latin par and it signifies those noblemen and prelates considered to be equal to the monarch in honour, and it considers the monarch thus to be primus inter pares, or first among equals. The main uses of the word refer to two historical traditions in the French kingdom, before and after the First French Empire of Napoleon I, the word also exists to describe an institution in the Crusader states. Some etymologists posit that the French word baron, taken from the Latin baro, such a derivation would fit the early sense of baron, as used for the whole peerage and not simply as a noble rank below the comital rank. Medieval French kings conferred the dignity of a peerage on some of their pre-eminent vassals, some historians consider Louis VII to have created the French system of peers. A peerage was attached to a territorial jurisdiction, either an episcopal see for episcopal peerages or a fief for secular ones. Peerages attached to fiefs were transmissible or inheritable with the fief, the traditional number of peers is twelve. But since the first two were absorbed into the early in the recorded history of the peerage, the Duke of Burgundy has become the premier lay peer. In their heyday, the Duke of Normandy was undoubtedly the mightiest vassal of the French crown, the constitution of the peerage first became important in 1202, for the court that would try King John of England in his capacity as vassal of the French crown. In 1216, Erard of Brienne claimed the County of Champagne through the right of his wife, again this required the peers of France, so the County of Champagne is also a peerage. Six of the peers were identified in the charter - the archbishop of Reims, the bishops of Langres, Chalons, Beauvais and Noyon. The tenth peerage that could be identified in the documents is the County of Flanders, in that year John de Nesle entered a complaint against Joan of Flanders, the countess responded that she could only be cited by a peer. Thus, though there had been differences in the dates of the identification of the peers, they were probably instituted simultaneously. Parallels may also be seen with the mythical Knights of the Round Table under King Arthur, in later periods peers also held up by poles a baldaquin or cloth of honour over the king during much of the ceremony. This paralleled the arch-offices attached to the electorates, the more prestigious and powerful first college in the Holy Roman Empire
11.
July Monarchy
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The July Monarchy, was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I, starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the government of Charles X. The king promised to follow the juste milieu, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of the supporters of Charles X. The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthy bourgeoisie and numerous former Napoleonic officials and it followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of François Guizot. The king promoted friendship with Great Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, by 1848, a year in which many European states had a revolution, the kings popularity had collapsed and he was overthrown. Louis Phillipe was pushed to the throne by an alliance between the people of Paris, the republicans, who had set up barricades in the capital, and the liberal bourgeoisie. However, at the end of his reign the so-called Citizen King was overthrown by similar barricades during the February Revolution of 1848, the Legitimists withdrew from the political stage to their castles, leaving the stage opened for the struggle between the Orleanists and the Republicans. Louis-Philippe was crowned King of the French, instead of King of France, Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil, a large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force, late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy, however, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. And indeed, Louis-Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution, thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory. During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, however, this still represented only roughly one percent of population, and as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group, beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis-Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters, the inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King—stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, one of the first acts of Louis-Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies, in addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of actions, of course, with royal approval
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Cicero
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Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist, consul, and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy family of the Roman equestrian order. According to Michael Grant, the influence of Cicero upon the history of European literature, Cicero introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Though he was an orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. During the chaotic latter half of the 1st century BC marked by civil wars, following Julius Caesars death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. His severed hands and head were then, as a revenge of Mark Antony. Petrarchs rediscovery of Ciceros letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, according to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity. Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers southeast of Rome and his father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life, although little is known about Ciceros mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Ciceros brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife, Ciceros cognomen, or personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was given to one of Ciceros ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However, it is likely that Ciceros ancestors prospered through the cultivation. Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames, the family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this name when he entered politics. During this period in Roman history, cultured meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek, Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite, according to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola. Ciceros fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus, the latter two became Ciceros friends for life, and Pomponius would become, in Ciceros own words, as a second brother, with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence. Cicero wanted to pursue a career in politics along the steps of the Cursus honorum
13.
Walter Scott
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Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders
14.
James Fenimore Cooper
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James Fenimore Cooper was a prolific and popular American writer of the early 19th century. His historical romances of frontier and Indian life in the early American days created a form of American literature. He lived most of his life in Cooperstown, New York, Cooper was a lifelong member of the Episcopal Church and, in his later years, contributed generously to it. He attended Yale University for three years, where he was a member of the Linonian Society, but was expelled for misbehavior. Before embarking on his career as a writer, he served in the U. S. Navy as a Midshipman, the novel that launched his career was The Spy, a tale about counterespionage set during the Revolutionary War and published in 1821. He also wrote numerous sea stories, and his works are five historical novels of the frontier period known as the Leatherstocking Tales. Among naval historians, Coopers works on the early U. S. Navy have been well received, among his most famous works is the Romantic novel The Last of the Mohicans, often regarded as his masterpiece. James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey in 1789 to William Cooper and Elizabeth Cooper and he was descended from James Cooper of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, who emigrated to the American colonies in 1679. James and his wife were Quakers who purchased plots of land in New Jersey, seventy-five years after his arrival in America, his great-grandson William was born on December 2,1754. Shortly after James first birthday, his family moved to Cooperstown, New York, later, his father was elected as a United States Congressman from Otsego County. Their town was in a area of New York that had previously been occupied by the Iroquois of the Six Nations. The Iroquois were forced to cede their territory after British defeat in the Revolutionary War, shortly after the American Revolutionary War, the state opened up these former Iroquois lands for sale and development. Coopers father purchased several acres of land in upstate New York along the head-waters of the Susquehanna River. By 1788, William Cooper had selected and surveyed the site where Cooperstown would be established and he erected a home on the shore of Otsego lake and moved his family there in the autumn of 1790. He soon began construction of the mansion that would be known as Otsego Hall and it was completed in 1799 when James was ten. At age 13, Cooper was enrolled at Yale, but he incited a dangerous prank that involved blowing up another students door — after having already locked a donkey in a recitation room, Cooper was expelled in his third year without completing his degree. Disenchanted with college, he obtained work in 1806 as a sailor and, at age 17, by 1811, he obtained the rank of midshipman in the fledgling United States Navy, conferred upon him on an officers warrant signed by Thomas Jefferson. At 20, Cooper inherited a fortune from his father and he married Susan Augusta de Lancey at Mamaroneck, Westchester County, New York on January 1,1811 at age 21
15.
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
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Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve was a literary critic of French literature. He was born in Boulogne, educated there, and studied medicine at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris, in 1828, he served in the St Louis Hospital. Sainte-Beuve became friendly with Hugo after publishing a review of the authors work but later had an affair with Hugos wife. His articles and essays were collected the volumes Port-Royal and Portraits littéraires, during the rebellions of 1848 in Europe, he lectured at Liège on Chateaubriand and his literary circle. He returned to Paris in 1849 and began his series of columns, Causeries du lundi in the newspaper. When Louis Napoleon became Emperor, he made Sainte-Beuve professor of Latin poetry at the Collège de France, but anti-Imperialist students hissed him, and he resigned. After several books of poetry and a couple of failed novels, Sainte-Beuve began to do literary research and he continued to contribute to La Revue contemporaine. Port-Royal, probably Sainte-Beuves masterpiece, is an history of the Jansenist abbey of Port-Royal-des-Champs. It not only influenced the historiography of religious belief, i. e. the method of research, but also the philosophy of history. He was made Senator in 1865, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his pleas for freedom of speech, according to Jules Amédée Barbey dAurevilly, Sainte-Beuve was a clever man with the temper of a turkey. In his last years, he was a sufferer and lived much in retirement. One of Sainte-Beuves critical contentions was that, in order to understand an artist and his work, marcel Proust took issue with this notion and refuted it in a set of essays, Contre Sainte-Beuve. Proust developed the ideas first voiced in those essays in À la recherche du temps perdu, friedrich Nietzsche, actually an avowed opponent of Sainte-Beuve, prompted in 1880 the wife of his friend Franz Overbeck, Ida Overbeck, to translate the Causeries du lundi into German. Until then, Sainte-Beuve was never published in German despite his great importance in France, since it was considered representative of a French way of thinking detested in Germany, Ida Overbecks translation appeared in 1880 under the title Die Menschen des XVIII. Nietzsche wrote to Ida Overbeck on August 18,1880, An hour ago I received the Die Menschen des XVIII, jahrhunderts, It is just a marvellous book. Ida Overbecks translation is an important document of the transfer between Germany and France in a period of strong tension, but it was largely ignored. It was not until 2014 that a critical and annotated edition of this appeared in print. Non-fiction Tableau Historique et Critique de la Poésie Française et du Théâtre Français au XVIe Siècle, poetry Vie, Poésies et Pensées de Joseph Delorme
16.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
17.
Second cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult
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The Second cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult was announced on 12 May 1839 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Transitional French cabinet of 1839, after a defeat in the Chamber of Deputies on 20 February 1840, the ministers gave their resignations to the king. The ministry was replaced on 1 March 1840 by the Second cabinet of Adolphe Thiers, the cabinet was created by ordinance of 12 May 1839
18.
Jean-de-Dieu Soult
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Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duke of Dalmatia, was a French general and statesman, named Marshal of the Empire in 1804 and often called Marshal Soult. Soult was one of six officers in French history to receive the distinction of Marshal General of France. The Duke also served three times as President of the Council of Ministers, or Prime Minister of France. Soults intrigues while occupying Portugal earned him the nickname, King Nicolas, one historian called him a plunderer in the world class. Soult was born at Saint-Amans-la-Bastide and named after John of God and he was the son of a country notary named Jean Soult by his marriage to Brigitte de Grenier. His paternal grandparents were Jean Soult and Jeanne de Calvet, while his grandparents were Pierre François de Grenier de Lapierre. His younger brother Pierre also became a French general, Soults superior education ensured his promotion to the rank of sergeant after six years service, and in July 1791 he became instructor to the first battalion of volunteers of the Bas-Rhin. He was serving in this battalion in 1792, after the Battle of Fleurus of 1794, in which he distinguished himself for coolness, he was promoted to brigadier general by the representatives on mission. For the next five years Soult was employed in Germany under Jourdan, Moreau, Kléber and Lefebvre, and in 1799 he was promoted general of division and ordered to proceed to Switzerland. It was at time that he laid the foundations of his military fame, he particularly distinguished himself in Massénas great Swiss campaign. He accompanied Masséna to Genoa, and acted as his principal lieutenant throughout the siege of that city. He was wounded and taken prisoner at Monte Cretto on 13 April 1800, the victory of Marengo restored his freedom, and Soult received the command of the southern part of the kingdom of Naples. In 1802 he was appointed one of the four generals commanding the consular guard. Though he was one of those generals who had served under Moreau, in consequence he was appointed in August 1803 as the commander-in-chief of the camp of Boulogne, and in May 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of the Empire. He commanded a corps in the advance on Ulm, and at Austerlitz he led the attack on the allied centre. Soult played a part in many of the famous battles of the Grande Armée, including the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. However, he was not present at the Battle of Friedland because on that day he was conquering Königsberg. After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, he returned to France, the awarding of this honour greatly displeased him, for he felt that his title should have been Duke of Austerlitz, a title which Napoléon had reserved for himself
19.
Jean-Baptiste Teste
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Jean-Baptiste Teste was a French politician of the July Monarchy. He fell from grace in the Teste-Cubières scandal, the son of Antoine Teste, lawyer to the Parliament of Provence, and of his wife Élisabeth Boyer, Jean-Baptiste Teste studied under the Joséphites in Lyon. He distinguished himself early in his education, according to Joseph Marie Portalis and he was received as a lawyer in Paris and at first enrolled at the Paris bar, where he pleaded successfully several times, before returning to set up as a lawyer in Nîmes. Acquiring a great reputation in Nîmes, during the Hundred Days Napoleon made him Lyons police chief and he was elected on 17 May 1815 as deputy to the Hundred Days Chamber for Gard but was unable to attend the parliament due to his administrative duties. King William I of the Netherlands charged him with managing the royal lands and he also pleaded for the house of Orléans in a trial with the Rohans about the duchy of Bouillon, merged into the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814. It was during that trial that he met André Dupin, lawyer to the house of Orléans. He was able to return to Paris and re-enrol at the Paris bar after the July Revolution, in the general elections of 5 July 1831, Jean-Baptiste Teste was elected député by the first electoral college of Gard. He sat with the liberal Tiers Party of his friend Dupin aîné, with discretion and skill, he participated most especially in debates on legislation, commerce and public works. He was then elected vice-president of the Chambre des députés and won re-election on 13 December 1834 and he thus voted with the majority but entered into the coalition which, in 1839, led to the fall of Molés first ministry. He was re-elected as a député on 2 March 1839 and was minister for Justice. He was re-elected as a député on 22 June 1839, during his time as minister, he formed a committee to look into ways of suppressing bribery in government ministries. Soult appreciated him and made him minister of works in his third ministry of 29 October 1840. Teste voted for the grande loi of 1841 on expropriation for the cause of public use, the law of 1842 on roads, and the law of 1843 on industrial property. On 16 December 1843, Guizot removed Teste from the ministry but gave him major compensation, including making him a peer of France, a member of the royal family even intervened in his favour by requesting the retiring president of the civil chamber to name Teste as his successor. Becoming a grand officer of the Légion dhonneur in 1846, he had reached the highest honours. The Teste-Cubières scandal erupted in 1847, general Despans-Cubières, temporary Minister for War in 1839 and 1840, in need of money, speculated in various areas, particularly a mining operation. In 1843, to get the concession for a mine at Gouhenans renewed, he. The affair came out in May 1847 during a trial of Despans-Cubièress associates before the tribunal of the Seine
20.
Antoine Virgile Schneider
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Antoine Virgile Schneider was a soldier and politician. He was Minister of War under the July Monarchy in the government of Jean de Dieu Soult of 12 May 1839 on 1 March 1840. Antoine Virgile Schneider was born on 22 March 1779 at Sarreguemines and he was the cousin of Adolphe Schneider and Eugène Schneider, who developed the iron works at Le Creusot. Virgil Schneider graduated from the Polytechnic in the year VII and he was appointed supernumerary in engineering. He was Lieutenant during the Polish campaign, Captain during the Spanish Civil War, he took part in the sieges of Saragossa and he was created a Knight of the Empire on 23 February 1811, he became aide to General Clarke. After a mission to the Ionian islands, he was besieged in Danzig in 1813 with Jean Rapp and he was appointed Colonel in 1815. Prisoner of War, he returned to France in 1814 and was, during the Hundred Days, Chief of Staff of Rapp, promoted to Maréchal de camp on 22 May 1825, he directed the operations of the Morea expedition, in 1828. Commander of the troops in place of Marshall Nicolas Joseph Maison, he received at the time of his recall. He served in the majority but voted against the law of disjunction and was part of the coalition against the Louis Mathieu Molé Ministry and he voted for funding the Duke of Nemours, the census. Appointed Minister of War in the government of Jean de Dieu Soult on 12 May 1839. He retained his portfolio until 1 March 1840, during his time in government, he improved the lives of officers and reorganized the General Staff and the back. Re-elected on 9 July 1842 and 1 August 1846, he voted against the compensation Pritchard,22 February 1829, Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor 14 April 1844, Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor 1831, Grand Commander of the Order of the Redeemer
21.
Jules Armand Dufaure
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Jules Armand Stanislas Dufaure was a French statesman. Dufaure was born at Saujon, Charente-Maritime, and began his career as an advocate at Bordeaux and he abandoned law for politics and, in 1834, was elected deputy. In 1839, he became minister of works in the ministry of Jean-de-Dieu Soult. Losing office in 1840, Dufaure became one of the leaders of the Opposition, on 13 October, he became minister of the interior under Louis-Eugène Cavaignac, but retired on the latters defeat in the presidential election. During the Second French Empire, Dufaure abstained from public life, in 1863, he succeeded to Étienne-Denis Pasquiers seat in the Académie française. In 1871, he became a member of the Assembly, Dufaure became the minister of justice as chief of the party of the left-centre, and his tenure of office was distinguished by the passage of the jury-law. In 1873, he fell with Thiers, but in 1875 resumed his former post under Louis Buffet, whom he succeeded on 9 March 1876, in the same year, he was elected a life senator. On 12 December, he withdrew from the ministry owing to the attacks of the republicans of the left in the chamber, after the conservatives defeat on 16 May, he returned to power on 24 December 1877. Early in 1879, Dufaure took part in compelling the resignation of Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta, as Prime Minister, he served as the Acting President of the Republic on 30 January 1879. See G Picot, M. Dufaure, sa vie et ses discours,5 June 1871 – Ernest Courtot de Cissey succeeds Le Flô as Minister of War. Félix Lambrecht succeeds Picard as Minister of the Interior, victor Lefranc succeeds Lambrecht as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. Eugène de Goulard succeeds Lefranc as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce,23 April 1872 – Eugène de Goulard succeeds Pouyer-Quertier as Minister of Finance. Pierre Teisserenc de Bort succeeds Goulard as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce,7 December 1872 – Eugène de Goulard succeeds Lefranc as Minister of the Interior. Léon Say succeeds Goulard as Minister of Finance, oscar Bardi de Fourtou succeeds Larcy as Minister of Public Works. 15 August 1876 – Jean Auguste Berthaud succeeds Courtot de Cissey as Minister of War and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
22.
Laurent Cunin-Gridaine
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Laurent Cunin-Gridaine was a French businessman and politician. He was a deputy from 1827 to 1848, and Minister of Agriculture and Commerce from 1839 to 1848, laurent Cunin-Gridaine was born in Sedan, Ardennes, on 10 July 1778. He started work for a M. Gridaine, a clothier in Sedan and his employer recognized his intelligence and took him as his associate, and then as his son. He became wealthy, and was elected a councilor in Sedan. On 17 November 1827 Cunin-Gridaine ran successfully for election as deputy in the first electoral district of the Ardennes and he joined the constitutionalist opposition, spoke in favor of press freedom and was a signatory of the Address of the 221. He was reelected on 12 July 1830, Cunin-Gridaine was a strong supporter of the government after the July Revolution of 1830. He was named to the council of the Ardennes and was appointed president of the commercial court of Sedan. He was reelected as deputy on 5 July 1831,21 June 1834,4 November 1837 and 2 March 1839, in 1834 he transferred management of his company to his two sons. On 12 May 1837 he was named Minister of Commerce in the ministry of Jean-de-Dieu Soult and he returned as Minister of Commerce on 29 October 1840 in the new Guizot cabinet, remaining in office until the February Revolution of 1848 overthrew the monarchy. During his ministry he organized the Industrial Exhibition of 1844, Cunin-Gridaine returned to private life after the February Revolution. He was a member of the jury of the Exposition Universelle. He became a Knight of the Legion of Honor in 1828, an officer in 1833, laurent Cunin-Gridaine died in Sedan on 19 April 1859
23.
Third cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult
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The Third cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult was announced on October 29,1840 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Second cabinet of Adolphe Thiers, the ministry was replaced on September 19,1847 by the Cabinet of François-Pierre Guizot. The cabinet was created by ordinance of October 29,1840, the ministers were, Undersecretaries of state were, Interior, Antoine François Passy Navy and Colonies, Jean Jubelin War, François Martineau des Chenez
24.
Alexandre Pierre Chevalier Moline de Saint-Yon
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Alexandre Pierre Moline de Saint-Yon was a French general, writer, and politician. He was the son of Honore de Saint-Yon and Gabrielle Antoinette Rivoire Alexandre Moline, He graduated from the school at Fontainebleau in 1805. Promoted Lieutenant in 1807, Captain in 1809, he made the Prussian campaign before being sent to Spain under the command of Marshal Soult. Created a Knight of the Empire on 11 June 1810, he was wounded in Saint-Jean-de-Luz, aide of Napoleons campaign in France, he was present at Ligny and Waterloo. Put on half pay by the Second Restoration, he devoted himself to literature and he retired as Major General on 8 June 1848 and never reappeared on the political scene. In-8 Histoire des comtes de Toulouse, Paris, A. Bertrand, 1859-1861,4 vol
25.
Nicolas Martin du Nord
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Nicolas Martin du Nord was a French magistrate and politician. He was Minister of Public Works, Agriculture and Commerce and Minister of Justice, nicolas Ferdinand Louis Joseph Martin was born in Douai, Nord, on 29 July 1790. His parents were Louis François Joseph Martin and Anne Louise Josèphe Jacquard and his family was bourgeois and respectable, but not wealthy. He studied at the college of Tournay and he went on to study law in Paris between 1808 and 1811, receiving his doctorate in law at the age of 21. Martin began to practice at the bar of Douai, and soon gained a reputation and he was named in turn municipal councillor, assistant judge, and administrator and vice-president of the Douai hospices. They had one son, Victor, born in 1814 and his second wife was Charlotte Lefebvre. They had two sons and two daughters and he was a supporter of constitutional monarchy, and welcomed the Bourbon Restoration. However, the regime did not live up to its promises and he was strongly opposed to the ordinances of 25 July 1830. After the July Revolution, he ran for deputy for the Nord Department and was elected on 28 October 1830 and he sat with the conservative majority. In the legislative debates he took the name Martin du Nord, in the general elections of July 1831 Martin become deputy for the college of Douai extra muros. He continued to be reelected with large majorities for this constituency until his death, on 5 April 1934 he was appointed Attorney-General at the Court of Appeal of Paris. Ten days later Louis-Philippe appointed him Attorney General at the Court of Peers, on 20 September 1836 Martin was appointed Minister of Public Works, Agriculture and Commerce, but due to illness he was not able to take office until 16 October. As minister, he introduced legislation for construction of roads, seaports and canals, for establishing railways. He prepared a law for the exclusive application of the metric system, prohibited wool exports, lowered duties on foreign coal. On 1 April 1839, he resigned his portfolio and retired with his cabinet colleagues and he was made vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies. On 29 October 1840 he was made Minister of Justice and Religious Affairs and he was removed for health reasons, apparently to cover up some scandal. Nicolas Martin du Nord died suddenly on 12 March 1847 at the Château de Lormoy, Longpont-sur-Orge, discours prononcé à laudience solennelle de la cour royale de Paris Expulsion des Jésuites Citations Sources
26.
Georges Humann
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Jean-Georges Humann was a French financier and politician. During the July Monarchy he was several times Minister of Finance, jean-Georges Humann was born in Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, on 6 August 1780. His parents were Jacques Humann and Anne-Marie Schmitz and his family was German in origin. His father was a bourgeois of Strasbourg, but his family was not wealthy, by nature he was reserved, taciturn and laconic. When he was fourteen Humann was apprenticed to a tobacco merchant, by the age of eighteen he and an associate were running a small trading company. In 1799 he married Louise Philippine Antoinette Breck in Strasbourg, on 24 August 1802 he married Madeleine Heiligenthal. They had four sons and two daughters, at a very young age, between 1800 and 1810, Humann acquired a considerable fortune and became a celebrity in Alsace. His wealth came from smuggling at the time of the Continental Blockade and he became in turn a member of the Strasbourg Chamber of Commerce, a judge at the commerce court in 1812, and a member of the Administrative Committee of Civil Hospices in 1816. During the famines of 1812 and 1816-17 Humann played an important role in supplying grain, in 1818 Humann led a deputation charged with presenting the grievances and demands of the Strasbourg business community to the government, with great success. In 1820 Humann was elected a Deputy for Bas-Rhin and he soon became one of the leading supporters of economic and political liberalism, and a defender of the interests of Alsace. In January 1821 he and his associates offered to lend the money needed to complete the Rhône-Rhine canal and his maiden speech in the chamber of deputies was on 3 July 1821 in support of this project. He was involved in the debates about tobacco, speaking against a monopoly, in February 1823 Humann spoke against the planned invasion of Spain, which he felt was against the interests of the Bourbons. From the middle of the 1820s he was involved in large or technically advanced industrial projects as a manager, organizer or source of funding. On 31 October 1825 Humann and associates obtained a salt mining concession and he was appointed a member of the general council of commerce, chaired by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, the Minister of the Interior. In November 1827 Humann failed to be reelected for Bas-Rhin, with the support of Élie, duc Decazes, a former minister of Louis XVIII, he was elected deputy for Villefranche on 30 May 1828. Humanns reputation as a financial expert grew and he was made a member of the Budget Committee, and in 1830 was the rapporteur of the budget. He was reelected deputy in 1830 and 1831, the king formed the ministry of all talents headed by Marshall Soult on 11 October 1832, with Humann as Minister of Finance. He held this position in successive cabinets until January 1836, issues in the first session included the budget, loans for Haiti, spoils from the Algiers expedition and taxes on colonial and domestically produced sugar
27.
Jean Lacave-Laplagne
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Jean Lacave-Laplagne was a French magistrate and politician. Jean Lacave-Laplagne was born in Montesquiou, Gers, on 12 August 1795 and his parents were was Barthélemy Lacave-Laplagne and Jeanne-Marie Barris, both from notable bourgeois families. He studied at the Ecole polytechnique, graduating in 1813 as an Artillery Lieutenant and he participated in Napoleons Grande Armée in the last campaigns on the Empire. After the Bourbon Restoration he resigned from the army, Lacave-Laplagne took up the study of law, and was admitted to the bar in Toulouse. In 1819 he entered the judiciary as a crown prosecutor, on 27 March 1819 he married his first cousin, Marie-Charlotte Tarrible. They were to have four children, in 1821 he was made an auditor at the Court of Accounts. Lacave-Laplagne supported the July Revolution of 1830 and the monarchy of Louis Philippe I, on 13 March 1831 at the recommendation of Baron Louis he was appointed Master Councillor. As the official candidate he ran successfully for election as deputy for the 5th college of Gers on 27 December 1834 and he sat in the center, supported the government, and became noticed as a skilled speaker on a variety of topics. On 15 April 1837 Lacave-Laplagne was asked to take the Finance portfolio in the ministry of Louis-Mathieu Molé. He was reelected on 20 May 1837, and again on 4 November 1837 and 2 March 1939, as minister he had to defend all the draft financial laws of the government, including laws on pension conversion, slavery, forest clearance, railways, the budget and taxes. On 22 January 1839 the cabinet resigned due to lack of support in the chamber. On 2 February 1839 the chamber of deputies was dissolved, elections were held on 2 March 1839, but the new chamber would not support the government. The ministry was dismissed on 8 March 1839. Lacave-Laplagne returned to his seat in the Chamber with the conservative majority, Lacave-Laplagne was again given the Finance portfolio when Georges Humann died on 25 April 1842, and retained it until 8 May 1847. Lacave-Laplagne was reelected on 9 July 1842 and 1 August 1846, after the February Revolution of 1848 Lacave-Laplagne returned to private life. He does not seem to have stood for election to the Constituent Assembly, when Louis-Antoine Garnier-Pagès, Finance Minister in the Provisional Government, criticized the financial administration of the July Monarchy, Lacave-Laplagne issued a rebuttal. On 13 May 1849 he was elected deputy for Gers in the Legislative Assembly and he died in Paris the next day, on 14 May 1849, from an attack of gout
28.
Pierre Sylvain Dumon
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Pierre Sylvain Dumon was a French politician who was a deputy from 1831 to 1848, and Minister of Finance in the last years of the July Monarchy. Pierre Sylvain Dumon was born in Agen, Lot-et-Garonne, on 14 February 1797 and he studied at the Lycée Henri IV in Paris, then became a lawyer. Under the Bourbon Restoration he joined the bar of the Court of Paris in 1818 and he became the secretary of the advocate Dupin the elder, who had defended Marshal Ney in 1815 and was the adviser of the Duke of Orleans. He had liberal views and defended opponents of the regime and he pleaded in the case of the Saumur plot. He gained a reputation among the liberal advocates of Paris. On 27 March 1831 Dumon was elected deputy for the 1st electoral college of Lot-et-Garonne and he took his seat with the liberal opposition. He was offered the position of General Counsel in Agen, which he refused, dumoan was reelected on 5 July 1831. He was named Councillor of State on special duty in 1832 and he was reelected on 12 November 1833 and in successive elections in 1834,1837,1839 and 1842. He was vice-president of the committee in 1840, and a member of the committee on Algeria in 1842. Dumon accepted the position of Minister of Public Works on 16 December 1843 and he was strongly opposed to state operation of the railways, and favored the monopoly of large companies. He invested much of his fortune in railways. This caused him to be attacked by the opposition. He also improved the network of roads and waterways, on 9 May 1847 he accepted Finance portfolio, and held this position at the time of the February Revolution of 1848. Dumon resisted change, and rejected proposals to adjust postal rates and he did request approval for increasing the amount of government debt. The government became unpopular as the economy struggled, the financial situation worsened. Dumon was named a knight of the Legion of Honor in 1834, the revolution of 1848 ended Dumons political career. Fearing that he would be put on trial, and still faithful to the royal family and he returned to France in late December 1848 after the election of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as President of the Republic. He settled in his château of Castels near Agen, but often returned to England to visit the royal family
29.
Albin Roussin
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Albin Reine Roussin was a French admiral and statesman. His father was a lawyer who was arrested during the French Revolution when Roussin was aged twelve and he left home in Dijon and travelled to Dunkerque where he enlisted as a cadet in the French Navy in December 1793. He served from 1794 to 1797 on various frigates, in 1801 he sat and passed the midshipmans exam following to lessons from the hydrographer Jean Petit-Genet. His first posting as an officer was to command a gunboat at Antwerp, part of the National Flotilla of coastal ships, by 1803 he was promoted to ensign and embarked aboard the frigate Sémillante under the command of Captain Léonard-Bernard Motard. They would spend six years in the Indian Ocean, based on Réunion, preying on British shipping bound to, the worn-out Sémillante was paid off at Mauritius in 1808 after sustaining damage in a fight with the Royal Navy frigate Terpsichore. Roussin was promoted to lieutenant and posted to the corvette Iéna, a cruise in the Persian Gulf and the Bay of Bengal ended when the Iéna encountered the 46-gun Royal Navy frigate Modeste off Calcutta and was captured after a two-hour engagement on 8 October 1808. Roussin and his captain, Lieutenant Maurice, were exchanged at the end of 1809, Roussin was appointed second in command to Bouvet de Maisonneuve aboard the frigate Minerve, a prize taken by Guy-Victor Duperré. Roussin received a mention in Bouvets dispatches for his conduct during the battle of Grand Port in August 1810. However, the French success at Grand Port was only a setback to British plans to conquer Mauritius and Réunion. Roussin was repatriated to France where he met the Emperor, who confirmed his promotion to Captain, Roussin was posted to command the frigate Gloire fitting out at Le Havre. After training, he cruised in the Atlantic Ocean from December 1812 to April 1813, taking fifteen prizes, under the restored monarchy of Louis XVIII, Roussin was promoted again and made a Chevalier de St Louis. When Napoleon returned to power during the Hundred Days, he was dismissed, following the infamous wreck of the Medusa off the Senegal coast in 1816, Roussin was given the task of surveying the African coast from Senegal to Guinea by Minister of Marine Count Molé. Following this, he surveyed the mouth of the River Amazon in 1819 and he was made a Baron in 1820. Returning to France in 1822, he was promoted to Rear Admiral, from 1824 until 1827 he served in administrative posts ashore. Roussin returned to sea in May 1828, flying his flag aboard the ship of the line Jean Bart and he arrived off Rio de Janeiro on 5 July 1828 and simply sailed into the harbour, ignoring the guns at the entrance, anchoring off the city. After saluting the Brazilian flag, he requested and received an audience with Emperor Pedro where the damages to be paid to French shipowners were agreed. On his return to France, Roussin was congratulated for solving the problem by diplomacy, on 25 January 1830 he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in recognition of his work on geography and navigation. He would later serve as member of the Bureau studying longitudes, later in 1830 he turned the offer of commanding the naval force which supported Bourmonts attack on Algiers
30.
Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy
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Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy was a French politician. He was born at Condom, Gers of a family of Irish extraction. He joined the army in 1813, and in the year joined the household troops of Louis XVIII of France. Under the July monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative party. For short periods in 1841 and 1843 he was ambassador at Madrid and at Turin, and became a member of the Académie française, under the Second French Empire he took no part in public affairs, and died at Graveron. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Salvandy
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Hippolyte Paul Jayr
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Hippolyte Paul Jayr was a French administrator and politician. He was Minister of Public Works in the last year of the July Monarchy, hippolyte Paul Jayr was born in Bourg-en-Bresse, Ain, on 25 December 1801. He was descended from Hiérosme Jayr of Bourg, the kings counsellor and secretary in the court of Bourg until that court was suppressed in 1662. His parents were Benoit-Marie Jayr, an advocate, and Lucie-Marie-Françoise Dévote Roussel, hippolyte Paul Jayr studied law in Paris, then entered the administration in 1830. He was councillor, then secretary-general of the prefecture of Ain and he became prefect of Ain on 25 May 1834. He then became in turn prefect of the departments of Loire, Moselle and he was a strong supporter of the monarchy. On 9 July 1845 Jahr was promoted to the Chamber of Peers and that year he was made a knight of the Legion of Honor. He was prefect of Lyon until being named to the cabinet on 9 May 1847 as Minister of Public Works and he presented various railway projects to the chamber of deputies. He also reported on mines, bridges and roads, with the February Revolution of 1848 he returned to private life
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Villemain, Abel François". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 80.
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